Neurophysiological and epigenetic effects of physical exercise on the aging process

14-Week exercise training modifies the DNA methylation levels at gene sites in non-Alzheimer's disease women aged 50 to 70 years

Exercise training emerges as a key strategy in lifestyle modification, capable of reducing the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease (AD) due to risk factors such as age, family history, genetics and low level of education associated with AD. We aim to analyze the effect of a 14-week combined exercise training (CT) on the methylation of genes associated with AD in non-alzheimer's disease women. CT sessions lasted 60 min, occurring three times a week for 14 weeks. Forty non-Alzheimer's disease women aged 50 to 70 years (60.7 ± 4.1 years) with a mean height of 1.6 ± 0.1 m, mean weight of 73.12 ± 9.0 kg and a mean body mass index of 29.69 ± 3.5 kg/m2, underwent two physical assessments: pre and post the 14 weeks. DNA methylation assays utilized the EPIC Infinium Methylation BeadChip from Illumina. We observed that 14 weeks of CT led to reductions in systolic (p = 0.001) and diastolic (p = 0.017) blood pressure and improved motor skills post-intervention. Among 25 genes linked to AD, CT induced differentially methylated sites in 12 genes, predominantly showing hypomethylated sites (negative β values). Interestingly, despite hypomethylated sites, some genes exhibited hypermethylated sites (positive β values), such as ABCA7, BDNF, and WWOX. A 14-week CT regimen was adequate to induce differential methylation in 12 CE-related genes in healthy older women, alongside improvements in motor skills and blood pressure. In conclusion, this study suggest that combined training can be a strategy to improve physical fitness in older individuals, especially able to induce methylation alterations in genes sites related to development of AD. It is important to highlight that training should act as protective factor in older adults.

Single 30 min treadmill exercise session suppresses the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress in obese female adolescents

OBJECTIVES

Regular treadmill exercise may result in changes in pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress. However, the way acute treadmill exercise mechanisms affect the changes in pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress in obese has not been comprehensively exposed. This study aimed to analyze the pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress between 30 min before treadmill exercise and 24 h after treadmill exercise in obese adolescents.

METHODS

A total of 20 obese females aged 19-24 years were recruited from female students and given one session of treadmill exercise with an intensity of 60-70% HR_max. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) was used to analyze serum levels of MDA, while enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to analyze serum levels of TNF-α and IL-6. Moreover, the independent samples t-test with a significance level of 5% was employed to have the statistical analysis.

RESULTS

The results on 24 h after treadmill exercise and delta (Δ) between CTRL and TREG showed a significant difference (p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

This study found a decrease in pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress 24 h after treadmill exercise in obese adolescents. Therefore, treadmill exercise can be a promising strategy for preventing adolescents from obesity as well as preventing disease risks associated with oxidative stress and chronic inflammation.

Effects of exercise on the sleep microarchitecture in the aging brain: A study on a sedentary sample

Having a healthy sleep pattern plays a vital role in one's overall health. Sleep in the elderly is characterized by decreased slow-wave sleep and an increase of REM sleep. Furthermore, quantitative electroencephalographic (qEEG) studies have shown an age-related attenuation of total EEG power in sleep. However, exercise has been shown to improve sleep across all age groups. In this study, we used the Sleep Profiler™ EEG Sleep Monitor to observe EEG changes occurring during sleep following an aerobic exercise intervention. This study was done on older adults (N = 18, with only five subjects containing both pre- and post-data of sufficient quality for analysis) with an age range 60-85 years. The aerobics regimen was performed three times weekly for 12-weeks commencing with 20-min sessions. The time of each session progressed by 1-2 min/session as needed to a maximum time of 45 min per session. The macro-architecture (sleep stages) and microarchitecture (EEG) results were analyzed using MATLAB. For the microarchitecture, our results showed more deep sleep following the aerobic exercise regimen. Furthermore, for the microarchitecture, out results shows an increase in total EEG power post-exercise in both light (N1 and L1) and deep sleep (N2 and N3). These preliminary changes in sleep the microarchitecture suggest that non-pharmacologic methods might mitigate age-related EEG changes with potential implications for neurocognitive health.

Comparing the Effects of Rosemary Extract and Treadmill Exercise on the Hippocampal Function and Antioxidant Capacity in Old Rats

Introduction:

A sequence of time-dependent changes can affect the brain’s functional capacity.

