Thyroid disruption by triphenyl phosphate, an organophosphate flame retardant, in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos/larvae, and in GH3 and FRTL-5 cell lines

Reference gene considerations for toxicological assessment of the flame retardant triphenyl phosphate in an in vitro fish embryonic model

The reliability of relative quantification RT-qPCR depends upon the gene of interest being normalized to one or more reference genes, with the assumption that the chosen reference genes do not experience altered expression with experimental conditions. The correct choice of stable reference genes is critical when investigating alterations to gene transcript levels following exposure to endocrine and metabolic disrupting chemicals, such as the flame retardant triphenyl phosphate (TPhP). This study assessed the stability of eight reference genes following TPhP exposure in embryonic cells derived from rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). The genes β-actin (actb) and 18s rRNA (18s) were stable, while glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (gapdh) relative expression was found to be increased. gapdh is a popular reference gene and has been previously used in the literature for investigating TPhP exposure in teleost fish models. We discuss the implications of gapdh upregulation in the context of TPhP as a metabolic disrupting chemical. Furthermore, we quantified the expression of the tumor suppressor gene p53 following TPhP exposure in relation to different reference genes to use as an example to report on how discrepancies in findings might arise depending on the stability of the chosen reference gene.

Temperature dependent cholinergic synapse induced by triphenyl phosphate and tris(1.3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate via thyroid hormone synthesis in Cyprinus carpio

Triphenyl phosphate (TPHP) and tris(1.3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) are emerging contaminants that pervade diverse ecosystems and impair the thyroid and neural signaling pathways. The intricate interactions between thyroid and neurodevelopmental effects mediated by TPHP and TDCIPP remain elusive. This study integrates in vivo, in vitro, and in silico approaches to elucidate these mechanisms in Cyprinus carpio at varying temperatures. It showed that TPHP and TDCIPP hindered fish growth, particularly at low temperatures, by interfering with thyroid hormone synthesis and transport processes. Both compounds have been identified as environmental hormones that mimic thyroid hormone activity and potentially inhibit acetylcholinesterase, leading to neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by brain tissue damage and disrupted cholinergic synapses, such as axon guidance and regeneration. Notably, the bioaccumulation of TPHP was 881.54 % higher than that of TDCIPP, exhibiting temperature-dependent variations with higher levels of TDCIPP at low temperatures (20.50 % and 250.84 % above optimum and high temperatures, respectively), suggesting that temperature could exacerbate the toxicity effects of OPEs. This study sheds new light on the mechanisms underlying thyroid endocrine disruption and neurodevelopmental toxicity in C. carpio. More importantly, these findings indicate that temperature affects the environmental fate and effects of TPHP and TDCIPP, which could provide an important basis for ecological environmental zoning control of emerging contaminants in the future.

Sex-specific effects on elements of the social brain neural network in Wistar rats from perinatal exposure to FireMaster 550 or its components

Developmental exposure to chemical flame retardants (FRs) has been linked to a variety of neurodevelopmental disorders and abnormal socioemotional behaviors in human and laboratory animal studies. We have previously shown in Wistar rats that gestational and lactational exposure to the FR mixture Firemaster 550 (FM 550) or its brominated or organophosphate ester (OPFR) components (at 2000 µg, 1000 µg, and 1000 µg oral to the dam respectively (absolute and not by bodyweight)) results in increased anxiety-like behaviors in females and decreased sociality in both sexes. Using their siblings, this study characterized sex and chemical specific targets of disruption in brain regions underlying each behavioral phenotype. Offspring were exposed across gestation and lactation then prepared for either immunohistochemistry or autoradiography at postnatal day 90 to quantify expression of serotonin, estrogen receptor α (ERα), and oxytocin receptor (OTR) in multiple brain regions. No effect of exposure was found in males for any biological target. In females, serotonin innervation was increased in the medial amygdala of FM 550 exposed animals while ERα expression in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) was reduced by FM 550 and OPFR. Evidence of disrupted OTR was observed in males, particularly the BNST but considered an exploratory finding given the small sample size. These results begin to shed light on the mechanisms by which developmental FR exposure alters socioemotional behaviors of relevance to neurodevelopmental disorders.

Thyroid and neurobehavioral effects of DiNP on GH3 cells and larval zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Diisononyl phthalate (DiNP) has been used to replace bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and is frequently found in the environment and humans. DiNP is reported for its anti-androgenic activity; however, little is known about its effects on thyroid function and neurodevelopment. In the present study, the thyroid disruption and neurobehavioral alteration potential of DiNP and its major metabolites were assessed in a rat pituitary carcinoma cell line (GH3) and embryo-larval zebrafish (Danio rerio). In GH3 cells, exposure to DiNP and its metabolites not only increased proliferation but also induced transcriptional changes in several target genes, which were different from those observed with DEHP exposure. In larval fish, a 5-day exposure to DiNP caused significant increases in thyroid hormone levels, following a similar pattern to that reported for DEHP exposure. Following exposure to DiNP, the activity of the larval fish decreased, and neurodevelopment-related genes, such as c-fos, elavl3, and mbp, were down-regulated. These changes are generally similar to those observed for DEHP. Up-regulation of gap43 and down-regulation of elavl3 gene, which are important for both thyroid hormone production and neurodevelopment, respectively, support the potential for both thyroid and behavioral disruption of DiNP. Overall, these results emphasize the need to consider the adverse thyroid and neurodevelopmental effects in developing regulations for DEHP-replacing phthalates.

Weight of evidence evaluation of the metabolism disrupting effects of triphenyl phosphate using an expert knowledge elicitation approach

Identification of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) in a regulatory context requires a high level of evidence. However, lines of evidence (e.g. human, in vivo, in vitro or in silico) are heterogeneous and incomplete for quantifying evidence of the adverse effects and mechanisms involved. To date, for the regulatory appraisal of metabolism-disrupting chemicals (MDCs), no harmonised guidance to assess the weight of evidence has been developed at the EU or international level. To explore how to develop this, we applied a formal Expert Knowledge Elicitation (EKE) approach within the European GOLIATH project. EKE captures expert judgment in a quantitative manner and provides an estimate of uncertainty of the final opinion. As a proof of principle, we selected one suspected MDC -triphenyl phosphate (TPP) - based on its related adverse endpoints (obesity/adipogenicity) relevant to metabolic disruption and a putative Molecular Initiating Event (MIE): activation of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPARγ). We conducted a systematic literature review and assessed the quality of the lines of evidence with two independent groups of experts within GOLIATH, with the objective of categorising the metabolic disruption properties of TPP, by applying an EKE approach. Having followed the entire process separately, both groups arrived at the same conclusion, designating TPP as a "suspected MDC" with an overall quantitative agreement exceeding 85%, indicating robust reproducibility. The EKE method provides to be an important way to bring together scientists with diverse expertise and is recommended for future work in this area.

Nephrotoxicity of organophosphate flame retardants in patients with chronic kidney disease: A 2-year longitudinal study

Humans are extensively exposed to organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs), an emerging group of organic contaminants with potential nephrotoxicity. Nevertheless, the estimated daily intake (EDI) and prognostic impacts of OPFRs have not been assessed in individuals with chronic kidney disease (CKD). In this 2-year longitudinal study of 169 patients with CKD, we calculated the EDIs of five OPFR triesters from urinary biomonitoring data of their degradation products and analyzed the effects of OPFR exposure on adverse renal outcomes and renal function deterioration. Our analysis demonstrated universal OPFR exposure in the CKD population, with a median EDIΣOPFR of 360.45 ng/kg body weight/day (interquartile range, 198.35-775.94). Additionally, our study revealed that high tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) exposure independently correlated with composite adverse events and composite renal events (hazard ratio [95 % confidence interval; CI]: 4.616 [1.060-20.096], p = 0.042; 3.053 [1.075-8.674], p = 0.036) and served as an independent predictor for renal function deterioration throughout the study period, with a decline in estimated glomerular filtration rate of 4.127 mL/min/1.73 m2 (95 % CI, -8.127--0.126; p = 0.043) per log ng/kg body weight/day of EDITCEP. Furthermore, the EDITCEP and EDIΣOPFR were positively associated with elevations in urinary 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine and kidney injury molecule-1 during the study period, indicating the roles of oxidative damage and renal tubular injury in the nephrotoxicity of OPFR exposure. To conclude, our findings highlight the widespread OPFR exposure and its possible nephrotoxicity in the CKD population.

