Attached to meat? (Un)Willingness and intentions to adopt a more plant-based diet

Emerging alternative food protein sources: production process, quality parameters, and safety point of view

The rise in the global population has increased the demand for dietary food protein. Strategies to maximize agricultural and livestock outputs could strain land and freshwater supply and contribute to substantial negative environmental impacts. Consequently, there has been an emphasis on identifying alternative sources of edible proteins that are more sustainable, sustainable, ethical, and healthy. This review provides a critical report on future food protein sources including: plant, cultured meat, insect, and microbial, as alternative sources to traditional animal-based sources. The technical challenges associated with the production process of alternative protein sources are discussed. The most important quality parameters of alternative proteins, such as: protein composition and digestibility, allergenicity, functional and sensory attributes, and safety regulations have been documented. Lastly, future direction and conclusion have been made on future protein trends. However, further regulatory norms need to develop for safe consumption and distribution around the world.

Translation and validation of the meat attachment questionnaire (MAQ) in a French general practice population

Meat consumption has significant implications for both individual health and the environment. Understanding individuals' attachment to meat is crucial for designing effective interventions to reduce consumption. The MAQ is a tool developed to assess individuals' attachment to meat. This study aims to translate and validate the MAQ into French for use in a general practice population in France. The study was conducted in three phases: translation, pretesting through cognitive interviews, and testing through a cross-sectional study of general practice patients. Descriptive, factorial, and internal consistency analyses were performed to validate the French version of the MAQ. The French version of the MAQ consists of 17 items in four dimensions: Hedonism, Affinity, Entitlement, and Dependence. Face validity was confirmed by cognitive interviews. The RMSEA and CFI were 0.06 and 0.92 respectively, showing acceptable goodness-of-fit. Internal consistency was demonstrated with Cronbach's alpha and Loevinger's H coefficients exceeding 0.7 and 0.3, respectively. The French version of the MAQ is a valid and reliable tool for assessing individuals' attachment to meat in a general practice population. Its application shows promise for the design of targeted interventions to reduce meat consumption, benefiting both individual health and environmental sustainability.

Sociodemographic and behavioural determinants of vegetarian main dish selection in a French university cafeteria: A three-month observational study with repeated measures

Reducing meat consumption is crucial for improving population and planetary health. Millions of students regularly eat at university cafeterias, which offer a unique opportunity to promote meat-free meals to new generations by addressing barriers such as accessibility, price, and cooking skills. This study aimed to analyse the individual characteristics associated with the proportion of vegetarian main dish choices in a university cafeteria and to determine whether this behaviour influenced the nutritional quality and environmental impact of student meals. A sample of 257 French students who ate regularly at a large university cafeteria took part in an observational study with repeated measures. They took pictures of their meal trays each time they ate at the cafeteria for three months. They completed an online questionnaire to assess their sociodemographic characteristics and various behavioural determinants of the choice of a vegetarian main dish based on the Capability, Opportunity, Motivation Behaviour (COM-B) framework. Being a woman was the only sociodemographic characteristic significantly associated with more frequent vegetarian main dish selection. The proportion of vegetarian choices was negatively associated with attachment to meat (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.189) and positively associated with environmental knowledge (p = 0.034, η2 = 0.018) and the following food choice motives: animal welfare (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.062), health (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.044), ethics (p = 0.002, η2 = 0.039), natural content (p = 0.010, η2 = 0.026), religion (p = 0.014, η2 = 0.025), and mood (p = 0.022, η2 = 0.020). Students who chose vegetarian main dishes more frequently composed healthier (p = 0.023, η2 = 0.020) and more environmentally friendly meal trays (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.349). These findings highlight the variability in the students' propensity to choose vegetarian main dishes in a university cafeteria and its association with motivational factors in a food environment bound by design.

Global Insights into Cultured Meat: Uncovering Production Processes, Potential Hazards, Regulatory Frameworks, and Key Challenges-A Scoping Review

This scoping review aims to understand the cell-based meat production process, including the regulations, potential hazards, and critical points of this production. This review includes studies on cultured meat production processes, health hazards, and regulatory guidelines, excluding those without hazard analysis, incomplete texts, or studies published before 2013. The search was performed in eight electronic databases (MEDLINE, Web of Science, Embase, Cochrane Library, Scopus, LILACS, and Google Scholar) using MeSH terms and adaptations for each database. The search for local studies on regulations and guideline documents was complemented by a manual search on the websites of governments and regulatory agencies from different regions (e.g., FDA, FAO, EFSA, USDA, Health Canada, EC, EU, ANVISA/Brazil, MAPA/Brazil, FSANZ, and SFA). This step involved reading full texts to confirm eligibility and extract key data, including author, year, country, study design, objectives, results, cultured meat protocols, health hazards, and hazard control measures, followed by data analysis. A comprehensive search of the databases yielded 1185 studies and 46 regulatory or guidance documents. After removing duplicate studies and applying eligibility criteria to titles, abstracts and full texts, 35 studies and 45 regulatory or guidance documents were included. The cultured meat production protocols are well-established, highlighting potential hazards and critical control points. Although guidance documents and regulations are limited, they are expanding globally. The development and commercialization of cultured meat require clear, and up-to-date regulations and supervision, which are being studied and formulated by regulatory agencies worldwide. Cultured meat production presents some potential hazards (chemical, biological, and physical) that require food safety considerations: (i) genetic stability of cells/cell lines; (ii) microbiological hazards related to cell lines; (iii) exposure to substances used in the production process; (iv) toxicity and allergenicity of the product or its component for the population; (v) post-harvest microbiological contamination; (vi) chemical contamination/residue levels; and (vii) nutritional aspects/risks. Currently, no standardized testing approach exists for cultured meat. However, effective hazard and safety assessment strategies, such as HACCP combined with best practices, should be implemented throughout the production process.

An overview of drivers and emotions of meat consumption

Emotions are present in almost everything we do, including meat procurement, preparation and consumption. This paper examines the main drivers of this consumption, including sensory and hedonic properties, physiological needs, historical reasons and habits, social influence, ethical motives, practical aspects and other determinants, exploring the meat-related emotions as both an outcome of consumption and as consumption drivers. Emotions are affected by multiple factors relating to the context, the information provided, and the type of product. Positive emotions such as pleasure, satisfaction, proudness and joyfulness have been described in relation to meat, as well as some neutral or negative ones. To enhance positive emotions and increase meat liking, it is essential to improve animal welfare and promote a more sustainable production, focusing on nutritional and sensory quality and providing consumers with reliable information.

Attachment to Meat and Willingness Towards Cultured Alternatives Among Consumers: A Cross-Sectional Study in the UAE

Background/Objectives: The escalating global demand for meat, as a sequela of population growth, has led to unsustainable livestock production, resulting in a host of environmental and food security concerns. Various strategies have been explored to mitigate these issues, including the introduction of a novel food product, cultured meat. Cultured meat is not yet commercially available, yet public perceptions are already taking shape. To better understand the factors influencing its adoption by consumers, a cross-sectional, web-based study was conducted to examine consumer attitudes toward conventional meat and cultured meat among adults in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Methods: The survey was conducted between December 2023 and March 2024 and used a convenience snowball sampling method. The questionnaire focused on current meat consumption patterns, meat attachment, and willingness to consume cultured meat. Sociodemographic data, including age, sex, education, and self-reported weight and height, were also collected. Results: Results showed that the vast majority (86%) of participants consumed all types of meats, while more than half (59.3%) were unfamiliar with the term "cultured meat". Despite this unfamiliarity, about one-third (35%) were somewhat willing to try cultured meat, though more than two-thirds (69%) were reluctant to replace conventional meat with cultured meat in their diet. Male participants and those with higher BMIs showed a significantly stronger attachment to conventional meat. Willingness to consume cultured meat was notably higher among participants aged less than 30 years, those having less formal education, and those who are Arabic. Conclusions: These findings suggest that while interest in cultured meat exists, significant barriers remain, particularly regarding consumer education and cultural acceptance.