This study aimed at investigating the effects of Forced Aerobic Exercise (FAE) versus the Rosemary Extract (RE) on the learning abilities and oxidative stress modulation in rats.

Methods:

Young and old rats received daily FAE and RE for 3 months. Using the Passive Avoidance (PA) test, we evaluated the learning and memory of the rats by Step-Through Latency (STL) score. We measured the Superoxide Dismutase (SOD), Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx), Catalase (CATA), Malondialdehyde (MDA) enzymes levels, and Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC) in the hippocampus

Results:

FAE could significantly increase the STL score (P<0.001) among old rats similar to the rosemary extract consumption. The SOD, GPx, and CATA enzyme activities and the level of TAC significantly increased by the treatments (exercise: P<0.001 for SOD and TAC and P<0.05 for CATA, exercise/rosemary: P<0.001 for all enzymes, and rosemary: P<0.01 for SOD and TAC). Furthermore, the MDA level significantly decreased by the treatments (exercise and exercise/rosemary: P<0.001, rosemary: P<0.01). The partial Pearson test revealed the significant positive correlations between the score of STL (day 2) with the SOD (P<0.01) and TAC (P<0.05) levels and negative correlations between the MDA level and STL score in both days (P<0.05 for the first day and P<0.001 for the second day).

Conclusion:

Similar to the rosemary extract, FAE could increase the working memory and antioxidants activity in old rats in 3 months.

Effect of Virtual Reality Exercises on the Cognitive Status and Dual Motor Task Performance of the Aging Population

Aging is a global phenomenon affecting numerous developed and developing countries. During this process, the functional state of the body, especially the cognitive state, declines. This research investigated the impact of virtual reality exercises on the cognitive status and dual-task performance in the elderly of Tabriz city, Iran. Forty men with a mean age of 71.5 were selected and assigned to either the experimental (n = 20) or control groups (n = 20). Both groups completed the Mini-Mental State Examination for cognitive status. The pre-test was performed through the Timed Up and Go test (TUG) along with a countdown of numbers. Then, the experimental group practiced virtual driving for six weeks, while the control group received no treatment. After the treatment, both groups completed the post-test. At each stage, the test was performed as a dual motor task as well. Data were analyzed using the paired t-test and the independent sample t-test to show the intra-group and inter-group differences, respectively. The results showed a significant improvement in the cognitive status and dual-task performance of the elderly men after the six-week training period, which was also significant compared to the control group. Virtual reality driving can be used to improve the cognitive status and dual task performance of elderly men.

Exercise renovates H2S and Nrf2-related antioxidant pathways to suppress apoptosis in the natural ageing process of male rat cortex

Ageing is a complex biological process that increases the probability of disease and death, which affects the organs of all species. The accumulation of oxidative damage in the brain contributes to a progressive loss of cognitive functions or even declined the energy metabolism. In this study, we tested the effects of exercise training on the apoptosis, survival, and antioxidant signaling pathways in the cerebral cortex of three age groups of male rats; 3, 12, and 18 months. We observed that H₂S and the expression of Nrf2-related antioxidant pathways declined with age and increased after exercise training. IGF1R survival pathway was less increased in middle-aged rats; however, significantly increased after exercise training. The expression of mitochondrial-dependent apoptotic pathway components, such as Bak, cytochrome C, and caspase 3 in the ageing control group, were much higher than those of the exercise training groups. This study demonstrated that exercise training could reduce the apoptosis and oxidative stress that accrues throughout ageing, which causes brain damage.

Effects of exercise on cellular and tissue aging

The natural aging process is carried out by a progressive loss of homeostasis leading to a functional decline in cells and tissues. The accumulation of these changes stem from a multifactorial process on which both external (environmental and social) and internal (genetic and biological) risk factors contribute to the development of adult chronic diseases, including type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D). Strategies that can slow cellular aging include changes in diet, lifestyle and drugs that modulate intracellular signaling. Exercise is a promising lifestyle intervention that has shown antiaging effects by extending lifespan and healthspan through decreasing the nine hallmarks of aging and age-associated inflammation. Herein, we review the effects of exercise to attenuate aging from a clinical to a cellular level, listing its effects upon various tissues and systems as well as its capacity to reverse many of the hallmarks of aging. Additionally, we suggest AMPK as a central regulator of the cellular effects of exercise due to its integrative effects in different tissues. These concepts are especially relevant in the setting of T2D, where cellular aging is accelerated and exercise can counteract these effects through the reviewed antiaging mechanisms.