Exposure to organophosphate esters and maternal-child health

Organophosphate esters (OPEs) are a class of chemicals now widely used as flame retardants and plasticizers after the phase-out of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). However, OPEs carry their own risk of developmental toxicity, which poses concern for recent birth cohorts as they have become ubiquitous in the environment. In this review, we summarize the literature evaluating the association between OPE exposure and maternal, perinatal, and child health outcomes. We included original articles investigating associations of OPE exposure with any health outcome on pregnant women, newborns, children, and adolescents. We found 48 articles on this topic. Of these, five addressed maternal health and pregnancy outcomes, 24 evaluated prenatal OPE exposure and child health, 18 evaluated childhood OPE exposure and child/adolescent health, and one article evaluated both prenatal and childhood OPE exposure. These studies suggest that OPE exposure is possibly associated with a wide range of adverse health outcomes, including pregnancy loss, altered gestational duration and smaller birthweight, maternal and neonatal thyroid dysfunction, child metabolic dysregulation and abnormal growth, impaired neurodevelopment, and changes in immune response. Many of the reported outcomes associated with OPE exposure varied by child sex. Findings also varied substantially by OPE metabolite and exposure time. The OPEs most frequently measured, detected, and found to be associated with health outcomes were triphenyl phosphate (TPHP, metabolized to DPHP) and tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP, metabolized to BDCIPP). The extensive range of health outcomes associated with OPEs raises concern about their growing use in consumer products; however, these findings should be interpreted considering the limitations of these epidemiological studies, such as possible exposure misclassification, lack of generalizability, insufficient adjustment for covariates, and failure to consider chemical exposures as a mixture.

Integrated Approach for Testing and Assessment for Developmental Neurotoxicity (DNT) to Prioritize Aromatic Organophosphorus Flame Retardants

Organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) are abundant and persistent in the environment but have limited toxicity information. Their similarity in structure to organophosphate pesticides presents great concern for developmental neurotoxicity (DNT). However, current in vivo testing is not suitable to provide DNT information on the amount of OPFRs that lack data. Over the past decade, an in vitro battery was developed to enhance DNT assessment, consisting of assays that evaluate cellular processes in neurodevelopment and function. In this study, behavioral data of small model organisms were also included. To assess if these assays provide sufficient mechanistic coverage to prioritize chemicals for further testing and/or identify hazards, an integrated approach to testing and assessment (IATA) was developed with additional information from the Integrated Chemical Environment (ICE) and the literature. Human biomonitoring and exposure data were identified and physiologically-based toxicokinetic models were applied to relate in vitro toxicity data to human exposure based on maximum plasma concentration. Eight OPFRs were evaluated, including aromatic OPFRs (triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), isopropylated phenyl phosphate (IPP), 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDP), tricresyl phosphate (TMPP), isodecyl diphenyl phosphate (IDDP), tert-butylphenyl diphenyl phosphate (BPDP)) and halogenated FRs ((Tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP), tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP)). Two representative brominated flame retardants (BFRs) (2,2'4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47) and 3,3',5,5'-tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA)) with known DNT potential were selected for toxicity benchmarking. Data from the DNT battery indicate that the aromatic OPFRs have activity at similar concentrations as the BFRs and should therefore be evaluated further. However, these assays provide limited information on the mechanism of the compounds. By integrating information from ICE and the literature, endocrine disruption was identified as a potential mechanism. This IATA case study indicates that human exposure to some OPFRs could lead to a plasma concentration similar to those exerting in vitro activities, indicating potential concern for human health.

Safety Assessment of Triphenyl Phosphate as Used in Cosmetics

The Expert Panel for Cosmetic Ingredient Safety (Panel) assessed the safety of Triphenyl Phosphate, which is reported to function as a plasticizer in manicuring products. The Panel reviewed the available data to determine the safety of this ingredient. The Panel concluded that Triphenyl Phosphate is safe in cosmetics in the present practices of use and concentration described in this safety assessment.

Association between urinary organophosphate ester metabolite exposure and thyroid disease risk among US adults: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011-2014

Background

Organophosphate esters (OPEs) may interfere with thyroid function, but the relationship between OPEs and thyroid disease remains unclear. This study aims to elucidate the relationship between OPEs exposure and thyroid disease risk in the general population in the United States.

Method

Data were obtained from the 2011-2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey cycle. All participants were tested for seven OPE metabolites in their urine and answered questions about whether they had thyroid disease through questionnaires. Logistic regression was employed to analyze the association between exposure to individual OPE metabolites and thyroid disease. Weighted Quantile Sum (WQS) regression modeling was utilized to assess exposure to mixed OPE metabolites and risk of thyroid disease. Bayesian kernel machine regression(BKMR) models to analyze the overall mixed effect of OPE metabolites.

Result

A total of 2,449 participants were included in the study, 228 of whom had a history of thyroid disease. Bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phos (BDCPP), Diphenyl phosphate (DPHP) and Bis(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (BCEP) were the top three metabolites with the highest detection rates of 91.75%, 90.77% and 86.57%, respectively. In multivariate logistic regression models, after adjustment for confounding variables, individuals with the highest tertile level of BCEP were significantly and positively associated with increased risk of thyroid disease (OR=1.57, 95% CI=1.04-2.36), using the lowest tertile level as reference. In the positive WQS regression model, after correcting for confounding variables, mixed exposure to OPE metabolites was significantly positively associated with increased risk of thyroid disease (OR=1.03, 95% CI=1.01-1.06), with BCEP and DPHP having high weights. In the BKMR model, the overall effect of mixed exposure to OPE metabolites was not statistically significant, but univariate exposure response trends showed that the risk of thyroid disease decreased and then increased as BCEP exposure levels increased.

Conclusion

The study revealed a significant association between exposure to OPE metabolites and an increased risk of thyroid disease, with BCEP emerging as the primary contributor. The risk of thyroid disease exhibits a J-shaped pattern, whereby the risk initially decreases and subsequently increases with rising levels of BCEP exposure. Additional studies are required to validate the association between OPEs and thyroid diseases.

Bioaccumulation and thyroid endcrione disruption of 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate at environmental concentration in zebrafish larvae

2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPP) strongly binds to transthyretin (TTR) and affects the expression of genes involved in the thyroid hormone (TH) pathway in vitro. However, it is still unknown whether EHDPP induces endocrine disruption of THs in vivo. In this study, zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos (< 2 h post-fertilization (hpf)) were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of EHDPP (0, 0.1, 1, 10, and 100 μg·L-1) for 120 h. EHDPP was detected in 120 hpf larvae at concentrations of 0.06, 0.15, 3.71, and 59.77 μg·g-1 dry weight in the 0.1, 1, 10, and 100 μg·L-1 exposure groups, respectively. Zebrafish development and growth were inhibited by EHDPP, as indicated by the increased malformation rate, decreased survival rate, and shortened body length. Exposure to lower concentrations of EHDPP (0.1 and 1 μg·L-1) significantly decreased the whole-body thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) levels and altered the expressions of genes and proteins involved in the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis. Downregulation of genes related to TH synthesis (nis and tg) and TH metabolism (dio1 and dio2) may be partially responsible for the decreased T4 and T3 levels, respectively. EHDPP exposure also significantly increased the transcription of genes involved in thyroid development (nkx2.1 and pax8), which may stimulate the growth of thyroid primordium to compensate for hypothyroidism. Moreover, EHDPP exposure significantly decreased the gene and protein expression of the transport protein transthyretin (TTR) in a concentration-dependent manner, suggesting a significant inhibitory effect of EHDPP on TTR. Molecular docking results showed that EHDPP and T4 partly share the same mode of action of binding to the TTR protein, which might result in decreased T4 transport due to the binding of EHDPP to the TTR protein. Taken together, our findings indicate that EHDPP can cause TH disruption in zebrafish and help elucidate the mechanisms underlying EHDPP toxicity.

Astaxanthin activates the Nrf2/Keap1/HO-1 pathway to inhibit oxidative stress and ferroptosis, reducing triphenyl phosphate (TPhP)-induced neurodevelopmental toxicity

Triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) serves as a major organophosphorus flame retardant, and its induced neurodevelopmental toxicity has attracted widespread attention, but the mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we involved zebrafish to explore the new mechanism of TPhP inducing oxidative stress and ferroptosis to promote neurodevelopmental toxicity. The results suggested that TPhP affected the embryonic development, reduced the number of new neurons, and led to abnormal neural behavior in zebrafish larvae. TPhP also induced ROS accumulation, activated the antioxidant defense signal Nrf2 and Keap1, and significantly changed the activities of Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), Adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) and glutathione S-transferase (GST). In addition, TPhP induced ferroptosis in zebrafish, which was reflected in the increase of Fe2+ content, the abnormal expression of GPX4 protein and genes related to iron metabolism (gpx4a, slc7a11, acsl4b, tfa, slc40a1, fth1b, tfr2, tfr1a, tfr1b and ncoa4). Astaxanthin intervention specifically inhibited ROS levels, and reversed SLC7A11 and GPX4 expression levels and Fe2+ metabolism thus alleviating ferroptosis induced by TPhP. Astaxanthin also partially reversed the activity of AChE, GST and the expression of neurodevelopmental-related genes (gap43, gfap, neurog1 and syn2a), so as to partially rescue the embryonic developmental abnormalities and motor behavior disorders induced by TPhP. More interestingly, the expression of mitochondrial apoptosis-related protein BAX, anti-apoptotic protein BCL-2, Caspase3 and Caspase9 was significantly altered in the TPhP exposed group, which could be also reversed by Astaxanthin intervention. In summary, our results suggested that TPhP exposure can induce oxidative stress and ferroptosis, thereby causing neurodevelopment toxicity to zebrafish, while Astaxanthin can partially reverse oxidative stress and reduce the neurodevelopmental toxicity of zebrafish larvae by activating Nrf2/Keap1/HO-1 signaling pathway.