Meat and the future of sustainable diets-Challenges and opportunities

The British Nutrition Foundation convened a roundtable event in January 2024 entitled 'Meat and the Future of Sustainable Diets: Turning Challenges into Opportunities', bringing together multi-sector stakeholders to discuss the social, nutritional, public health and environmental aspects of meat consumption within a sustainable food system. Participants explored the challenge of the complexity of balancing nutrition and planetary goals, emphasising the need to navigate trade-offs between various dimensions of sustainability. Whilst recognising the global nature of the issue, the roundtable primarily focussed on a UK perspective. The discussion highlighted the urgency of transforming the food system to achieve net zero, whilst ensuring broader environmental benefits, nutritional adequacy and dietary and health equity across all life stages. Concerns about poor dietary patterns, particularly among vulnerable groups were raised, with participants stressing the need for policies that promote healthy, sustainable and equitable diets without worsening inequalities. These policies should also enhance livelihoods and community wellbeing, foster resilience and support local economies. On the supply side, participants called for better data within the agri-food system, particularly at the farm level. They advocated for a multidimensional, holistic approach that goes beyond greenhouse gas emissions to encompass wider environmental impacts and whole-farm benefits, such as enhancing soil health, promoting biodiversity, improving water management, supporting nutrient cycling and boosting farm-level resilience through diversified cropping systems. Roundtable participants acknowledged existing recommendations to reduce meat consumption for both environmental reasons, such as land use and greenhouse gas emissions, and health concerns, as evidence links red, particularly processed, meat consumption with increased colorectal cancer risk. Given the variation in meat consumption globally and even locally between individuals, the discussion explored the potential of targeted campaigns to reduce high meat intake, along with the role of public food procurement and the food industry in decreasing processed meat consumption. The consensus was that dietary changes must be framed within the context of a balanced diet and broader sustainability concerns. Despite some differing viewpoints on implementation, participants agreed that transitioning to healthier, more sustainable diets is a priority. Collaboration across the entire food chain, from farm to fork, with investment in innovation, robust data collection and research, alongside policy support, was emphasised as essential to achieving this goal.

Gradual behaviour change towards meat reduction revisited: Applying the decisional balance scale in a Dutch study

Meat moderation is needed to mitigate climate change and to address issues related to animal welfare and public health. Yet little is known on the process that consumers go through towards meat-reduced diets. Strässner and Hartmann (2023) recently developed the decisional balance scale (DB scale) for meat reduction, in order to get a better understanding of the trade-offs that consumers encounter in this dietary shift. The current study sets out to replicate their German study in the Dutch context. A survey has been conducted among a representative sample of Dutch adults (N = 1982). Overall, the present study corroborated Strässner and Hartmann's findings. Similar to the German situation, Legitimation is the most important barrier, and the Downsides of factory farming is the most important motivator for meat reduction in the Netherlands. The present study extends the German study by comparing the DB scale with other established scales in research on meat reduction. Although several motivational elements related to the legitimacy of eating meat, health impact and production of meat appear in different instruments, the DB scale sets itself apart in adding practical elements (feasibility). Finally, the insights in the decision balance of population subgroups at different stages of behaviour change (no intention, intention, performing) showed that the further in the meat reduction process, the more the pros outweigh the cons. With this, the current study provides valuable insights in bolstering consumers in meat moderation. Our findings support the idea of a gradual shift and reveal that there is potential for acceleration in behaviour change towards meat reduction to be found in adjusting the self-evidence of high-intensity livestock farming systems and the meat-centric food consumption culture.

Introducing menus of three weekly insect- or plant-based dinner meals slightly reduced meat consumption in Danish families: Results of a randomized intervention study

The environmental concerns associated with excess meat consumption have emphasized the need for sustainable alternatives. Edible insects offer a promising alternative due to their environmental efficiency and nutritious profile, but their widespread adoption in Western diets remains a challenge. The objective of the study was to investigate the impact of exposing families (parents and children) to insect-based or plant-based dinner menus on dietary pattern, meat intake, and protein intake over a six-week intervention period. The study was a two-arm randomized equivalence trial comparing an insect-based menu to a plant-based control. Families received either an insect or plant-based menu to replace meat in dinner meals three times a week for six weeks, aiming to replace 20% of their meat protein intake. Dietary changes were assessed through dietary registrations and daily questionnaires. Both adults and children maintained their estimated daily total protein intake, while reducing daily meat protein intake. Neither group met the 20% weekly meat replacement goal. In the insect-based menu group, adults and children reached an average 5.5% and 2.3% weekly meat replacement, respectively. In the plant-based menu group, adults and children replaced 9.0% and 4.3%, respectively. Meat attachment had an effect on meat protein intake. The menus slightly reduced meat protein intake. The weekly frequency of meat meals slightly declined, but portions remained the same. By enhancing insect and plant-based food quality and understanding consumer behavior, insect- and plant-based products have the potential to be a complementary alternative in a sustainable dietary transition without sacrificing nutrition. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT05156853; clinicaltrials. gov/study/NCT05156853.

Plant-Based Meat Alternatives Predicted by Theory of Planned Behavior Among Midwest Undergraduates

Plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) such as the Impossible Burger® imitate animal meat appearance, taste, feel, and texture. Part of their consumer appeal are the views that PBMAs are more environmentally friendly, reduce inhumane treatment of animals, and/or have preferred nutritional attributes. College-educated adults are one of the larger markets for these products. This cross-sectional online survey utilized the Theory of Planned Behavior to predict self-reported intakes of PBMAs among 536 undergraduates aged 18-25 at a Midwest university. Sixty-one percent had eaten PBMAs, and 17% wanted to try them. Twenty-two percent were uninterested non-consumers. Their top reason for not eating PBMAs was that they had no reason to decrease their meat intake. Multinomial logistic regression analysis showed subjective norms and positive attitudes about PBMAs increased the odds of more frequent intake, whereas non-consumers had less support from social contacts, but greater perceived behavioral control over general food access. Thus, those with supportive social influences, concerns about the environment, and animal welfare are more likely to consume PBMAs. More frequent PBMA consumption was observed among U.S.-born multicultural students, food insecure students, and those with less perceived behavioral control over food access. Future research should investigate the nuances between these associations further by examining the types of PBMAs consumed, their costs, and retail sources across student demographics.

The Importance of Self-Identities and Habitual Behavior for Eating More Plant Foods

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to identify the predictors of eating more plant-based foods and legumes in terms of previous changes in consumption, habitual frequency of consumption, intention to reduce the amount of meat consumed, and health and environmental identities.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was conducted between June and September 2023 in 881 Polish adults. Based on two self-descriptors, four groups of respondents were identified: no health identity and no environmental identity (nHI-nEI), health identity but no environmental identity (HI-nEI), no health identity but environmental identity (nHI-EI), and both health identity and environmental identity (HI-EI). A logistic regression analysis was used to verify associations between habitual eating of red meat, white meat, and legumes, changes in their intake over the past two years, familiarity with plant-based substitutes for animal products, health, and environmental identity, declared intentions to eat less meat, and the intentions to eat more plant-based food and eat more legumes next year.

RESULTS

Individuals were more likely to increase their consumption of plant foods (OR: 1.99, p = 0.001), including legumes (OR: 1.79, p = 0.045), when they represented the HI-EI group, had increased their consumption of legumes in the past two years (OR: 2.91, p = 0.009, and OR: 2.15, p = 0.017, respectively), declared an intention to reduce meat (OR: 8.02, p < 0.001, and OR: 12.08, p < 0.001, respectively), but also occasionally consumed plant-based meat substitutes (OR: 1.76, p = 0.002, and OR: 2.61, p < 0.001, respectively). However, individuals were more likely to increase their consumption of plant foods, but not legumes, if they currently consumed legumes frequently (OR: 1.36, p = 0.009, and OR: 1.22, p = 0.111, respectively) and had previously limited their consumption of red meat (OR: 2.40, p < 0.001, and OR: 1.09, p = 0.717, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The habitual frequency of eating red and white meat did not predict the increased consumption of plant foods in the future. It is equally important to increase people's awareness of the impact of the food they consume on health and the environment to support their health and pro-environmental motivation for food choices. Public health and sustainability campaigns should develop new methods to reach populations less willing to change.

The mechanical and sensory signature of plant-based and animal meat

Eating less meat is associated with a healthier body and planet. Yet, we remain reluctant to switch to a plant-based diet, largely due to the sensory experience of plant-based meat. Food scientists characterize meat using a double compression test, which only probes one-dimensional behavior. Here we use tension, compression, and shear tests-combined with constitutive neural networks-to automatically discover the behavior of eight plant-based and animal meats across the entire three-dimensional spectrum. We find that plant-based sausage and hotdog, with stiffnesses of 95.9 ± 14.1 kPa and 38.7 ± 3.0 kPa, successfully mimic their animal counterparts, with 63.5 ± 45.7 kPa and 44.3 ± 13.2 kPa, while tofurky is twice as stiff, and tofu is twice as soft. Strikingly, a complementary food tasting survey produces in nearly identical stiffness rankings for all eight products (ρ = 0.833, p = 0.015). Probing the fully three-dimensional signature of meats is critical to understand subtle differences in texture that may result in a different perception of taste. Our data and code are freely available at https://github.com/LivingMatterLab/CANN.