The Acute Effects of Different Exercise Intensities on Associative Novel Word Learning in Healthy Older Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Recent studies show positive effects of acute exercise on language learning in young adults with lower baseline learning abilities; however, this is yet to be investigated in older adults. This study investigated the acute effects of different exercise intensities on new word learning in healthy older adults with lower and higher baseline learning abilities. Sixty older adults (mean age = 66.4 (4.6); 43 females) performed either a single bout of stretching exercise, moderate-intensity continuous exercise, or high-intensity interval exercise followed by a word learning task. In lower baseline learners, between-group differences were observed on immediate new word recall success, with the moderate-intensity continuous exercise group performing better than the stretching group. These findings suggest immediate benefits of moderate-intensity continuous exercise that are limited to word learning performance of older adults with lower baseline learning abilities. Further investigation into underlying mechanisms could lead to a better understanding of individual differences in responding to acute exercise.

Declines in grip strength may indicate early changes in cognition in healthy middle-aged adults

Declining grip strength is an indicator of cognitive loss in older individuals but it has not been explored people younger than 65 years old. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between grip strength and specific cognitive tests known to decline with mild cognitive impairment in young and middle-aged adults. Declines in cognitive performance in middle-aged adults may provide evidence that these changes occur earlier than previously reported. A cross sectional design was used to compare differences between young and middle-aged healthy adults and to investigate associations between cognitive and grip strength measures within groups. Healthy young (20–30 years old) and middle-aged (45–65 years old) adults completed five cognitive tests including the Stroop, California Verbal Learning Test, Symbol Digit Modalities Test, Trail Making Tests and the Controlled Oral Word Association Test. All participants completed right and left maximum grip strength measures. Middle-aged adults performed significantly worse on right and left grip strength and the Stroop test (p<0.05) when compared to the younger group. There were no significant relationships among grip strength and cognitive performance at the whole-group level or within the younger-age group; however, weaker grip strength was significantly associated with poorer Controlled Oral Word Association Test total cluster (r = 0.458; p < .05) and Stroop interference (r = 0.471; p < .05) scores in the middle-aged group. Findings from this study suggest that cognitive changes may occur earlier than previously thought (prior to age 65). Weaker grip strength was significantly associated with poorer function in two of the cognitive measures in the middle-age group, suggesting that some domains of cognition, specifically semantic categorization and executive function, may be particularly sensitive to age-related changes.

The Immediate Effects of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Cognition in Healthy Older Adults: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Age-related cognitive decline is a worldwide challenge, highlighting the need for safe, effective interventions that benefit cognition in older adults. Harnessing the immediate and long-term pleiotropic effects of aerobic exercise is one approach that has gained increasing interest.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this review is to provide knowledge on the immediate effects of acute aerobic exercise on cognitive function of healthy older adults and to assess the methodological quality of studies investigating these effects.

METHODS

A database search in PubMed, CINAHL, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Embase, PsycINFO, Web of Science, ClinicalTrials.gov and Google Scholar was conducted using a systematic search strategy.

RESULTS

Fifteen studies were identified and cognitive domains investigated included executive function and visual perception. Results from 14 of 15 studies showed that an acute bout of aerobic exercise can enhance at least one subsequent cognitive performance of healthy older adults when measured within 15 min post-exercise.

CONCLUSION

The small number of studies available, the limited domains of cognition investigated, the great variability between research protocols, and the low overall quality rating limits the conclusions that can be drawn. More comprehensive randomised controlled trials are needed to address these limitations and verify the potential benefits of acute aerobic exercise.

Effects of Physical Exercise on the Expression of MicroRNAs: A Systematic Review

Silva, FCd, Iop, RdR, Andrade, A, Costa, VP, Gutierres Filho, PJB, and Silva, Rd. Effects of physical exercise on the expression of microRNAs: A systematic review 34(1): 270-280, 2020-Studies have detected changes in the expression of miRNAs after physical exercise, which brings new insight into the molecular control of adaptation to exercise. Therefore, the objective of the current systematic review of experimental and quasiexperimental studies published in the past 10 years was to assess evidence related to acute effects, chronic effects, and both acute and chronic effects of physical exercise on miRNA expression in humans, as well as its functions, evaluated in serum, plasma, whole blood, saliva, or muscle biopsy. For this purpose, the following electronic databases were selected: MEDLINE by Pubmed, SCOPUS, Web of Science, and also a manual search in references of the selected articles to April 2017. Experimental and quasiexperimental studies were included. Results indicate that, of the 345 studies retrieved, 40 studies met the inclusion criteria and two articles were included as a result of the manual search. The 42 studies were analyzed, and it can be observed acute and chronic effects of physical exercises (aerobic and resistance) on the expression of several miRNAs in healthy subjects, athletes, young, elderly and in patients with congestive heart failure, chronic kidney disease, diabetes mellitus type 2 associated with morbid obesity, prediabetic, and patients with intermittent claudication. It is safe to assume that miRNA changes, both in muscle tissues and bodily fluids, are presumably associated with the benefits induced by acute and chronic physical exercise. Thus, a better understanding of changes in miRNAs as a response to physical exercise might contribute to the development of miRNAs as therapeutic targets for the improvement of exercise capacity in individuals with any given disease. However, additional studies are necessary to draw accurate conclusions.