Physiologically based toxicokinetic modelling of Tri(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) in mice accounting for multiple exposure routes

Exposure routes are important for health risk assessment of chemical risks. The application of physiologically based toxicokinetic (PBTK) models to predict concentrations in vivo can determine the effects of harmful substances and tissue accumulation on the premise of saving experimental costs. In this study, Tri(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), an organophosphate ester (OPE), was used as an example to study the PBTK model of mice exposed to different exposure doses by multiple routes. Different routes of exposure (gavage and intradermal injection) can cause differences in the concentration of chemicals in the organs. TCEP that enters the body through the mouth is mainly concentrated in the gastrointestinal tract and liver. However, the concentrations of chemicals that enter the skin into the mice are higher in skin, rest of body, and blood. In addition, TCEP was absorbed and accumulated very rapidly in mice, within half an hour after a single exposure. We have successfully established a mouse PBTK model of the TCEP accounting for multiple exposure Routes and obtained a series of kinetic parameters. The model includes blood, liver, kidney, stomach, intestine, skin, and rest of body compartments. Oral and dermal exposure route was considered for PBTK model. The PBTK model established in this study has a good predictive ability. More than 70% of the predicted values deviated from the measured values by less than 5-fold. In addition, we extrapolated the model to humans. A human PBTK model is built. We performed a health risk assessment for world populations based on human PBTK model. The risk of TCEP in dust is greater through mouth than through skin. The risk of TCEP in food of Chinese population is greater than dust.

Elucidating the toxicity mechanisms of organophosphate esters by adverse outcome pathway network

With the widespread use of organophosphate esters (OPEs), the accumulation and toxicity effect of OPEs in biota are attracting more and more concern. In order to clarify the mechanism of toxicity of OPEs to organisms, this study reviewed the OPEs toxicity and systematically identified the mechanism of OPEs toxicity under the framework of adverse outcome pathway (AOP). OPEs were divided into three groups (alkyl-OPEs, aryl-OPEs, and halogenated-OPEs) and biota was divided into aquatic organism and mammals. The results showed that tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) and triphenyl phosphate (TPHP) mainly caused neurotoxicity, reproductive, and hepatotoxicity in different mechanisms. According to the constructed AOP network, the toxicity mechanism of OPEs on aquatic organisms and mammals is different, which is mainly attributed to the different biological metabolic systems of aquatic organisms and mammals. Interestingly, our results indicate that the toxicity effect of the three kinds of OPEs on aquatic organisms is different, while there was no obvious difference in the mechanism of toxicity of OPEs on mammals. This study provides a theoretical basis for OPEs risk assessment in the future.

Associations of Organophosphate Ester Flame Retardant Exposures during Pregnancy with Gestational Duration and Fetal Growth: The Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) Program

BACKGROUND

Widespread exposure to organophosphate ester (OPE) flame retardants with potential reproductive toxicity raises concern regarding the impacts of gestational exposure on birth outcomes. Previous studies of prenatal OPE exposure and birth outcomes had limited sample sizes, with inconclusive results.

OBJECTIVES

We conducted a collaborative analysis of associations between gestational OPE exposures and adverse birth outcomes and tested whether associations were modified by sex.

METHODS

We included 6,646 pregnant participants from 16 cohorts in the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) Program. Nine OPE biomarkers were quantified in maternal urine samples collected primarily during the second and third trimester and modeled as log 2 -transformed continuous, categorized (high/low/nondetect), or dichotomous (detect/nondetect) variables depending on detection frequency. We used covariate-adjusted linear, logistic, and multinomial regression with generalized estimating equations, accounting for cohort-level clustering, to estimate associations of OPE biomarkers with gestational length and birth weight outcomes. Secondarily, we assessed effect modification by sex.

RESULTS

Three OPE biomarkers [diphenyl phosphate (DPHP), a composite of dibutyl phosphate and di-isobutyl phosphate (DBUP/DIBP), and bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate] were detected in > 85 % of participants. In adjusted models, DBUP/DIBP [odds ratio (OR) per doubling = 1.07 ; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.02, 1.12] and bis(butoxyethyl) phosphate (OR for high vs. nondetect = 1.25 ; 95% CI: 1.06, 1.46), but not other OPE biomarkers, were associated with higher odds of preterm birth. We observed effect modification by sex for associations of DPHP and high bis(2-chloroethyl) phosphate with completed gestational weeks and odds of preterm birth, with adverse associations among females. In addition, newborns of mothers with detectable bis(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate, bis(2-methylphenyl) phosphate, and dipropyl phosphate had higher birth weight-for-gestational-age z -scores (β for detect vs. nondetect = 0.04 - 0.07 ); other chemicals showed null associations.

DISCUSSION

In the largest study to date, we find gestational exposures to several OPEs are associated with earlier timing of birth, especially among female neonates, or with greater fetal growth. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13182.

Upregulation of oxidative stress by triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) exposure causes antioxidant insult and apoptotic process in Epithelioma papulosum cyprini (EPC) cells

Triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) is the predominant compound of organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs), which can elicit a toxicological effect on physiological response and tissue development of fish. In this study, we investigated the effect of TPhP exposure on cell viability, antioxidant capacities, and apoptosis in EPC cells. Current study revealed that TPhP exposure could decrease cell viability and promote intracellular oxidative stress in EPC cells. In addition, high-dose TPhP exposure could facilitate antioxidant insults and cause mitochondrial collapse in a dose-dependent manner, along with increased gene expressions involved in apoptosis and unfolded protein response (UPR). These results indicated that reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced cytotoxic stress and cell death were involved in antioxidant insults and apoptotic activation in TPhP-exposed fish cells.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress participates in apoptosis of HeLa cells exposed to TPHP and OH-TPHP via the eIF2α-ATF4/ATF3-CHOP-DR5/P53 signaling pathway

Purpose

Triphenyl phosphate (TPHP) is a widely used organophosphate flame retardant, which can be transformed in vivo into diphenyl phosphate (DPHP) and 4-hydroxyphenyl phosphate (diphenyl) ester (OH-TPHP) through biotransformation process. Accumulation of TPHP and its derivatives in biological tissues makes it necessary to investigate their toxicity and molecular mechanism.

Methods

The present study evaluated the cellular effects of TPHP, DPHP, and OH-TPHP on cell survival, cell membrane damage, oxidative damage, and cell apoptosis using HeLa cells as in vitro model. RNA sequencing and bioinformatics analysis were conducted to monitor the differently expressed genes, and then RT-qPCR and Western bolt were used to identify potential molecular mechanisms and key hub genes.

Results

Results showed that OH-TPHP had the most significant cytotoxic effect in HeLa cells, followed by TPHP; and no significant cytotoxic effects were observed for DPHP exposure within the experimental concentrations. Biological function enrichment analysis suggested that TPHP and OH-TPHP exposure may induce endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) and cell apoptosis. The nodes filtering revealed that ERS and apoptosis related genes were involved in biological effects induced by TPHP and OH-TPHP, which may be mediated through the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α/activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4)/ATF3- CCAAT/ enhancer-binding protein homologous protein (CHOP) cascade pathway and death receptor 5 (DR5) /P53 signaling axis.

Conclusion

Above all, these findings indicated that ERS-mediated apoptosis might be one of potential mechanisms for cytotoxicity of TPHP and OH-TPHP.

Integrative analysis of triphenyl phosphate: contextual interpretation of bladder cancer cohort

In recent years, organophosphate ester flame retardants (OPFRs) have emerged as preferred alternatives to brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in materials such as building supplies, textiles, and furnishings. Simultaneously, a notable surge in bladder cancer incidences has been observed globally, particularly in developed nations, placing it as the 10th most prevalent cancer type. Among the extensive OPFRs, the linkage between triphenyl phosphate (TPP) and bladder cancer remains inadequately investigated. Hence, our study endeavors to elucidate this potential association. We sourced transcriptome profiles and TPP-related data from The Cancer Genome Atlas and Comparative Toxicogenomics databases. Using the ssGSEA algorithm, we established TPP-correlated scores within the bladder cancer cohort. Differentially expressed analysis enabled us to identify key genes in bladder cancer patients. We utilized the LASSO regression analysis, along with univariate and multivariate COX regression analyses to construct a prognostic prediction model. To uncover critical pathways involving key genes, we employed GSEA and GSVA enrichment analyses. Molecular docking analysis was performed to determine the binding capability between TPP and proteins. Our findings reveal that the TPP-centric risk model offers valuable prediction for bladder cancer cohorts. Furthermore, the reliability of this TPP-influenced risk model was verified through ROC curve analysis and survival studies. Intriguingly, TPP exposure appears to bolster the proliferation and invasiveness of bladder cancer cells. This study furnishes new insights into the possible benefits of minimizing TPP exposure for hindering bladder cancer progression.