Influence of a robotic companion on women's food choices: Evidence from an imaginary task

Previous research has demonstrated the influence of commensal dining between humans on food choices, whereas we conducted two studies to examine how the presence of a robot might influence people's choices between meat-heavy and vegetable-forward meals in imaginary scenarios. In Study 1, participants were instructed to choose three desirable dishes from a set of two meat and two vegetable dishes while they imagined eating alone, with a human, or with a robot. Although the meat dishes were rated as more palatable and pleasant, the female participants chose fewer meat-heavy meals when eating alone or with a robot than when eating with a human, whereas no such effect was observed for the male participants. We also replicated these patterns in Study 2, as the female participants chose fewer meat-heavy meals when eating with a robot and a human than when eating with two humans. Collectively, these findings provide empirical evidence regarding how the presence of a certain robot can influence female consumers' food choices in imaginary scenarios, which has direct implications for the practice of promoting sustainable food choices.

The impact of explaining vegetarian meal requests on the affective responses and perceptions of meat eaters

Social situations can present challenges for those looking to reduce or avoid eating meat. In an experimental vignette study with a large representative sample of 1,117 UK-based meat eaters, we explore affective responses to requests for vegetarian meals and perceptions of those making the request across four social situations: a BBQ, a pub, a restaurant dinner, and a dinner party. We examine moderators of these perceptions including whether the requester presents themselves as vegetarian or a meat restrictor and whether they cite health, environmental or no motives for their request. Overall, we find that these moderators have a greater impact on meat eaters' perceptions of the requester than on their affective responses to the request. We also find that these outcomes are more impacted by the mention of motives than they are diet type. Standout findings include evidence that people citing environmental motives for their vegetarian meal request are perceived more negatively, while those with health motives are perceived more positively. We also identify substantial heterogeneity across the respondents' levels of meat attachment: those who are more attached to meat have more negative perceptions of vegetarian meal requesters and experience higher negative affect and lower positive affect in response to the request.

Changing Our Food Habits One Bite at a Time: Exploring Young Flexitarians in a Country with a High Meat Intake

Flexitarian diets have gained attention for their potential positive impact on human health and greenhouse gas emissions reduction. However, a critical question remains: Can the segment of flexitarians significantly contribute to necessary changes in our current unsustainable food systems? Our study addresses this gap by examining meat consumption habits among young adults (n = 1023) in a country with traditionally high meat intake. Furthermore, we focus on a subset of flexitarians (n = 286). Our findings reveal two distinct groups of flexitarians: ethical (n1 = 140) and utilitarian (n2 = 148). Utilitarian flexitarians exhibit a stronger preference for meat (t(284)= -15.180, p < 0.001), greater food neophobia (t(284) = -4.785, p < 0.001), and lower environmental awareness (t(284) = 7.486, p < 0.001) compared to Ethical flexitarians. The Ethical group, predominantly female (χ2(1) = 13.366, p < 0.001), demonstrates higher life satisfaction (t(284) = 5.485, p < 0.001), better health perceptions (t(284) = 5.127, p < 0.001), and stronger beliefs in reducing meat consumption (t(284) = -8.968, p < 0.001). Additionally, Ethical flexitarians hold more positive views on plant-based meat, perceiving it as healthier (t(284) = 4.326, p < 0.001) and more ethical (t(284) = 4.942, p < 0.001), and show a greater willingness to adopt it (t(284) = 7.623, p < 0.001). While both groups possess similar knowledge and willingness regarding cultured meat and insects, Ethical flexitarians view cultured meat more favourably (t(250.976) = 2.964, p = 0.003). Our study provides insights into the evolving trends of flexitarianism within Central and Eastern European countries, where research on meat consumption and flexitarianism is scarce. These insights hold value for promoting behaviour change toward reduced meat consumption for both health and environmental reasons. Additionally, they offer guidance to the food industry, including producers, sellers, and providers of meals in educational and employment facilities.

Validity of a four-item questionnaire in French assessing attachment to meat

Background

The 16-item Meat Attachment Questionnaire (MAQ-16) assesses emotional and cognitive attachment to meat across four dimensions: hedonism, affinity, entitlement, and dependence. Recently validated in French, we aimed to develop and validate a shorter, four-item version (MAQf-4) to reduce participant burden.

Methods

In this 2023 observational study in the Rhône-Alpes region, 919 primary care patients were invited to complete the French MAQ-16 (MAQf-16). Classical test theory guided the development of the MAQf-4, and Spearman's correlation coefficients assessed its correlation with the MAQf-16 (dimension and overall scores). We also evaluated the diagnostic performance of the MAQf-4 for identifying patients with high meat attachment (MAQf-16 score > 60).

Results

A total of 822 patients participated (65.3% women; median age = 52; participation rate = 89.5%). The MAQf-4 showed strong correlations with the MAQf-16 (rho = 0.83 for hedonism, 0.77 for affinity, 0.70 for entitlement, 0.79 for dependence, and 0.86 for the overall score, all p-values <0.001). A score < 15 on the MAQf-4 (sensitivity = 91%, NPV = 96%) effectively excluded patients with low meat attachment, while a score ≥ 17 (specificity = 96%, PPV = 84%) accurately identified those with high attachment.

Conclusion

The MAQf-4 demonstrated strong correlation with the MAQf-16 and accurately identified high attachment to meat. It may serve as a useful tool in research and clinical settings, though further validation is required before broad implementation in French primary care.

The role of vegetarianism, gender, and food choice motivations on vegetable intake among university students

Objective: This study investigated collegians' (N = 466) vegetable consumption as a function of their food choice motivations, gender, and dietary habits. Method: Vegetarians and vegans (veg*ns, n = 94, 60% women), occasional meat eaters (n = 90, 66% women), and omnivores (n = 282, 43% women) completed the Food Choice Questionnaire and reported frequency of vegetable consumption. Results: Veg*ns consumed vegetables more frequently than omnivores and occasional meat eaters. Veg*ns' and occasional meat eaters' food choices were more motivated by natural content, health, and ethics, and less motivated by familiarity compared to omnivores. Women were more motivated than men by weight control. Health concerns predicted vegetable consumption for all dietary groups. Additionally, familiarity predicted veg*ns vegetable consumption, whereas mood, natural content, and convenience predicted omnivores' vegetable consumption. Conclusions: Individual differences in dietary habits and food choice motivations should be considered when designing strategies to promote healthful diets for university students.

Eliciting diverse perspectives to prioritize community actions for biodiversity conservation

Communities have a strong role in protecting biodiversity. In addition to participation in restoration, a range of actions in the public or private sphere may support biodiversity. Despite this, there is a lack of clarity about what actions should be prioritized for behavior change campaigns. We developed and applied a method to prioritize community actions for biodiversity conservation that incorporates an expert-based assessment of impact and a community-informed measure of the likelihood of uptake. In stage 1, experts (n = 143) completed a survey that quantified the relative impact of actions based on best-worst scaling of perceived impact. In stage 2, surveyed community members (n = 3200) ranked the likelihood of adopting actions based on the ease or difficulty of performing each action, and the opportunity for change based on the proportion of respondents not yet engaging in each behavior. Experts gave the following actions the highest ranking for impact: voting for the environment (first), participating in restoration in ecological priority areas (second), and purchasing and protecting remnant bushland (third). When considering the disciplinary background and institutional background of experts, voting and participating in restoration activities remained in the upper ranked options. However, there was some divergence between these groups. For example, reducing beef consumption was ranked third by university-based experts but ranked 28th by experts based in state government. Overall, community members ranked the following behaviors as most likely to be adopted: following quarantine laws (first), reducing plastic use (second), and managing pets (third). Top likelihood ranking of actions was minimally affected by community characteristics (nature relatedness, gender, location). Integrating these findings, the action ranked most favorably for impact, likelihood, and opportunity was participating in restoration. Choosing actions for behavior change campaigns requires consideration of the entire social-ecological system-from social factors that enable or constrain adoption to the ecological impact of actions across relevant social and ecological contexts.