The neurocognitive and BDNF changes of multicomponent exercise for community-dwelling older adults with mild cognitive impairment or dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Our goal was to examine whether multicomponent exercise performed by older adults with mild cognitive impairment or dementia as group-based exercise in community have beneficial effects on cognition and brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Eight studies were identified through Emabase, Medline, PubMed. Searches combined terms for neurocognitive and biochemical changes with those for MCI and dementia. Data were extracted and checked by a second reviewer, systematically reviewed, and meta analyzed where appropriate. There was significant difference in favor of multicomponent exercise in cognition (WMD:0.18; 95%CI:0.02-0.34), attention (SMD=2.16; 95%CI:1.2to3.12) and executive function (SMD =0.80; 95%CI: 0.28to1.31), but not in memory. However, there was limited reporting of the effects of multicomponent exercise on depression and brain-derived neurotrophic factor for this group of people. In conclusion, this meta-analysis indicated that group exercises improve cognition, attention and executive function in community-dwelling older adults with mild cognitive impairment or Alzheimer's disease.

Effects of aging on the motor, cognitive and affective behaviors, neuroimmune responses and hippocampal gene expression

The known effects of aging on the brain and behavior include impaired cognition, increases in anxiety and depressive-like behaviors, and reduced locomotor activity. Environmental exposures and interventions also influence brain functions during aging. We investigated the effects of normal aging under controlled environmental conditions and in the absence of external interventions on locomotor activity, cognition, anxiety and depressive-like behaviors, immune function and hippocampal gene expression in C57BL/6 mice. Healthy mice at 4, 9, and 14 months of age underwent behavioral testing using an established behavioral battery, followed by cellular and molecular analysis using flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry, and quantitative PCR. We found that 14-month-old mice showed significantly reduced baseline locomotion, increased anxiety, and impaired spatial memory compared to younger counterparts. However, no significant differences were observed for depressive-like behavior in the forced-swim test. Microglia numbers in the dentate gyrus, as well as CD8+ memory T cells increased towards late middle age. Aging processes exerted a significant effect on the expression of 43 genes of interest in the hippocampus. We conclude that aging is associated with specific changes in locomotor activity, cognition, anxiety-like behaviors, neuroimmune responses and hippocampal gene expression.

M1 muscarinic receptor is a key target of neuroprotection, neuroregeneration and memory recovery by i-Extract from Withania somnifera

Memory loss is one of the most tragic symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. Our laboratory has recently demonstrated that 'i-Extract' of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) restores memory loss in scopolamine (SC)-induced mice. The prime target of i-Extract is obscure. We hypothesize that i-Extract may primarily target muscarinic subtype acetylcholine receptors that regulate memory processes. The present study elucidates key target(s) of i-Extract via cellular, biochemical, and molecular techniques in a relevant amnesia mouse model and primary hippocampal neuronal cultures. Wild type Swiss albino mice were fed i-Extract, and hippocampal cells from naïve mice were treated with i-Extract, followed by muscarinic antagonist (dicyclomine) and agonist (pilocarpine) treatments. We measured dendritic formation and growth by immunocytochemistry, kallikrein 8 (KLK8) mRNA by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and levels of KLK8 and microtubule-associated protein 2, c isoform (MAP2c) proteins by western blotting. We performed muscarinic receptor radioligand binding. i-Extract stimulated an increase in dendrite growth markers, KLK8 and MAP2. Scopolamine-mediated reduction was significantly reversed by i-Extract in mouse cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Our study identified muscarinic receptor as a key target of i-Extract, providing mechanistic evidence for its clinical application in neurodegenerative cognitive disorders.