Gestational exposure to FireMaster® 550 (FM 550) disrupts the placenta-brain axis in a socially monogamous rodent species, the prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster)

Gestational flame retardant (FR) exposure has been linked to heightened risk of neurodevelopmental disorders, but the mechanisms remain largely unknown. Historically, toxicologists have relied on traditional, inbred rodent models, yet those do not always best model human vulnerability or biological systems, especially social systems. Here we used prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster), a monogamous and bi-parental rodent, leveraged for decades to decipher the underpinnings of social behaviors, to examine the impact of fetal FR exposure on gene targets in the mid-gestational placenta and fetal brain. We previously established gestational exposure to the commercial mixture Firemaster 550 (FM 550) impairs sociality, particularly in males. FM 550 exposure disrupted placental monoamine production, particularly serotonin, and genes required for axon guidance and cellular respiration in the fetal brains. Effects were dose and sex specific. These data provide insights on the mechanisms by which FRs impair neurodevelopment and later in life social behaviors.

Skeletal effects following developmental flame-retardant exposure are specific to sex and chemical class in the adult Wistar rat

Introduction: Accumulating evidence reveals that endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can disrupt aspects of metabolic programming, suggesting that skeletal development may be at risk, a possibility that is rarely examined. The commercial flame retardant (FR) mixture, Firemaster 550 (FM 550), has repeatedly been shown to negatively influence metabolic programming, raising concerns that skeletal integrity may consequently be impaired. We have previously shown that gestational and lactational exposure to 1,000 µg FM 550 negatively affected sex-specific skeletal traits in male, but not female, rats assessed at 6 months of age. Whether this outcome is primarily driven by the brominated (BFR) or organophosphate ester (OPFR) portions of the mixture or the effects persist to older ages is unknown. Materials and methods: To address this, in the present study, dams were orally exposed throughout gestation and lactation to either 1,000 μg BFR, 1,000 µg OPFR, or 2,000 µg FM 550. Offspring (n = 8/sex/exposure) were weaned at PND 21 and assessed for femoral cortical and trabecular bone parameters at 8 months of age by high-resolution X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT). Serum levels of serotonin, osteocalcin, alkaline phosphatase, and calcium were quantified. Results: FM 550 affected both sexes, but the females were more appreciably impacted by the OPFRs, while the males were more vulnerable to the BFRs. Conclusion: Although sex specificity was expected due to the sexual dimorphic nature of skeletal physiology, the mechanisms accounting for the male- and female-specific phenotypes remain to be determined. Future work aims to clarify these unresolved issues.

Lipid metabolic disturbance induced by triphenyl phosphate and hydroxy metabolite in HepG2 cells

Triphenyl phosphate (TPHP) has been widely used as flame retardants and been detected with increasing frequency in environment. TPHP can transform into mono-hydroxylated phosphate (OH-TPHP) and diester diphenyl phosphate (DPHP) through biotransformation. So far, information on the cytotoxicity and molecular regulatory mechanisms of TPHP metabolites are still limit. This study investigated the adverse effects of TPHP, OH-TPHP, and DPHP in HepG2 cells in terms of cell proliferation, lactate dehydrogenase release, reactive oxygen species generation, and mitochondrial membrane potential. The transcriptomic changes were measured using RNA sequencing, and bioinformatics characteristics including biological functions, signal pathways and protein-protein interaction were analyzed to explore the potential molecular mechanisms. Results displayed that the order of cytotoxicity was OH-TPHP> TPHP> DPHP. The prioritized biological functions changes induced by TPHP and OH-TPHP were correlated with lipid metabolism. Significant lipid accumulation was observed as confirmed by increased total cholesterol and triglycerides contents, and enhanced oil red O staining. Enrichment of PPARα/γ and down-stream genes suggested the participation of PPARs signal pathway in lipid metabolism disorder. In addition, TPHP and OH-TPHP induced endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS), which was further confirmed by the ERS inhibitor experiment. In general, TPHP and OH-TPHP had obvious cytotoxic effects in HepG2 cells. PPARs signal pathway and endoplasmic reticulum stress may be involved in the lipid metabolism disorder induced by TPHP and OH-TPHP.

Independent and combined effects of exposure to organophosphate esters on thyroid hormones in children and adolescents

Toxicological studies suggest that organophosphate esters (OPEs) may impair thyroid function. Epidemiological evidence, related to children and adolescents, has not been reported, and little is known about the combined effects of exposure to OPE mixtures. In this study, we collected information of 1156 children and adolescents (aged 6-18 years, 48.4% males) from a cross-sectional study in Liuzhou, China, and measured the levels of 15 urinary OPE metabolites and 5 serum thyroid hormones. Multivariate linear regression and quantile g-computation (QGC) approach were used to examine the associations which adjusted for demographic and lifestyle characteristics. Few participants had levels of triiodothyronine (T3) and free thyroxine (FT4) outside age-specific pediatric ranges. QGC analyses showed that individuals in the second, third, and fourth quartiles (Q2-Q4) of exposure had 3.93% (2.14%, 5.75%), 8.01% (4.32%, 11.8%), and 12.3% (6.54%, 18.3%) higher T3 than those in the first quartile (Q1), with similar pattern for free triiodothyronine (FT3). Individuals in Q2 and Q3 had higher thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) than those in Q1, but no differences were observed in TSH between Q1-Q4. In contrast, compared to the lowest quartile, FT4 was lower for those in Q2 (- 1.54%; 95% CI: - 3.02%, -0.04%), Q3 (-3.07%; 95% CI: -5.95%, -0.09%), and Q4 (-4.56%; 95% CI: - 8.80%, - 0.13%). These associations were consistent with the results from multivariate linear regression. When stratified by sex, OPE exposure (individual or mixtures) was associated with increased T3 and FT3 in males and decreased FT4 in females. This study provides the first evidence to characterize the thyroid-disrupting effects of OPE exposure in children and adolescents.

Organophosphate esters concentrations in human serum and their associations with Sjögren syndrome

Organophosphate esters (OPEs) are widely used as flame retardants and plasticizers due to their excellent properties. The interference of OPEs on immune function has been proven, but the epidemiological data on OPEs exposure to related immune function diseases, such as sjögren syndrome (SjS), is limited. In cross-sectional study, 283 serum samples were collected from healthy individuals (n = 145) and patients with SjS (n = 138) in Hangzhou, China. Eight OPEs, triethyl phosphate (TEP), tributyl phosphate (TBP), tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphine (TCEP), triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), tri (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP), 2-ethylhexyldi-phenyl phosphate (EHDPP), tris (1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP), and tri (2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP), were frequently measured in serum samples. In addition, we explored the associations between the serum OPEs concentration and the risk of SjS. Results showed that TEP (mean controls 2.17 and cases 3.63 ng/mL) was the most abundant OPEs in the serum samples of the control and case groups, followed by TCIPP (mean controls 0.54 and cases 0.78 ng/mL). Serum TEP, TPHP, and EHDPP concentrations were positively correlated with SjS [odds ratio (OR): 1.97, 1.96, and 2.42, respectively; 95% confidence interval (CI):1.34-2.89, 1.34-2.87, and 1.34-2.87, respectively] in the adjusted model, and a negative correlation of TBP concentrations with SjS in the adjusted model (OR: 0.35, 95% CI: 0.17-0.70) was observed. Compared with the lowest quartile concentrations, the ORs of SjS at the highest quartile concentrations of TEP (OR: 4.93, 95% CI: 2.24-10.82) and TPHP (OR: 4.75, 95% CI:1.89-11.94) were significantly higher. This study suggests that human exposure to OPEs may increase the risk of SjS.

Triisobutyl phosphate biodegradation by enriched activated sludge consortia: Degradation mechanism and bioaugmentation potential

This study investigated the ability of activated sludge (AS) to biodegrade triisobutyl phosphate (TiBP) after acclimation in an AS bioreactor by adding 50 mg/L TiBP. The bioreactor significantly increased the biotransformation rate of TiBP (2.15-12.7 d^-1) over two months of acclimation. Seven transformation products (TPs) of TiBP were identified by high-resolution mass spectrometry, and hydrolysis, hydroxylation and dehydrogenation were the major biodegradation pathways of TiBP. TiBP degradation solutions at 0, 3, 7, and 10 h showed significantly toxic effects on zebrafish embryos, while the toxicity of TiBP degradation solutions at 24 h significantly decreased. Pseudomonas was inferred to be a specific bacterial population in the TiBP metabolic microbial consortium (TMMC) that degrades TiBP (p < 0.001). When TMMC (0.5, 1, and 2 g_ss/L) was introduced into AS, the TiBP biotransformation rates (1.97, 2.05, and 2.26 d^-1 at 1.0 mg/L TiBP, and 0.09, 0.11, and 0.83 d^-1 at 30.0 mg/L TiBP) were significantly enhanced compared to the control (0.31 and 0.07 d^-1) without TMMC inoculation. In general, this study provides new insights into the key species populations that accelerate TiBP degradation and promote the development of TiBP reduction biotechnology in WWTPs.