To stand out or to conform: Stereotypes and meta-stereotypes as barriers in the transition to sustainable diets

What factors hinder the reduction of meat and/or dairy intake? In this study, we explored the perceived barriers that meat and/or dairy reducers experienced when shifting their diets. We particularly focused on how meat and/or dairy reducers were affected by their beliefs about how omnivores stereotype vegans (i.e., meta-stereotypes), as meta-stereotypes have not been previously explored in this context. Through open-ended questions in an online survey, we explored the experiences and perceived barriers among female meat and/or dairy reducers (n = 272), as well as their perceptions of vegans (i.e., stereotypes and meta-stereotypes), and how these perceptions affected their lived experiences. We analysed the data using reflexive thematic analysis and generated six themes. We highlighted perceptions of cost (Theme 1) and perceptions of health concerns (Theme 2) as the most dominant barriers to the reduction of meat and/or dairy intake. Regarding (meta) stereotypes, participants' perceptions of vegans were shaped by personal experiences and encounters with vegans (Theme 3), and how participants related to vegans was sometimes reflected in the language they used to describe vegans (Theme 4). Participants felt that they, or reducers more generally, were occasionally judged as vegans (Theme 5), which might influence participants' choices and conformity to eating norms (Theme 6). Meta-stereotypes may play a role in polarised dietary group perceptions, and we discuss how they are shaped by social identity processes as well as by aspects of Western food systems.

Socio-behavioural factors influencing meat intake and meat reduction intention in Vietnam and Switzerland

Meat consumption is declining in developed countries but increasing in emerging countries. This study, for the first time, compares the socio-behavioural factors influencing individuals' meat consumption level and meat reduction intention between Vietnam, an emerging economy and Switzerland, a developed country. Online consumer surveys were conducted in late 2022, yielding 552 usable replies from Switzerland and 592 from Vietnam for this study. Drawing upon an extended Protection Motivation Theory and using structural equation modelling, we found similarities as well as differences in the determinants of meat consumption behaviour. Perceived health risks of meat overconsumption, self-efficacy of meat reduction, attitude toward ethical and environmental issues, and pressure from family members' reluctance to change diet drove the intention to reduce meat in both countries. Meat attachment emerges as the most important determinant of meat consumption level in not only Switzerland but also Vietnam and thus presents the largest barrier to meat reduction. The association between response cost of eating less meat and intention to reduce meat was negative in Switzerland but positive in Vietnam. Self-efficacy of meat consumption reduction influenced meat consumption level solely in Switzerland. Ethical and environmental attitudes significantly facilitated meat reduction intention of Swiss respondents only, reflecting cultural differences. Policy implications were discussed.

Perceptions of three diets varying in animal- and plant-based protein contents: Analysis of participant experience diaries

The market for new plant protein-based meat substitutes is expanding, although their consumption remains limited compared to animal-based protein sources. Further research is necessary to comprehend the perceptions of diets in which animal-based protein sources are partially replaced with plant proteins. This qualitative study is part of an intervention trial, during which participants adhered to one of the three intervention diets for 12 weeks: the ANIMAL diet (70% animal-based protein/30% plant-based protein), the 50/50 diet (50% animal/50% plant) or the PLANT diet (30% animal/70% plant). The dataset comprises 79 experience diaries from healthy participants aged 23 to 69. The study investigated perceptions of intervention diets, the meat protein (MPPs) and the plant protein products (PPPs) included in the intervention and self-reported changes in perceptions during the intervention period. These perceptions were categorized into eight themes: body-related experiences, practicalities and everyday life, sensory properties, social situations and special occasions, familiarity and novelty, health, ethical aspects, and non-specific liking. Across the diets, body-related experiences were the most frequently mentioned theme. The ANIMAL diet received more negative than positive comments. In contrast, comments on the 50/50 diet were relatively balanced between positive and negative, and the PLANT diet received more positive comments than negative ones. The PPPs were commented on in a positive way more often than the MPPs were. With consistent exposure, participants reported more positive than negative changes in perceptions. However, there is still room for improvement in enhancing the sensory quality and ease of food preparation of PPPs.

Minding some animals but not others: Strategic attributions of mental capacities and moral worth to animals used for food in pescatarians, vegetarians, and omnivores

While moral concern for animals has become increasingly important for both consumer food choice and food policy makers, previous research demonstrated that meat eaters attribute lower moral status and mental capacities to animals raised for meat compared to non-food animals. The current research investigated whether this strategic flexibility in moral concern and mind perceptions also occurs when considering aquatic food animals and animals used for dairy and egg products, and the degree to which these concerns and perceptions are evident in pescatarians and vegetarians. We compared perceptions (mind attributions and moral concern) of land food animals versus aquatic food animals, and of animals in the meat versus dairy and egg industry between omnivores (n = 122), pescatarians (n = 118), vegetarians (n = 138), vegans (n = 120), and flexitarians (n = 60). Pescatarians scored lower than other dietary groups on moral concern and mind attribution for aquatic animals relative to farmed land animals. Unlike the other dietary groups, pescatarians and vegetarians scored lower on moral concern and mind attribution for dairy than beef cows and for layer chickens than broiler chickens. These findings demonstrate that pescatarians and vegetarians were flexible in their moral thinking about different types of food animals in ways that suited their consumption habits, even when the same animal was evaluated (e.g., dairy vs beef cows). This research highlights the psychological barriers that might prevent people from reducing animal product consumption and may need to be addressed in interventions to encourage transitioning towards more plant-based diets.

Health Benefits of a Plant-Based Dietary Pattern and Implementation in Healthcare and Clinical Practice

The American College of Lifestyle Medicine recommends eating a predominantly plant-based diet with a variety of minimally processed vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, nuts and seeds. At any level, adoption of a plant-based diet can improve one's health through a variety of mechanisms. Increasing intake of plant-based foods often results in increases in fiber intake, decreases in saturated fat intake, and increased intake of essential vitamins and minerals, among other healthful benefits. Despite such potential benefits, many individuals are reluctant or resistant to change their usual dietary behaviors or unable to sustain diet changes over time. This is largely because an individual's decision to adopt a plant-based diet is influenced by a diverse array of motivating factors, priorities, and/or misconceptions about nutrient adequacy of plant-based diets. Here, we discuss key points from a session at the American College of Lifestyle Medicine's annual conference LM2023. Specifically, we review common preconceptions about plant-based diets, provide guidance on removing the barriers to adopting and adhering to plant-based diets, and highlight key literature findings supporting the health benefits of plant-based diets. Last, we discuss how plant-based diets are increasingly being implemented within health care and clinical practice to support Food is/as Medicine approaches.

Social norms and young adults' self-reported meat and plant-based meal intake: Findings from two online cross-sectional studies

Plant-based eating is beneficial for human and planetary health. It is important to identify factors which may encourage people to reduce meat, and increase plant-based meal intake. Perceived social norms are associated with meat and plant-based meal intake in adults, however, less is known about the relationship between perceived social norms and young adults' own self-reported meat and plant-based eating in general, and in different social contexts. Across two online studies we examined this. In Study 1 (n = 217 young adults, aged 18-25 years, mean age = 19.50 years, SD = 1.37 years, mean BMI = 24.21, SD = 5.45, 91% cisfemale, 92.0% omnivores), perceived descriptive (the perceived behaviour of others) and injunctive (the perceived approval of others) norms were measured in general. In study 2 (n = 151 young adults aged 18-25 years, mean age = 19.62 years, SD = 1.50 years, mean BMI = 24.32, SD = 4.99, 88.8% cisfemale, 71.1% omnivore), perceived descriptive and injunctive norms were examined in a variety of social contexts. In Study 1, perceived descriptive norms about friends were associated with self-reported meat, and descriptive norms about peers and friends, and injunctive norms about friends were positively associated with self-reported plant-based meal intake. In Study 2, descriptive norms about friends were associated with self-reported meat intake in fast-food restaurants and at friends' houses, and injunctive norms about friends were associated with meat intake in restaurants. There were no other significant associations between either type of social norm and meat or plant-based meal intake. We provide the first evidence that peers and friends may be relevant for plant-based meal intake, and only friends may be relevant for meat intake. Further research is needed to examine people's actual food intake, and in longitudinal studies to rule out reverse causality.

Personality, self-knowledge, and meat reduction intentions

OBJECTIVE

Meat consumption has a host of serious negative consequences for nonhuman animals, underprivileged humans, and the natural environment. Several interventions have been developed to encourage meat reduction but to relatively limited effect. There is also a range of established predictors of meat consumption, but much less is known about the factors that predict intentions to reduce meat consumption. The goal of this study was to determine the roles of personality and self-knowledge in meat reduction intentions.

METHOD

In this set of three preregistered studies, we tested brief interventions to encourage meat reduction intentions and examined personality predictors of intentions to reduce meat consumption.