Occurrence, bioaccumulation and trophic transfer of organophosphate esters in marine food webs: Evidence from three bays in Bohai Sea, China

Due to the widespread use of organophosphate esters (OPEs), the occurrence and trophic transfer of OPEs have attracted attentions in ecosystems. However, as the final sink for these chemicals, the bioaccumulations and trophodynamics of OPEs in marine ecosystems are still not clear. In this study, seawater, sediment and marine organisms collected from Bohai Bay (BHB), Laizhou Bay (LZB), and Liaodong Bay (LDB) in Bohai Sea (BS), China were analyzed to investigate the occurrence, bioaccumulation and trophic transfer of typical OPEs. Total concentration of OPEs (∑₉ OPEs) in surface water in LZB (255.8 ± 36.44 ng/L) and BHB (209.6 ± 35.61 ng/L) was higher than that in LDB (170.0 ± 63.73 ng/L). Marine organisms in LZB accumulated the highest concentrations of OPEs among the 3 bays (∑₁₀OPEs, 70.56 ± 61.36 ng/g ww). Average bioaccumulation factor (BAF) of OPEs in marine organism in BHB, LZB, and LDB was ranged from -2.48 to 0.16, from -2.96 to 1.78, and from -2.59 to 0.59. We also found that trophic magnification factors (TMF) are generally <1, which suggested trophic dilutions of OPEs in BS, China. Nevertheless, the relatively high OPEs levels in BS still may bring potential risks to ecosystem and human health.

Handwipes as indicators to assess organophosphate flame retardants exposure and thyroid hormone effects in e-waste dismantlers

Dermal exposure is increasingly recognized as an important pathway for organic pollutant exposure. However, data on dermal exposure are limited, particularly with respect to the health effects. This study evaluated association between organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) in handwipes and internal body burden on workers and adult residents in an electronic waste (e-waste) dismantling area. The impact of dermal exposure to OPFRs on thyroid hormones (THs) served as a biomarker for early effects. Triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) was the most detected compound in handwipes, with median levels of 1180, 200, and 24.0 ng in people identified as e-waste bakers, e-waste dismantlers, and adult residents. Among e-waste dismantlers, TPhP levels in handwipes were positively correlated with paired serum TPhP and urinary diphenyl phosphate (DPhP) levels. In multiple linear regression models controlling for sex, age and smoking, TPhP levels in handwipes of e-waste dismantlers were significantly negatively correlated with three THs used to evaluate thyroid function: serum reverse 3,3',5-triiodo-L-thyronine (rT3), 3,3'-diiodo-L-thyronine (3,3'-T2), and 3,5-diiodo-L-thyronine (3,5-T2). These findings suggest that handwipes can act as non-invasive exposure indicators to assess body burden of dermal exposure to TPhP and health effects on THs of e-waste dismantlers. This study highlights importance of OPFR effect on human THs through dermal exposure.

Triphenyl phosphate proved more potent than its metabolite diphenyl phosphate in inducing hepatic insulin resistance through endoplasmic reticulum stress

Triphenyl phosphate (TPHP) is a widely used flame retardant and plasticizer and has been detected extensively in environmental media, wildlife and human bodies. Several epidemiological and animal studies have revealed that TPHP exposure is positively associated with glucose homeostasis disruption and diabetes. However, the effects of TPHP on hepatic glucose homeostasis and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. The present work aimed to investigate the cytotoxicity and glucose metabolism disruption of TPHP and its metabolite diphenyl phosphate (DPHP) within hepatocytes. The cell viability assay undertaken on human normal liver (L02) cells showed that TPHP exhibited more potent hepatotoxicity than DPHP. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data showed that TPHP and DPHP presented different modes of toxic action. Insulin resistance is one of the predominant toxicities for TPHP, but not for DPHP. The insulin-stimulated glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis were impaired by TPHP, while DPHP exhibited no significant impairment on these factors. TPHP exposure induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and the ER stress antagonist 4-PBA restored the impairment of insulin-stimulated glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis induced by TPHP. TPHP could also induce liver ER stress and insulin resistance in mice. Taken together, the results suggested that TPHP induces more potent insulin resistance through ER stress than its metabolite DPHP.

Neurodevelopmental toxicity of organophosphate flame retardant triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) on zebrafish (Danio rerio) at different life stages

As a substitute for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), organophosphate flame retardant triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) is widely used in our daily products and diffusely exists in our living surroundings, but there is a paucity of information concerning its neurodevelopmental toxicity. Herein, we investigated the effects of TPhP exposure on developmental parameters, locomotor behavior, oxidative stress, apoptosis and transcriptional levels in zebrafish at different developmental stages, so as to explore the effects of TPhP exposure on zebrafish neural development and the underlying molecular mechanisms. TPhP concentration gradient exposure reduced the survival rate, hatchability, heart rate, body length and eye distance of zebrafish embryos/larvae, and caused malformations of zebrafish larvae. TPhP also leads to abnormal locomotor behaviors, such as reduced swimming distance and swimming speed, and impaired panic avoidance reflex to high light stimulation. TPhP caused ROS accumulation in 96 hpf larvae and induced Nrf2-antioxidant response in zebrafish. In addition, TPhP further activated mitochondrial signaling pathways, which affected apoptosis in the zebrafish eye region, resulting in visual impairment. Neurodevelopmental (mbpa, syn2a, foxo3a and pax6a), Retinoid acid metabolism (cyp26a1, raraa, rbp5, rdh1, crabp1a and rbp2a) and apoptosis-related genes (bcl2a, baxa and casp9) revealed the molecular mechanism of abnormal behavior and phenotypic symptoms, and also indicated that 96 hpf larvae are more sensitive than 7 dpf larvae. Thus, in the present study, we revealed the neurotoxic effects of TPhP at different early life stages in zebrafish, and zebrafish locomotor behavior impairments induced by TPhP exposure are attributed to co-regulation of visuomotor dysfunction and neuro-related genes. These results suggest that the safety of TPhP in organisms and even in humans needs to be further studied.

Thyroid hormone disrupting potentials of benzisothiazolinone in embryo-larval zebrafish and rat pituitary GH3 cell line

Benzisothiazolinone (BIT), one of the most widely used antimicrobial agents in consumer products, has frequently been detected in the water environment. The present study was conducted to determine the adverse effects of BIT on the thyroid neuroendocrine system of zebrafish embryos/larvae. Rat pituitary (GH3) cell line was employed to support the underlying mechanism of thyroid hormone disrupting effects. Significant coagulation and hatching delay were observed in embryos exposed to 30 μg/L of BIT, which in turn remarkably decreased hatchability and larval survival. In BIT-exposed larvae, tshβ, tshr, and trh genes were significantly upregulated along with a decrease in thyroxine and triiodothyronine content, indicating that BIT decreased thyroid hormones and increased thyrotropin-releasing hormone and thyroid stimulating hormone secretion through a feedback circuit. The downregulation of trα and deio2 genes in the zebrafish larvae suggests the inhibition of thyroid hormone receptors and deiodination. Similar to the results in zebrafish, upregulation of tshβ and downregulation of trα, trβ, deio1, and deio2 genes were observed in GH3 cells. Our observations suggest that BIT can decrease the level of thyroid hormones by influencing central regulation, receptor binding, and deiodination.

Parental whole life-cycle exposure to tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) disrupts embryonic development and thyroid system in zebrafish offspring

Tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), an emerging environmental pollutant, has been frequently detected in natural waters. The objective of this study was to investigate possible parental transfer of TCEP and transgenerational effects on the early development and thyroid hormone homeostasis in F1 larvae following parental whole life-cycle exposure to TCEP. To this end, zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations (0.8, 4, 20 and 100 μg/L) of TCEP for 120 days until sexual maturation. Parental exposure to TCEP resulted in significant levels of TCEP, developmental toxicity including decreased survival and final hatching rates, accelerated heart rate and elevated malformation rate, as well as induction of oxidative stress and cell apoptosis in F1 offspring. In F1 eggs, declined thyroxin (T4) levels were observed, consistent with those in plasma of F0 adult females, indicating the maternal transfer of thyroid endocrine disruption to the offspring. In addition, mRNA levels of several genes along the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis were significantly modified in F1 larvae, which could be linked to transgenerational developmental toxicity and thyroid hormone disruption. For the first time, we revealed that the parental exposure to environmentally relevant levels of TCEP could cause developmental toxicity and thyroid endocrine disruption in subsequent unexposed generation.

Early life organophosphate ester exposures and bone health at age 12 years: The Health Outcomes and Measures of the Environment (HOME) Study

BACKGROUND

No human studies have evaluated early life organophosphate ester (OPE) exposures with bone health outcomes, despite evidence of osteotoxicity.

OBJECTIVES

We assessed associations of urinary OPE metabolites measured across early life with areal bone mineral density (aBMD) and bone mineral content (BMC) at age 12 years.

METHODS

Among 223 mother-child dyads enrolled in the Health Outcomes and Measures of the Environment (HOME) Study, we quantified concentrations of bis-2-chloroethyl phosphate (BCEP), bis-(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) (BDCIPP), di-n-butyl phosphate (DnBP), and diphenyl phosphate (DPHP) in urine collected from mothers during pregnancy and children at ages 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8 years. At age 12 years, we performed dual energy x-ray absorptiometry and calculated aBMD and BMC z-scores at six skeletal sites. We estimated overall and sex-stratified BMD/BMC z-score differences per interquartile range (IQR) increase in OPE concentrations at multiple exposure timepoints: gestation (average) and 1-3 (average), 5, and 8 years.