RESULTS

We found no evidence that brief interventions with or without a self-knowledge component had a meaningful effect on changing meat reduction intentions. However, we found robust evidence for relatively small associations between intending to eat less meat and high Openness to Experience, high Emotionality, and perceiving meat reduction as moral behaviors.

CONCLUSION

Individual differences may be a more influential predictor of meat reduction intentions than brief interventions. Implications for promoting meat reduction are discussed.

Understanding the Meat-Masculinity Link: Traditional and Non-Traditional Masculine Norms Predicting Men's Meat Consumption

Conformity to masculinity ideology predicts men's meat consumption and willingness to reduce their meat intake, but it is unknown which specific masculine norms account for these relationships. This study investigated which traditional and non-traditional masculine norms predict meat consumption, red and processed meat consumption, and willingness to reduce meat consumption in 557 Australian and English males. Men who support the use of physical violence and place high importance on sex ate more meat. Willingness to reduce was highest among men with gender egalitarian views. Targeting these specific masculine norms may be important for mitigating men's overconsumption of meat.

Gen Z's Willingness to Adopt Plant-Based Diets: Empirical Evidence from Greece, India, and the UK

Comprising the largest population cohort on this planet, Gen Z presents a future-oriented consumer segment driven by climate change and food. This study sought to investigate Gen Z's perceptions toward plant-based foods and diets and explore the relationship that attitude components, meal preparation involvement, personal and lifestyle factors, and perceived barriers in adopting a plant-based diet have with willingness to adopt green-eating practices. Using cross-sectional data from university students in Greece, India, and the UK, various tools were employed to determine the factors influencing youths' consumer behavior toward animal-protein substitutes. PCA indicated the underlying dimensions of students' viewpoints on plant-based foods, whereas hierarchical and k-means clustering provided the cluster structure. An ordered probit model was estimated to delineate Gen Z's willingness to adopt plant-based diets and distinguish among mostly unwilling, somewhat willing, and mostly willing youths. Our findings identified two consumer segments, namely proponents and opponents of plant-based foods and diets, with statistically significant differences in the perceived health benefits of plant-based diets, attachment to animal-based proteins, perceived exclusion of animal-based foods, dissatisfaction with plant-based foods' attributes, and demand for ensuring adequate protein intake. The ordered probit model estimates showed that there is a "homogeneity" in the factors influencing youths' intention to adopt plant-based diets, with attitude components, meal preparation indicators, perceived barriers to eating "green", and personal factors, such as self-assessed knowledge of healthy eating and physical activity, being strongly associated with students' willingness to switch to plant-based diets in all three countries. Mapping potential obstacles and enablers in terms of shifting to more green-eating behaviors, our findings could add information to better understand the factors affecting food choice and youths' transition to a more sustainable lifestyle.

Citizen attitudes towards present and future beef consumption before and after the COVID-19 pandemic

There's been a change in citizens' attitudes towards beef consumption in high-income countries, resulting in a decline in its consumption. The COVID-19 pandemic may have impacted citizens' attitudes and behaviours towards beef consumption. This study aimed to investigate Chilean citizens' attitudes towards beef consumption during the initial 18 months of the pandemic. Socio-demographic characteristics and attitudes towards beef consumption were asked in two questionnaires done in 2020 (n = 1142) and 2021 (n = 1221). Citizens' attitudes to beef eating and production did not change between the start and more than a year after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants not related with animal production, female, young, and non-meat consumers demonstrated more negative attitudes towards beef consumption and production. Half of the participants agreed that beef is bad for the environment, but only 30% agreed that beef is bad for human health. Half of participants had reduced beef consumption and 48% expressed intentions to reduce beef consumption in the future, primarily motivated by concerns related to animal welfare, the environment, and human health. The majority of participants (80%) thought that their fellow citizens should reduce their beef consumption but only 50% had confidence that this will occur. We conclude that Chilean consumers' attitudes to beef eating did not change due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants expressed strong concern about beef consumption both individually and socially, due to environmental, animal and health concerns, and believed Chileans should reduce beef consumption in the future but had low confidence that this will happen.

Shades and shifts in flexitarian and meat-oriented consumer profiles in a German panel study

Consumers' growing awareness of the adverse effects of high meat consumption has led to increased attention to flexitarian or meat-reduced diets. However, most flexitarians do not significantly reduce their meat consumption and still eat many meat-based meals. This study aims to classify the large and heterogeneous consumer group of flexitarians into different profiles based on attitudinal, normative, and control beliefs about meat reduction. Being aware that consumer profiles can change over time, this study explores the dynamics of the identified profiles using a two-wave panel survey of 430 German consumers. Latent profile analysis revealed distinct flexitarian and meat-oriented consumer profiles, including three stable profiles and one non-stable profile across both waves. The findings indicate that flexitarian and meat-oriented consumer profiles differ significantly in their belief structure about meat reduction and that consumers can switch back and forth to other profiles over time. Practitioners should be aware of changes in the belief structure of flexitarian and meat-oriented consumer profiles when developing meat reduction interventions. Further research is needed to understand the reasons behind these profile shifts.

Animal Lives Affected by Meat Consumption Trends in the G20 Countries

Trends in dietary habits have far-reaching implications, but their impact on animals remains insufficiently explored, as many people continue to dissociate meat from individual animal lives. This research study quantifies the temporal development of the number of animal lives affected by meat consumption within the G20 countries between 1961 and 2020 and forecasts for 2030. Production (including slaughter) and historical and projected food balance data were analyzed to explore these trends. The results indicate an increase in the number of animal lives affected due to increasing consumption, but discrepancies exist between different countries and animal categories. Increases are stronger in emerging countries, such as China, than in more industrialized countries, such as Germany. Overall, the number of animals affected grows 1.7 times as fast as meat consumption due to a shift towards poultry. Poultry birds are affected by far the most, and their dominance in number only slightly reduces when considering the differentiated moral values of the animals, reflecting their sentience. Until 2030, we can expect further increases in the number of animal lives affected. The findings highlight the need for progressive legislation to address the complex trade-offs and challenges in reversing the increasing trends in the number of animals affected.

Dietary Habits and Race Day Strategies among Flexitarian, Vegetarian, and Vegan Recreational Endurance Runners: A Cross-Sectional Investigation from The NURMI Study (Step 2)

Many of today's recreational runners have changed their diet from omnivorous to vegetarian or vegan for reasons like better sport performance, animal ethics, positive health, eco-aspects, or male infertility. Others have constructed the flexitarian diet due to current trends in sustainable eating. The aim of this investigation was to analyze the dietary habits and race day strategies of recreational endurance runners following current sustainable dietary trends. Recreational endurance runners (18+ years) were invited to complete the standardized online survey on socio-demography/anthropometry, motivations, running/racing history, food frequency, and race day dietary strategy. Chi-squared tests and Wilcoxon tests were used for the statistical analysis. In total, 289 participants submitted the survey; 146 subjects following flexitarian (n = 34), vegetarian (n = 50), or vegan (n = 62) diets were included in the final sample. Significant differences were found across the diet types: BMI (p = 0.018), fruit/vegetable consumption (p < 0.001), and the dietary motive of performance (p = 0.045). The findings suggest that the flexitarian diet may be appropriate for health- and environmentally conscious populations living in a meat-centered society and lacking social support to eat completely vegetarian/vegan. Following a plant-based diet is perceived as easy for health-conscious, athletic populations, and the vegan diet does not require a particularly effortful/complex race day strategy for endurance runners.

Exploring Consumer Preferences and Challenges in Hybrid Meat Products: A Conjoint Analysis of Hotdogs

Plant-based meat has been the primary strategy to reducing meat consumption. While this category has demonstrated success, with the market value estimated to reach USD 20 billion by 2023, the subsequent reduction in meat consumption has not been proportionate. An alternative approach is hybrid products, which are thought to produce products that more closely resemble meat products. However, whether consumers will be willing to purchase hybrid products remains uncertain. Therefore, the present study uses a conjoint analysis approach to assess the product features driving the selection of a hybrid hotdog. This approach uncovers factors driving consumers' purchase intentions for hybrid meat products when offered as a choice against 100% plant-based and 100% beef products. In an online survey, participants (n = 454; 45.6% female) were asked to select the product they would be most willing to purchase, varying in four characteristics: protein source, price, fat content, and price. Following this task, participants answered questions related to meat attachment, food neophobia, health, ecological, social, and moral motives regarding food consumption. The results revealed that protein source was the most important factor driving product selection, followed by price, fat, and packaging claims (35%, 24%, 21%, and 20% relative importance, respectively). In this study, hybrid hotdogs were the least preferred to beef and plant-based (-16, -2.5, and 18 part-worth utility, respectively). These product-specific attributes (protein, fat, and price) had distinct relationships with the choices of hybrid, plant-based, and hybrid hotdogs, with these factors together explaining slightly more variability in the selection of hybrid (9%) compared to plant-based (7%) and beef hotdogs (4%). For hybrid hotdogs, protein had the greatest influence (B = -1.2) followed by fat (B = -0.8) and price (B = -0.5). Interestingly, person-related parameters (health, meat attachment, ethics, and food neophobia) had no relationship with the selection of hybrid hotdogs, contrary to plant-based (7%) and beef hotdogs (5%). This influence of the different parameters on the selection of hybrid meat is thought to be due to the lack of consumer knowledge and familiarity with hybrid products. The current understanding of plant-based products may not correspond to hybrid products. Engaging with consumers during the development of these products is critical to ensure consumer acceptance and thus support the transition to a more sustainable diet.

Nudging plant-based alternatives to meat and dairy in a real-life online supermarket: A randomized controlled trial

A shift from predominantly animal-based to plant-based consumption can benefit both planetary and public health. Nudging may help to promote such a shift. This study investigated nudge effects on plant-based alternatives to meat and dairy in an online supermarket. We conducted a two-arm, parallel-group, randomized controlled real-life online supermarket trial. Each customer transaction was randomized to a control arm (regular online supermarket) or an intervention arm (addition of placement, hedonic property and dynamic social norm nudges promoting meat and dairy alternatives). Outcomes were the aggregate of meat and dairy alternative purchases (primary outcome), the number of meat purchases, dairy purchases, meat alternative purchases, and dairy alternative purchases (secondary), and retailer revenue (tertiary). Generalized linear mixed models with a Conway-Maxwell Poisson distribution were used to estimate incidence rate ratios (IRRs). Analyzed data included 8488 transactions by participants (n = 4,266 control arm, n = 4,222 intervention arm), out of which 2,411 (66%) were aged above 45 years, 5,660 (67%) were females, and 1,970 (23%) lived in socially disadvantaged neighborhoods. Intervention arm participants purchased 10% (IRR 1.10 (95% CI 0.99-1.23)) more meat and dairy alternatives and 16% (1.16 (0.99-1.36)) more meat alternatives than control arm participants, although these findings are not statistically significant. There was no difference in dairy alternative purchases (1.00 (0.90-1.10)). Intervention arm participants purchased 3% less meats (0.97 (0.93-1.02)) and 2% less dairy products (0.98 (0.95-1.02)) than control participants. Retailer revenue was not affected (0.98 (0.95-1.01)). Online nudging strategies alone did not lead to a statistically significant higher amount of plant-based purchases, but replication of this work is needed with increased study power. Future studies should also consider nudging strategies as part of a broader set of policies to promote plant-based purchases. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Prospectively registered on 14th of May 2022. ISRCTN16569242 (https://doi.org/10.1186/ISRCTN16569242).

Exploring the Role and Functionality of Ingredients in Plant-Based Meat Analogue Burgers: A Comprehensive Review

The development of plant-based meat analogues has become a significant challenge for the food industry in recent years due to the increasing demand for sustainable and healthier proteins in the context of a global protein transition. Plant-based meat analogues imitate the visual, textural, and chemical properties of traditional meat products and are required to closely resemble meat to appeal to consumers. In addition, consumers demand natural, clean-label, and nutritional, and healthy products. To address these challenges, the food industry must develop highly healthy, nutritious, and E-number-free meat analogue products. Understanding the functionality of each ingredient and its role in the food matrix is crucial to being a key player in the innovation of the meat analogue market. This review provides updated information on the primary ingredients utilized for the development of plant-based burger meat alternatives and their functionality. The key components of meat analogue burgers are outlined, including plant proteins, binding agents, fats and oils, flavorings, colorings, preservatives, fortificants, and clean-label considerations.

How perceptions of meat consumption norms differ across contexts and meat consumer groups

Social norm perceptions are implicit standards describing what is typically done or seen as acceptable and have shown to be important both in sustaining meat consumption as well as facilitating meat reduction. Norm perceptions depend on individual differences and the contexts (e.g., supermarket, restaurant). Yet, evidence how norm perceptions differ within and across individuals is scarce. The primary aim of this study was to investigate how descriptive, injunctive, and personal norms perceptions favouring meat consumption differ across contexts and meat consumer groups. The second aim was to investigate how generic dynamic norm perceptions vary across meat consumer groups. British meat eaters (n = 1205, 25-65 years) participated in an online cross-sectional survey. Weekly meat, fish and meat substitute consumption was measured with the adapted Oxford Meat Frequency Questionnaire. All but dynamic norm perceptions were measured for the supermarket, restaurant and worksite cafeteria context. Dynamic norms were measured without a specified context. A two-step cluster analysis was conducted to identify meat consumer groups. Descriptive norm perceptions favouring meat consumption were strongest in supermarket and restaurant contexts, compared to the worksite cafeteria. Injunctive and personal norms favouring meat consumption were both perceived strongest in the supermarket, followed by the restaurant, and least in the worksite cafeteria context. Four meat consumer groups were identified and those with higher meat intake (i.e., Meat lovers and Exceeders) perceived norms favouring meat consumption stronger and norms favouring meat avoidance weaker than the groups with lower meat intake (i.e., Flexitarians and Moderates). While norm perceptions differed between meat consumer groups, the pattern of contextual differences is similar for these meat consumer groups. Our findings underscore the importance of considering contexts and meat consumer groups in efforts to reduce meat consumption.

Transitioning towards more plant-based diets: sharing expert knowledge through a system lens

Transitioning towards more plant-based protein diets is essential for public and planetary health. Current research about consumption practices of protein sources provides limited insight in the multidisciplinary nature and interconnectivity of the food environment. This study aimed to collect mental models of review authors by synthesizing both their implicit and explicit system views into an overarching system view. Published reviews were used to select participants and identify variables that explain the protein transition in relation to the food environment. To overcome differences in disciplines and scale levels (e.g. individual, interpersonal, environmental), variables were organized according to the Determinants of Nutrition and Eating Framework. Eight review authors shared their mental models in an interview. Participants were asked to construct a causal loop diagram (CLD), a tool proven valuable in making one's ontology explicit to others. Implicit system views in narrative were converted into CLDs using a coding framework. The overarching system view suggests that a multitude of feedback loops sustain current consumption patterns of protein sources, for example by reinforcement through habit, availability and peer support. Several aspects require further research, such as variable relationships that were subject to disagreement and the lack of reciprocity between the physical and social elements of the food environment. In addition, knowledge gaps were exposed, including long-term behaviour and interaction of multiple variables. As a boundary object, the overarching system view can facilitate the direction of future research. The findings underscore the interconnected nature of many disparate elements within the food environment, stressing the need for holistic methods like systems thinking. These are essential in developing a systemic understanding and facilitating the transition towards more plant-based diets.

Barriers to Adopting a Plant-Based Diet in High-Income Countries: A Systematic Review

Adopting a plant-based diet (PBD) has been shown to reduce the risk of developing certain diseases and is linked to environmental benefits. This review synthesises the evidence on the barriers adults aged 18 to 65 living in high-income countries (HIC) may experience when adopting a PBD. A systematic literature review was conducted using four search databases: Medline, Embase, Global Health, and Web of Science. Barriers were mapped to behaviour change strategies using the COM-B model. Ten studies were included in the final review, including 1740 participants. Five were qualitative, four were cross-sectional, and one was a pre- and-post-intervention study. In total, 40 barriers were identified and synthesised into 11 themes: financial, lack of knowledge, emotional, health, convenience, social, enjoyment of meat, environmental, accessibility, personal ability, and media. Of the 40 barriers, nutritional intake/requirements (categorised into the "health" theme) had the most evidence. This barrier encompassed concerns around being able to meet nutritional needs if an individual were to adopt a PBD. Habits (in the "personal ability" theme), which included established eating habits and habitual behaviours relating to animal-source foods, had the second most evidence alongside the barrier of not knowing what to eat as part of a PBD (in the "lack of knowledge" theme). Education interventions and communication/marketing policies were the behaviour change mechanisms mapped onto these barriers. Future interventions should focus on informing individuals about what to consume as part of a nutritionally balanced PBD and facilitating habitual dietary change.