RESULTS

In adjusted models, overall associations of BCEP and BDCIPP with total hip and 1/3rd distal radius aBMD and BMC varied significantly by exposure timepoint, as did BDCIPP with whole body aBMD. For example, differences (95 % CI) in total hip aBMD z-score per IQR increase in BDCIPP were 0.33 (0.01, 0.64), -0.10 (-0.34, 0.14), -0.18 (-0.40, 0.05), and 0.14 (-0.09, 0.38) for concentrations during gestation and at 1-3, 5, and 8 years, respectively. Overall DnBP and DPHP associations were generally null at all timepoints. We observed sex-specific associations for some timepoints and skeletal sites. For example, an IQR increase in 8-year DPHP was associated with a 0.21 (0.05, 0.38) greater total hip aBMD z-score among females but -0.19 (-0.43, 0.05) lower z-score among males.

DISCUSSION

Early life OPE exposures may be associated with sex- and exposure period-dependent alterations in early adolescent bone mineral accrual and strength.

The associations between renal disease severity and exposure to organophosphate flame retardants in patients with chronic kidney disease

Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) are emerging and widespread environmental pollutants with potential health hazards, including nephrotoxicity. However, the exposure patterns and nephrotoxic potential of OPFRs are yet to be investigated in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). We conducted a cross-sectional study involving 166 patients with CKD stratified by estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and severity of proteinuria. The urinary concentrations of 10 OPFR compounds were measured to evaluate the exposure patterns. Clinical and urinary OPFR profiles were compared among subgroups to identify whether the OPFR compounds were independently correlated with eGFR and proteinuria. Additionally, lifestyle factors were compared among subgroups stratified by median concentrations of urinary OPFR compounds associated with renal disease severity. This study revealed universal exposure to OPFRs in the CKD population, with an overall urinary detection rate of 98.80 %. Furthermore, after adjusting for covariates, the urinary concentration of bis(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (BCEP) was identified as an independent predictor of lower eGFR (low vs high eGFR, odds ratio (OR) (95 % confidence interval (CI)), 1.761 (1.032-3.005) per log μg/g creatinine, p = 0.038), and the urinary concentration of bis(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (BBOEP) was independently correlated with overt proteinuria in CKD patients (with vs without overt proteinuria, OR (95 % CI), 1.813 (1.065-3.086) per log μg/g creatinine, p = 0.028). Moreover, frequent seafood consumption was negatively correlated with urinary BCEP concentration (high vs low BCEP, OR (95 % CI), 0.455 (0.228-0.908), p = 0.025), and age was inversely associated with urinary BBOEP concentration (high vs low BBOEP, OR (95 % CI), 0.968 (0.937-0.999) per year, p = 0.048). In conclusion, our investigation highlights the extensive exposure to OPFRs and the independent association between renal disease severity and urinary BCEP/BBOEP concentrations in the CKD population, indicating the nephrotoxic potential of these pollutants.

Organophosphate esters cause thyroid dysfunction via multiple signaling pathways in zebrafish brain

Organophosphate esters (OPEs) are widespread in various environmental media, and can disrupt thyroid endocrine signaling pathways. Mechanisms by which OPEs disrupt thyroid hormone (TH) signal transduction are not fully understood. Here, we present in vivo-in vitro-in silico evidence establishing OPEs as environmental THs competitively entering the brain to inhibit growth of zebrafish via multiple signaling pathways. OPEs can bind to transthyretin (TTR) and thyroxine-binding globulin, thereby affecting the transport of TH in the blood, and to the brain by TTR through the blood-brain barrier. When GH3 cells were exposed to OPEs, cell proliferation was significantly inhibited given that OPEs are competitive inhibitors of TH. Cresyl diphenyl phosphate was shown to be an effective antagonist of TH. Chronic exposure to OPEs significantly inhibited the growth of zebrafish by interfering with thyroperoxidase and thyroglobulin to inhibit TH synthesis. Based on comparisons of modulations of gene expression with the Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes databases, signaling pathways related to thyroid endocrine functions, such as receptor-ligand binding and regulation of hormone levels, were identified as being affected by exposure to OPEs. Effects were also associated with the biosynthesis and metabolism of lipids, and neuroactive ligand-receptor interactions. These findings provide a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms by which OPEs disrupt thyroid pathways in zebrafish.

Thyroid-disrupting effects caused by exposure to alternative flame retardants from groundwater contamination in rural central China

Accumulating evidence reveals that exposure to alternative flame retardants (AFRs) results in defective thyroid functions. AFRs are detectable in various environmental media in developed cities in China. However, few studies have reported the contamination levels of AFR in groundwater in rural areas, indicating an urgent need to investigate exposure of AFRs and perform health risk assessment for populations that use groundwater as the main source of drinking water. This study investigated the concentrations of AFRs in groundwater in rural areas of central China. Moreover, Nthy-ori-3-1 cells were used to determine the thyroid cytotoxicities and thyroid-interfering effects of a single AFR as well as the mixtures of AFRs based on the AFR contamination levels in real-world. The results revealed that all classes of AFRs were detectable in rural areas in central China. Dechlorane plus, hexabromocyclododecane, bromophenols (BPs), novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) and organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) exhibited spatial contamination patterns, with an average concentrations (median) of 157.89 ± 88.61 (185.47) pg/L, 0.09 ± 0.29 (not detectable) ng/L, 5.20 ± 5.92 (3.43) ng/L, 3338.11 ± 3758.78 (2836.72) pg/L, and 79.35 ± 97.19 (53.62) ng/L, respectively. The half maximal effective concentrations (EC₅₀) of BPs, OPFRs, and NBFRs ranged 98.4-4012 μM, 42.0-2506 μM, and 10.1-203.7 μM, respectively. Several AFRs exhibited more cytotoxic effects than did traditional brominated flame retardants. It is intriguing that several single AFRs and mixtures at environmentally-relevant exposure levels promoted the viability of Nthy-ori-3-1 cells. Taken together, our study demonstrates that AFRs are present in the groundwater in rural areas in central China and AFRs exhibit thyroid disrupting effects.

Occurrence, distribution and risk assessment of organophosphate esters (OPEs) in water sources from Northeast to Southeast China

With the wide utilization of organophosphate esters (OPEs) in recent years, OPEs have been detected more frequently in the aquatic environment. However, the distribution of OPEs in drinking source water has rarely been investigated across a large region. In this study, the occurrence and distribution of 13 OPEs were investigated in 23 source water sites from Northeast to Southeast (spacing greater than 3320 km) with a direct injection ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method. Total OPEs ranged from 218.8 to 636.6 ng/L, with a mean of 380.8 ng/L. The average detected concentration of OPEs in southern cities was higher than that in northern cities. Chlorinated OPEs accounted for 64.74% of the total concentration. Triethyl phosphate (TEP), tri (2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), and tri (chloropropyl) phosphate (TCPP) were detected in all water samples. Rainfall is a significant factor that affects the OPE concentration (less rainfall, higher concentration). China's OPE concentrations have rapidly reached a median level when compared to those of other countries. Ecological risk assessment showed that most OPEs have no or low risk to organisms (fish, crustacea, algae), except tricresyl phosphate (TCP), which is medium risk. The risk of OPEs in less-rain regions needs to be of greater concern, especially TCP.

Sources, behaviors, transformations, and environmental risks of organophosphate esters in the coastal environment: A review

The rapid growth in the global production of organophosphate esters (OPEs) has resulted in their high environmental concentrations. The low removal rate of OPEs makes the effluents of wastewater treatment plants be one of the major sources of OPEs. Due to relatively high solubility and mobility, OPEs can be carried to the coastal environment through river discharge and atmospheric deposition. Therefore, the coastal environment can be an important OPE sink. Previous studies have shown that OPEs were widely detected in coastal atmospheres, water, sediments, and even aquatic organisms. OPEs can undergo various environmental processes in the coastal environment, including adsorption/desorption, air-water exchange, and degradation. In addition, bioaccumulation of OPEs was observed in coastal biota but current concentrations would not cause significant ecological risks. More efforts are required to understand the environmental behaviors of OPEs and address resultant environmental and health risks, especially in the complicated environment.

Effects of developmental exposure to FireMaster® 550 (FM 550) on microglia density, reactivity and morphology in a prosocial animal model

Microglia are known to shape brain sex differences critical for social and reproductive behaviors. Chemical exposures can disrupt brain sexual differentiation but there is limited data regarding how they may impact microglia distribution and function. We focused on the prevalent flame retardant mixture Firemaster 550 (FM 550) which is used in foam-based furniture and infant products including strollers and nursing pillows because it disrupts sexually dimorphic behaviors. We hypothesized early life FM 550 exposure would disrupt microglial distribution and reactivity in brain regions known to be highly sexually dimorphic or associated with social disorders in humans. We used prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster) because they display spontaneous prosocial behaviors not seen in rats or mice and are thus a powerful model for studying chemical exposure-related impacts on social behaviors and their underlying neural systems. We have previously demonstrated that perinatal FM 550 exposure sex-specifically impacts socioemotional behaviors in prairie voles. We first established that, unlike in rats, the postnatal colonization of the prairie vole brain is not sexually dimorphic. Vole dams were then exposed to FM 550 (0, 500, 1000, 2000 µg/day) via subcutaneous injections through gestation, and pups were directly exposed beginning the day after birth until weaning. Adult offspring's brains were assessed for number and type (ramified, intermediate, ameboid) of microglia in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), cerebellum (lobules VI-VII) and amygdala. Effects were sex- and dose-specific in the regions of interests. Overall, FM 550 exposure resulted in reduced numbers of microglia in most regions examined, with the 1000 µg FM 550 exposed males particularly affected. To further quantify differences in microglia morphology in the 1000 µg FM 550 group, Sholl and skeleton analysis were carried out on individual microglia. Microglia from control females had a more ramified phenotype compared to control males while 1000 µg FM 550-exposed males had decreased branching and ramification compared to same-sex controls. Future studies will examine the impact on the exposure to FM 550 on microglia during development given the critical role of these cells in shaping neural circuits.