Gender differences in perceiving the portion size of meat when being observed

Previous research has shown that being observed can influence people's behaviors, including their eating habits. In this study, we predicted that men and women would exhibit different reactions to the perception of portion size of meat when being observed. By utilizing a camera to create a sense of being observed during the act of eating meat, we revealed that men in the observed condition reported perceiving the portion size of the meat they ate to be smaller and the eating amount to be less than was reported by those in the non-observed condition. However, women did not show any differences in their perceptions of the portion size of the meat they ate. These findings demonstrate that gender identity plays a role in how people perceive the meat they eat when they are aware of being observed. The discussion highlights the effect of being observed on meat consumption and illustrates the influence of masculine identity.

What's cooking, if not meat? Effects of repeated home-use, recipe inspiration and meal context on perception of plant-based meat analogues

Plant-based meat analogues (PBMA) may help consumers in shifting towards more plant-based diets, but PBMA are not widely used yet, and little is known about their longer-term acceptance. This study investigated whether consumer acceptance of PBMA changed with repeated home-use, and whether providing recipe suggestions in the form of meal boxes could influence PBMA acceptance. To this end, Dutch regular meat eaters (n = 61) prepared, consumed and evaluated two meals (one from a meal box, one self-created) with PBMA (PB mince and PB chicken, counterbalanced across meal types) per week at home for four weeks. As a secondary objective, potential longer-term effects of repeated home-use of PBMA on meat (analogue) consumption habits and attitudes (e.g. motives for choosing PBMA, attitudes toward eating less meat) were assessed in a pre-vs post-intervention survey. Responses were compared with a control group of consumers not participating in the home-use study (n = 179). Results provided no evidence that PBMA liking changed with repeated home-use, nor that the provision of meal boxes increased liking of PBMA. Instead, PBMA liking was strongly influenced by the meal context, which may have overruled potential effects of repeated exposure. Findings from the pre- vs. post-intervention survey suggest that repeated exposure may stimulate longer-term consumption of PBMA, although more seems needed to bring about a structural shift toward a less animal-based consumption pattern. Future research should investigate whether more sophisticated recipes that provide a suitable meal context for PBMA and elevate consumers' meal experiences may improve PBMA acceptance and facilitate the transition toward more sustainable diets.

Is being anti-vegan a distinct dietarian identity? An investigation with omnivores, vegans, and self-identified "anti-vegans"

Adding to research on the form and content of anti-vegan sentiment, recent scholarship has identified a group of individuals who self-subscribe as "anti-vegan". Here, we sought to determine whether anti-veganism might reflect a distinct dietarian identity with its own unique ideological profile. Two-hundred and fourteen vegans, 732 omnivores, and 222 self-identified "anti-vegans" were assessed using a survey methodology that included the Dietarian Identity Questionnaire and ideological markers related to dark humour, social dominance orientation (SDO), speciesism, male-role norms, moral relativism, and attitudes toward science. Our analysis revealed a dietarian identity unique to anti-vegans. The dietary patterns of anti-vegans were more central to their identity than for omnivores, though marginally lower than vegans. Like vegans, anti-vegans scored highly on dietarian measures of private regard and personal dietary motivations, and lower than omnivores on public regard. The diets of anti-vegans were more morally motivated than omnivores. However, anti-vegans scored higher than both omnivores and vegans on a number of ideological measures including dark humour, SDO, speciesism, male-role norms, moral relativism, and distrust of science. Somewhat surprising, anti-vegans held greater trust than omnivores in the science of plant-based nutrition. We discuss the unique dietarian identities of anti-vegans, considering both intra-group differences of omnivores and anti-vegans (e.g., in right-wing ideology), and inter-group similarities of vegans and anti-vegans (e.g., in diet centrality).

Avian influenza outbreaks in domestic cats: another reason to consider slaughter-free cell-cultured poultry?

Avian influenza causes substantial economic loss in the poultry industry and potentially threatens human health. Over recent years, the highly pathogenic avian influenza A/H5N1 virus has led to devastating losses in poultry flocks and wild birds. At the same time, the number of mammalian species identified to be infected with A/H5N1 is increasing, with recent outbreaks in domestic cats, including household individuals, evidenced in July 2023 in Poland, ultimately creating opportunities for the virus to adapt better to mammalian hosts, including humans. Overall, between 2003 and 2023, over 10 outbreaks in felids have been documented globally, and in six of them, feed based on raw chicken was suspected as a potential source of A/H5N1, fuelling a debate on threats posed by A/H5N1 and methods to decrease the associated risks. This article debates that technology allowing the production of slaughter-free meat, including poultry, from cell and tissue cultures could be considered as a part of a mitigation strategy to decrease the overall burden and threat of adaptation of avian influenza viruses to human hosts. By shifting poultry production to the cultured meat industry, the frequency of A/H5N1 outbreaks in farmed birds may be decreased, leading to a reduced risk of virus acquisition by wild and domesticated mammals that have direct contact with birds or eat raw poultry and have close contact with human (including domestic cats), ultimately minimizing the potential of A/H5N1 to adapt better to mammalian host, including humans. This adds to the list of other benefits of cultured meat that are also reviewed in this paper, including decreased antibiotic use, risk of microbial contamination and parasite transmission, and environmental and ethical advantages over conventional slaughtered meat. In conclusion, further development and implementation of this technology, also in the context of poultry production, is strongly advocated. Although cultured poultry is unlikely to replace the conventional process in the near future due to challenges with scaling up the production and meeting the continuously increased demand for poultry meat, it may still decrease the pressures and threats related to the transmission of highly pathogenic avian influenza in selected world regions.

Cross-sectional measurement of adherence to a proposed sustainable and healthy dietary pattern among United States adults using the newly developed Planetary Health Diet Index for the United States

BACKGROUND

Dietary choices are an important avenue for improving food system sustainability. The Planetary Health Diet was proposed by the EAT-Lancet Commission as a reference healthy and sustainable dietary pattern.

OBJECTIVES

To assess adherence to the Planetary Health Diet among United States adults, this study developed and evaluated the Planetary Health Diet Index for the United States (PHDI-US), adapted from the original PHDI validated in the Brazilian population.

METHODS

The PHDI-US has 16 components with scores ranging between 0 and 150, and higher scores indicate better adherence to the Planetary Health Diet. Cross-sectional dietary data from 4741 participants of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2017-2018 were used to assess the validity and reliability of the PHDI-US.

RESULTS

Validity and reliability tests were acceptable overall: principal component analysis identified 6 components; total PHDI-US and Healthy Eating Index-2015 scores were positively associated (β = 0.67, standard error = 0.03, P <0.0001; R2 = 0.39); concurrent-criterion validity analyses identified significantly lower scores among males, everyday smokers, and younger adults; and the Cronbach's α value was 0.54. The average PHDI-US score was 46.7 out of 150, indicating that the diets of United States adults were far from meeting Planetary Health Diet recommendations. Based on component PHDI-US scores, many United States adults may be able to enhance the quality and sustainability of their diets by increasing intake of plant-based foods, including whole grains, nuts and peanuts, legumes, fruits, and vegetables, and reducing intake of animal-based foods, including red and processed meats.

CONCLUSIONS

The PHDI-US is a new tool that can assess adherence to the Planetary Health Diet and identify key aspects of United States adults' diets that could be altered to potentially improve dietary sustainability and quality.

Satiating Capacity of Plant-Based Meat in Realistic Meal Contexts at Home

Plant-based meat substitutes replacing animal meat can potentially support the transition towards more sustainable diets. To enable the required transition, consumer acceptance of plant-based meat is essential. An important aspect of this is the feeling of satiety or being full after eating. This study determined the satiating capacity of both plant-based meat and animal meat in 60 adults under real-life in-home conditions. Participants consumed four fixed ready-to eat meals for lunch at home once per week. Two types of Indian curry with 'chicken' were investigated as well as two types of pasta Bolognese with 'minced meat'. The two 'chicken' dishes and the two 'minced meat' dishes had the same recipe except for a gram-for-gram swap (125 g each) of either animal meat (chicken breast and minced meat) or plant-based (soy) meat. Results showed no difference in the satiating power of an animal meat dish and a plant-based meat dish when these were eaten as part of a full lunch meal at home. In addition, the meals did not result in energy nor macronutrient compensation during the rest of the day after consuming the meals. This occurred despite the caloric differences of the meals as a result of the real-life conditions (i.e., a lower energy content of the pasta with plant-based meat compared to the other meals). We conclude that meals with plant-based meat can be as satiating as meals with animal meat.

Current Perceptions of Sustainable Diets in Ireland and the Outlook of Circular Eating Practices

Encouraging sustainable dietary practices is a positive step towards alleviating the negative impact of increasing food waste. This study explores consumers' perceptions of sustainable diets and factors influencing their adoption of sustainable practices, such as circular eating. Fifteen consumers in Ireland aged 18-65+ years were recruited for a qualitative study exploring their views on sustainable diets and their opinions on the use of peels, trimmings, and other by-products from fruit and vegetables as potential new ingredients or new circular food products. Age, gender, dietary preferences and educational background were important considerations during recruitment. Online interviews were conducted, and the data were analyzed using thematic analysis managed by NVivo 12. The results highlighted two overarching themes impacting circular eating, namely, food choice motives and awareness of food waste. These were linked to the participants' knowledge of and potential adoption of sustainable diets. Daily trade-offs were evident, linked to the product and the person who was also strongly influenced by their micro-environment. Consumer education from credible sources would be required to create awareness of circular eating. Most respondents were positively disposed to the concept of circular eating, as long as food safety concerns and affordability considerations were addressed through industry transparency.

How do defaults and framing influence food choice? An intervention aimed at promoting plant-based choice in online menus

Nudging consumers towards plant-based foods by making these choices the default option is a promising strategy for effecting sustainable dietary change. In the hypothetical context of online food ordering in a Northern European country, we examined the underlying mechanisms and effectiveness of swapping the default in menus from meat to a plant-based meat alternative. Results showed that pre-selecting a plant-based option in the online setting was not enough to increase choice of plant-based meals alone. Rather, additionally framing the plant-based default as the more sustainable or tasty option was needed to significantly increase choice. While ease was unimportant and held constant in this online setting, endowment and implied endorsement were found to mediate default success such that the positive influence of endowment outweighed the (surprising) negative effect via endorsement. In contrast to general theoretical expectations of default nudges, an endorsement by an online food provider is unlikely to encourage plant-based choices.

Effects of Multi-Level Eco-Labels on the Product Evaluation of Meat and Meat Alternatives-A Discrete Choice Experiment

Eco-labels are an instrument for enabling informed food choices and supporting a demand-sided change towards an urgently needed sustainable food system. Lately, novel eco-labels that depict a product's environmental life cycle assessment on a multi-level scale are being tested across Europe's retailers. This study elicits consumers' preferences and willingness to pay (WTP) for a multi-level eco-label. A Discrete Choice Experiment was conducted; a representative sample (n = 536) for the Austrian population was targeted via an online survey. Individual partworth utilities were estimated by means of the Hierarchical Bayes. The results show higher WTP for a positively evaluated multi-level label, revealing consumers' perceived benefits of colorful multi-level labels over binary black-and-white designs. Even a negatively evaluated multi-level label was associated with a higher WTP compared to one with no label, pointing towards the limited effectiveness of eco-labels. Respondents' preferences for eco-labels were independent from their subjective eco-label knowledge, health consciousness, and environmental concern. The attribute "protein source" was most important, and preference for an animal-based protein source (beef) was strongly correlated with consumers' meat attachment, implying that a shift towards more sustainable protein sources is challenging, and sustainability labels have only a small impact on the meat product choice of average consumers.

What motivates German consumers to reduce their meat consumption? Identifying relevant beliefs

High levels of meat consumption cause problems related to public health, the environment, and animal welfare. Therefore, it is crucial to improve our understanding of the drivers and barriers involved in reducing meat consumption. Using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), we examined to what extent attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control (PBC) affect intention and willingness to reduce meat consumption. In line with the TPB and going beyond existing literature, we also explored which specific beliefs determine these three constructs. In 2021, we conducted an online survey with a sample representative of the German population (N = 1093). Hierarchical regression models revealed that after controlling for sociodemographic characteristics, the TPB constructs explained 55% of the variance in intention and 61% of the variance in willingness. Importantly, each of the three TPB constructs affected intention and willingness to reduce meat consumption, with attitude having the largest impact. Habit strength and past behavior in addition to the TPB constructs did not improve prediction. Multiple linear regression models showed that attitude was determined by the beliefs that reducing meat consumption leads to a healthier diet, a reduced risk of developing certain diseases, a more natural diet, and the feeling of missing meat. In contrast, environmental and animal welfare concerns showed no significant effect on attitude. Both family and friends contributed to the perceived social pressure. The beliefs of being able to prepare meat-free meals, having enough time to spend on one's diet, and being able to easily purchase meat substitutes led to higher PBC. Based on these findings, we provide recommendations for intervention strategies and derive implications for future research.

Relational climate and openness to plant-forward diets among cohabitating couples

Plant-forward diets offer a potential solution to many of the health and ecological crises that we find ourselves facing today. A key barrier to the adoption and maintenance of plant-forward diets is an anticipated lack of support from family members, friends and romantic partners. The present study examined how relational climate (i.e., the cohesion and flexibility of a partnership) contributes to the tension individuals anticipate in their relationship when a member reduces their animal-product consumption, and their own openness to reducing. Four hundred and ninety-six coupled individuals took part in an online survey. Analyses revealed that couples with more flexible leadership styles anticipated less tension should they or their partner adopt a plant-forward diet. However, dimensions of relational climate were largely unrelated to openness to plant-forward diets. Romantic couples who perceived themselves to be matched in terms of dietary habits were less open to reducing their animal-product consumption than unmatched couples. Politically left-leaning couples and females were more open to plant-forward diets. The meat attachments of male partners were reported as a particular barrier to dietary goals, as were practical concerns about meal coordination, finance, and health. Implications for promoting plant-forward dietary transitions are discussed.

Gradual behaviour change towards meat reduction: Development and validation of a novel decisional balance scale

Meat reduction is gaining attention among consumers, marketers, policymakers and scientists. Yet little is known about decision-making processes and behaviour change towards meat reduction. This paper explores the applicability of the decisional balance (DB) framework to the field of meat reduction. A novel DB scale to measure the perceived importance of beliefs about meat reduction at different stages of behaviour change was developed and validated in two studies with German meat eaters. In Study 1 (N = 309), the item inventory was tested using an exploratory factor analysis and then validated in Study 2 (N = 809). The results yielded two higher-order DB factors (pros and cons), which were subdivided into five lower-order factors (perceived benefits of a plant-based diet, downsides of factory farming, health barriers, legitimation barriers and feasibility barriers). The pros and cons were summarised in a DB index. All DB factors and the DB index were tested for internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha ≥.70) and aspects of validity. The typical DB pattern of the pros and cons of behaviour change was confirmed: the cons outweighed the pros for consumers who did not intend to reduce meat consumption, while the pros outweighed the cons for consumers who intended to reduce meat consumption. The new DB scale for meat reduction has proven to be a suitable measure to gain insights into consumers' decision making and could be used to develop targeted meat reduction interventions.

How Different Dimensions Shape the Definition of Meat Alternative Products: A Scoping Review of Evidence between 2000 and 2021

Consumer awareness of meat-associated health and environmental risks is increasing and motivates a shift toward consuming meat alternatives. This is also reflected in efforts invested in studying meat alternatives from the perspective of nutritional, environmental, and consumer sciences. Despite shared research interest, these studies cannot be readily compared and interpreted because there is no clear consensus on what meat alternatives are. Scholarly debates on acceptance, nutritional value, and environmental advantages of meat alternatives would benefit from a clear definition of meat alternatives. With the goal of defining meat alternatives, relevant scientific literature in the past 10 years was systematically searched and screened guided by the scoping review Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension. The initial search resulted in >100,000 hits, which was reduced to 2465 papers. Next, titles and abstracts were scrutinized using Rayyan.ai, resulting in 193 articles considered for the present review. Article screening and data extraction was performed using ATLAS.ti software. Three major themes were identified to define meat alternative products including: 1) producing and sourcing of ingredients; 2) product characteristics (that is, sensory characteristics, nutritional value, and health profile, social and environmental sustainability profile); and 3) consumer characteristics concerning the marketing and consumption context. Meat alternatives are multifaceted, that is, certain products can be considered as meat alternatives in some context, but not in another context. For any product, it is impossible to unequivocally state that it is a meat alternative. There is a lack of consensus from the diverse literature on what constitutes meat alternatives. However, products may be qualified as meat alternatives according to three key criteria as proposed in a taxonomy: 1) production and sourcing, 2) product characteristics, and/or 3) consumption. We recommend researchers (and other stakeholders) to do so as it allows for better informed future discussions of meat alternatives.