Individual and Combined Effects of Paternal Deprivation and Developmental Exposure to Firemaster 550 on Socio-Emotional Behavior in Prairie Voles

The prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) is rapidly rising, suggesting a confluence of environmental factors that are likely contributing, including developmental exposure to environmental contaminants. Unfortunately, chemical exposures and social stressors frequently occur simultaneously in many communities, yet very few studies have sought to establish the combined effects on neurodevelopment or behavior. Social deficits are common to many NDDs, and we and others have shown that exposure to the chemical flame retardant mixture, Firemaster 550 (FM 550), or paternal deprivation impairs social behavior and neural function. Here, we used a spontaneously prosocial animal model, the prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster), to explore the effects of perinatal chemical (FM 550) exposure alone or in combination with an early life stressor (paternal absence) on prosocial behavior. Dams were exposed to vehicle (sesame oil) or 1000 µg FM 550 orally via food treats from conception through weaning and the paternal absence groups were generated by removing the sires the day after birth. Adult offspring of both sexes were then subjected to open-field, sociability, and a partner preference test. Paternal deprivation (PD)-related effects included increased anxiety, decreased sociability, and impaired pair-bonding in both sexes. FM 550 effects include heightened anxiety and partner preference in females but reduced partner preference in males. The combination of FM 550 exposure and PD did not exacerbate any behaviors in either sex except for distance traveled by females in the partner preference test and, to a lesser extent, time spent with, and the number of visits to the non-social stimulus by males in the sociability test. FM 550 ameliorated the impacts of parental deprivation on partner preference behaviors in both sexes. This study is significant because it provides evidence that chemical and social stressors can have unique behavioral effects that differ by sex but may not produce worse outcomes in combination.

Bioaccumulation and translocation of organophosphate esters in a Mangrove Nature Reserve from the Pearl River Estuary, South China

Little is known about the distribution and bioaccumulation of organophosphate esters (OPEs) in mangrove ecosystems. In this study, water, sediments, plants and animals were collected from Qi'ao Island Mangrove Nature Reserve to investigate the levels, bioaccumulation and biomagnification of OPEs. Concentrations of ΣOPEs in the mangrove plant Sonneratia apetala (an exotic species) were greater than those in Kandelia obovata (a native species). Translocation factors of OPEs in the two mangrove tree species were greater than 1, indicating that OPEs were mainly absorbed in aboveground tissues. Concentrations of OPEs in mangrove trees and animals were negatively correlated with their log K_ow, suggesting that accumulation of OPEs in mangrove biota was influenced by hydrophobicity. A significant difference for concentrations of ΣOPEs was found among the eight mangrove animal species. Concentrations of ΣOPEs in mangrove animals were related with lipid contents, feeding habits and K_ow of OPEs. Biota-sediment accumulation factor of OPEs was larger than 1, suggesting that bioaccumulation of OPEs occurred in mangrove animals. The targeted OPEs except isodecyl diphenyl phosphate were not biomagnified in mangrove animals. This study highlights bioaccumulation of OPEs in mangrove biota and suggests further concern about the ecological risk of OPEs to mangrove biota.

Thyroid Hormone Disruption by Organophosphate Esters Is Mediated by Nuclear/Membrane Thyroid Hormone Receptors: In Vitro, In Vivo, and In Silico Studies

Earlier mechanistic studies of many prohibited flame retardants (FRs) highlighted their thyroid hormone-disrupting activity through nuclear thyroid hormone receptors (nTRs), whereas some alternative FRs such as organophosphate esters (OPEs) exerted weak nTR-disrupting effects. However, an increasing number of studies have revealed that OPEs also exert thyroid hormone-disrupting effects, and the underlying mechanism is unclear. Herein, the thyroid hormone-disrupting effects and mechanisms of 8 typical OPEs were investigated using integrated in vitro, in vivo, and in silico assays. All tested chemicals competitively bound to the membrane thyroid hormone receptor (mTR) [the 20% relative inhibitory concentration (RIC20): (3.5 ± 0.2) × 10¹ to (4.9 ± 1.0) × 10⁷ nM], and Cl-OPEs and alkyl-OPEs had lower RIC20 values. In contrast, only 4 OPEs showed nTR antagonistic activities at higher concentrations [≥ (4.8 ± 0.8) × 10³ nM]. Cl-OPEs and alkyl-OPEs preferentially interacted with mTR. Molecular docking illustrated that OPEs docked into mTRs, consistent with the competitive binding assay. In vivo analyses of zebrafish embryonic development confirmed that tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate induced inappropriate expression of proteins, and these protein interactions might be associated with mTR according to the quantitative proteomic analysis. Based on the results, mTR might play a critical role in mediating the thyroid hormone-disrupting effects of OPEs.

A Comparative Multi-System Approach to Characterizing Bioactivity of Commonly Occurring Chemicals

A 2019 retrospective study analyzed wristband personal samplers from fourteen different communities across three different continents for over 1530 organic chemicals. Investigators identified fourteen chemicals (G14) detected in over 50% of personal samplers. The G14 represent a group of chemicals that individuals are commonly exposed to, and are mainly associated with consumer products including plasticizers, fragrances, flame retardants, and pesticides. The high frequency of exposure to these chemicals raises questions of their potential adverse human health effects. Additionally, the possibility of exposure to mixtures of these chemicals is likely due to their co-occurrence; thus, the potential for mixtures to induce differential bioactivity warrants further investigation. This study describes a novel approach to broadly evaluate the hazards of personal chemical exposures by coupling data from personal sampling devices with high-throughput bioactivity screenings using in vitro and non-mammalian in vivo models. To account for species and sensitivity differences, screening was conducted using primary normal human bronchial epithelial (NHBE) cells and early life-stage zebrafish. Mixtures of the G14 and most potent G14 chemicals were created to assess potential mixture effects. Chemical bioactivity was dependent on the model system, with five and eleven chemicals deemed bioactive in NHBE and zebrafish, respectively, supporting the use of a multi-system approach for bioactivity testing and highlighting sensitivity differences between the models. In both NHBE and zebrafish, mixture effects were observed when screening mixtures of the most potent chemicals. Observations of BMC-based mixtures in NHBE (NHBE BMC Mix) and zebrafish (ZF BMC Mix) suggested antagonistic effects. In this study, consumer product-related chemicals were prioritized for bioactivity screening using personal exposure data. High-throughput high-content screening was utilized to assess the chemical bioactivity and mixture effects of the most potent chemicals.

Developmental toxicity of bromoacetamide via the thyroid hormone receptors-mediated disruption of thyroid hormone homeostasis in zebrafish embryos

Bromoacetamide (BAcAm) is a nitrogenous disinfection by-product. We previously found that BAcAm induced developmental toxicity in zebrafish embryos, but the underlying mechanisms remain to be elucidated. Since thyroid hormones (THs) homeostasis is crucial to development, we hypothesized that disruption of THs homeostasis may play a role in the developmental toxicity of BAcAm. In this study, we found BAcAm exposure significantly increased mortality and malformation rate, decreased hatching rate and body length, inhibited the locomotor capacity in zebrafish embryos. BAcAm elevated TSH, T₃ and T₄ levels, down-regulated T₃/T₄ ratios, and up-regulated mRNA expression changes of THs related genes (trh, tsh, tg, nis, tpo, dio1, dio2, ugt1ab，klf9 and rho), but down-regulated mRNA expression changes of TH receptors (tr α and tr β). Up-regulated tr α and tr β mRNAs by rescue treatment confirmed that both tr α and tr β were involved in the developmental toxicity of BAcAm. In conclusion, our study indicates disruption of THs homeostasis via the thyroid hormone receptors was responsible for the developmental toxicity of BAcAm.

Bioaccumulation of organophosphorus flame retardants in the marine mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis

The bioaccumulation and depuration of seven organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) in marine mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis were studied. OPFRs showed to be bioavailable in aquatic environments. When mussels are exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of OPFRs, uptake kinetics fit well to a first-order model with a single compartment; in contrast depuration rates were generally underestimated by that model, most likely because it does not take into account the biotransformation of OPFRs by the organisms. The highest bioaccumulation rates were observed for tricresyl phosphate (TCrP), triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) and 2-ethylhexyldiphenylphosphate (EHDPP). This could be due to the presence of aryl groups in these compounds, their low solubility in water, and their affinity for fat tissues. According to these findings TCrP, with a BCF value of 4042 L kg^-1 wet weight, should be classified in environmental regulations as an accumulative chemical.

Nano-TiO2 aggravates bioaccumulation and developmental neurotoxicity of triphenyl phosphate in zebrafish larvae

This study explored the combined effects of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nano-TiO₂) and triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) on the neurodevelopment of zebrafish larvae as well as the underlying mechanisms. With this regard, zebrafish embryos were exposed to nano-TiO₂ of 100 μg·L^-1, TPhP of 0, 8, 24, 72, and 144 μg·L^-1, or their combinations until 120 h post-fertilization (hpf). Results indicated 100 μg·L^-1 nano-TiO₂ alone to be nontoxic to zebrafish larvae. However, obvious developmental toxicity manifested as inhibition of surviving rate, heart rate and body length as well as increased malformation was observed in the higher concentrations of TPhP (72 and 144 μg·L^-1) alone and the co-exposure groups. Additionally, results suggested that nano-TiO₂ significantly enhanced the bioaccumulation of TPhP in zebtafish larvae, and thus aggravated the abnormities of spontaneous movement and swimming behavior in zebrafish larvae induced by TPhP. Nano-TiO₂ also exacerbated the TPhP-induced inhibition of the axonal growth on the secondary motor neuron, and aggravated the TPhP-induced decrease on expressions of neuron-specific green fluorescent protein (GFP) and neuronal marker genes (ngn1 and elavl3). Further, the content of neurotransmitter serotonin was not altered by TPhP alone exposure, but was decreased significantly in the co-exposure group of 144 μg·L^-1 TPhP and nano-TiO₂. Our data indicated that nano-TiO₂ might aggravate the neuron abnormities and serotonin system dysfunction by enhancing the TPhP accumulation, leading to exacerbated abnormal locomotors in zebrafish larvae.

Triphenyl phosphate-induced pericardial edema is associated with elevated epidermal ionocytes within zebrafish embryos

Triphenyl phosphate (TPHP) is an organophosphate ester-based plasticizer and flame retardant. The objective of this study was to identify the potential role of epidermal ionocytes in mediating TPHP-induced pericardial edema within zebrafish embryos. Exposure to TPHP from 24 to 72 h post fertilization (hpf) resulted in a significant increase in pericardial edema and the number of ionocytes at 72 hpf relative to time-matched embryos treated with vehicle. In addition, co-exposure of embryos to mannitol (an osmotic diuretic) blocked TPHP-induced pericardial edema and effects on ionocyte abundance. However, knockdown of ATPase1a1.4 - an abundant Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase localized to epidermal ionocytes - mitigated TPHP-induced effects on ionocyte abundance but not pericardial edema, whereas co-exposure of embryos to ouabain - a Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase inhibitor - enhanced TPHP-induced pericardial edema but not ionocyte abundance. Overall, our findings suggest that TPHP may have multiple mechanisms of toxicity leading to an increase in ionocyte abundance and pericardial edema within developing zebrafish embryos.

Porous microplastics enhance polychlorinated biphenyls-induced thyroid disruption in juvenile Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus)

Microplastics and polychlorinated biphenyls are ubiquitous in the marine environments. To illuminate their combined biological impacts, juvenile Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) were exposed to 500 ng/L PCBs alone or 500 ng/L PCBs plus 2, 20, and 200 μg/L 10-μm porous MPs for 21 days. Compared to PCBs alone, co-exposure to PCBs and 20, 200 μg/L MPs reduced fish body length and body weight, and the concurrence of MPs aggravated PCBs-induced thyroid-disrupting effects, including significantly decreased L-thyroxine and L-triiodothyronine levels, more severe damage to the thyroid tissue and gill morphology, and disturbance on the expression of hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis genes. The PCBs concentrations in the seawater were decreased dramatically with the increase of MPs concentrations, confirming that MPs absorbed PCBs from the seawater. Our results demonstrated that MPs enhanced the thyroid disruption of PCBs, suggesting that the risk of MPs and thyroid-disrupting chemicals on marine organisms should be paid more attention.

Chronic Effects of Diazinon® Exposures Using Integrated Biomarker Responses in Freshwater Walking Catfish, Clarias batrachus

Diazinon exposures have been linked to the onset of toxic pathways and adverse outcomes in aquatic species, but the ecological implications on model species are not widely emphasized. The objective of this study was to determine how the organophosphate pesticide diazinon affected hematological (hemoglobin, total red blood count, total white blood count, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin), growth (condition factor, hepatosomatic index, specific growth rate), biochemical (total serum glucose, total serum protein), and endocrine (growth hormone, tri-iodothyronine, and thyroxine) parameters in Clarias batrachus after chronic exposure. Diazinon was administered at predefined exposure doses (0.64 and 1.28 mg/L) and monitored at 15, 30, and 45 days into the investigation. Observation for most biomarkers revealed patterns of decreasing values with increasing toxicant concentration and exposure duration. Correlation analysis highlighted a significant inverse relationship between variables (mean corpuscular hemoglobin, condition factor, specific growth rate, tri-iodothyronine, thyroxine, and total serum protein) and elevated chronic diazinon exposure concentrations. The integrated indices (IBR and BRI) indexes were used to provide visual and understandable depictions of toxicity effects and emphasized the relativity of biomarkers in terms of sensitivity and magnitude or severity of responses under graded toxicant exposures. The significant damage reflected by evaluated parameters in diazinon exposure groups compared to control portends risks to the health of local fish populations, including Clarias batrachus in aquatic systems adjacent to agrarian landscapes.

A review on organophosphate flame retardants in the environment: Occurrence, accumulation, metabolism and toxicity

Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs), as a substitute for brominated flame retardants (BFRs), are widely used in industrial production and life. The presence of OPFRs in the environment has an adverse effect on the ecological environment system. This review provides comprehensive data for the occurrence of OPFRs and their diester metabolites (OP diesters) in wastewater treatment plants, surface water, drinking water, sediment, soil, air and dust in the environment. In particular, the accumulation and metabolism of OPFRs in organisms and the types of metabolites and metabolic pathways are discussed for animals and plants. In addition, the toxicity of OP triesters and OP diesters in organisms is discussed. Although research on OPFRs has gradually increased in recent years, there are still many gaps to be filled, especially for metabolic and toxicity mechanisms that need in-depth study. This review also highlights the shortcomings of current research and provides suggestions for a basis for future research on OPFRs.

Beyond Cholinesterase Inhibition: Developmental Neurotoxicity of Organophosphate Ester Flame Retardants and Plasticizers

BACKGROUND

To date, the toxicity of organophosphate esters has primarily been studied regarding their use as pesticides and their effects on the neurotransmitter acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Currently, flame retardants and plasticizers are the two largest market segments for organophosphate esters and they are found in a wide variety of products, including electronics, building materials, vehicles, furniture, car seats, plastics, and textiles. As a result, organophosphate esters and their metabolites are routinely found in human urine, blood, placental tissue, and breast milk across the globe. It has been asserted that their neurological effects are minimal given that they do not act on AChE in precisely the same way as organophosphate ester pesticides.

OBJECTIVES

This commentary describes research on the non-AChE neurodevelopmental toxicity of organophosphate esters used as flame retardants and plasticizers (OPEs). Studies in humans, mammalian, nonmammalian, and in vitro models are presented, and relevant neurodevelopmental pathways, including adverse outcome pathways, are described. By highlighting this scientific evidence, we hope to elevate the level of concern for widespread human exposure to these OPEs and to provide recommendations for how to better protect public health.

DISCUSSION

Collectively, the findings presented demonstrate that OPEs can alter neurodevelopmental processes by interfering with noncholinergic pathways at environmentally relevant doses. Application of a pathways framework indicates several specific mechanisms of action, including perturbation of glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid and disruption of the endocrine system. The effects may have implications for the development of cognitive and social skills in children. Our conclusion is that concern is warranted for the developmental neurotoxicity of OPE exposure. We thus describe important considerations for reducing harm and to provide recommendations for government and industry decision makers. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP9285.

Maternal Urinary Organophosphate Esters and Alterations in Maternal and Neonatal Thyroid Hormones

Production of organophosphate esters (OPEs), which represent a major flame-retardant class present in consumer goods, has increased over the past 2 decades. Experimental studies suggest that OPEs may be associated with thyroid hormone disruption, but few human studies have examined this association. We quantified OPE metabolites in the urine of 298 pregnant women from Cincinnati, Ohio, in the Health Outcomes and Measures of the Environment Study (enrolled 2003-2006) at 3 time points (16 and 26 weeks' gestation, and at delivery), and thyroid hormones in 16-week maternal and newborn cord sera. Urinary bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)-phosphate concentrations were generally associated with decreased triiodothyronine and thyroxine levels and increased thyroid-stimulating hormone levels in maternal and newborn thyroid hormones in quartile dose-response analyses and multiple informant models. There was weaker evidence for thyroid hormone alterations in association with diphenyl-phosphate and di-n-butyl-phosphate. Bis-2-chloroethyl-phosphate was not associated with alterations in thyroid hormones in any analyses. We did not observe any evidence of effect modification by infant sex. These results suggest that gestational exposure to some OPEs may influence maternal and neonatal thyroid function, although replication in other cohorts is needed.