Role of physical exercise in the regulation of epigenetic mechanisms in inflammation, cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and aging process

The genetic heritage for decades has been considered to respond only to gene promoters or suppressors, with specific roles for oncogenes or tumor-suppressor genes. Epigenetics is progressively attracting increasing interest because it has demonstrated the capacity of these regulatory processes to regulate the gene expression without modifying gene sequence. Several factors may influence epigenetics, such as lifestyles including food selection. A role for physical exercise is emerging in the epigenetic regulation of gene expression. In this review, we resume physiological and pathological implications of epigenetic modification induced by the physical activity (PA). Inflammation and cancer mechanisms, immune system, central nervous system, and the aging process receive benefits due to PA through epigenetic mechanisms. Thus, the modulation of epigenetic processes by physical exercise positively influences prevention, development, and the course of inflammatory and cancer diseases, as well as neurodegenerative illnesses. This growing field of studies gives rise to a new role for PA as an option in prevention strategies and to integrate pharmacological therapeutic treatments.

Physical Activity Alleviates Cognitive Dysfunction of Alzheimer's Disease through Regulating the mTOR Signaling Pathway

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most common aging-related progressive neurodegenerative disorders, and can result in great suffering for a large portion of the aged population. Although the pathogenesis of AD is being elucidated, the exact mechanisms are still unclear, thereby impeding the development of effective drugs, supplements, and other interventional strategies for AD. In recent years, impaired autophagy associated with microRNA (miRNA) dysfunction has been reported to be involved in aging and aging-related neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, miRNA-mediated regulation for the functional status of autophagy may become one of the potent interventional strategies for AD. Mounting evidence from in vivo AD models has demonstrated that physical activity can exert a neuroprotective role in AD. In addition, autophagy is strictly regulated by the mTOR signaling pathway. In this article, the regulation of the functional status of autophagy through the mTOR signaling pathway during physical activity is systematically discussed for the prevention and treatment of AD. This concept will be beneficial to developing novel and effective targets that can create a direct link between pharmacological intervention and AD in the future.

The neuroscience of meditation: classification, phenomenology, correlates, and mechanisms

Rising from its contemplative and spiritual traditions, the science of meditation has seen huge growth over the last 30 years. This chapter reviews the classifications, phenomenology, neural correlates, and mechanisms of meditation. Meditation classification types are still varied and largely subjective. Broader models to describe meditation practice along multidimensional parameters may improve classification in the future. Phenomenological studies are few but growing, highlighting the subjective experience and correlations to neurophysiology. Oscillatory EEG studies are not conclusive likely due to the heterogeneous nature of the meditation styles and practitioners being assessed. Neuroimaging studies find common patterns during meditation and in long-term meditators reflecting the basic similarities of meditation in general; however, mostly the patterns differ across unique meditation traditions. Research on the mechanisms of meditation, specifically attention and emotion regulation is also discussed. There is a growing body of evidence demonstrating positive benefits from meditation in some clinical populations especially for stress reduction, anxiety, depression, and pain improvement, although future research would benefit by addressing the remaining methodological and conceptual issues. Meditation research continues to grow allowing us to understand greater nuances of how meditation works and its effects.

Social Environment and Epigenetics

Our social environment, from the microscopic to the macro-social, affects us for the entirety of our lives. One integral line of research to examine how interpersonal and societal environments can get "under the skin" is through the lens of epigenetics. Epigenetic mechanisms are adaptations made to our genome in response to our environment which include tags placed on and removed from the DNA itself to how our DNA is packaged, affecting how our genes are read, transcribed, and interact. These tags are affected by social environments and can persist over time; this may aid us in responding to experiences and exposures, both the enriched and the disadvantageous. From memory formation to immune function, the experience-dependent plasticity of epigenetic modifications to micro- and macro-social environments may contribute to the process of learning from comfort, pain, and stress to better survive in whatever circumstances life has in store.

Neuropsychology of aging

All people want to age "successfully," maintaining functional capacity and quality of life as they reach advanced age. Achieving this goal depends on preserving optimal cognitive and brain functioning. Yet, significant individual differences exist in this regard. Some older adults continue to retain most cognitive abilities throughout their lifetime. Others experience declines in cognitive and functional capacity that range from mild decrements in certain cognitive functions over time to severe dementia among those with neurodegenerative diseases. Even among relatively healthy "successful agers," certain cognitive functions are reduced from earlier levels. This is particularly true for cognitive functions that are dependent on cognitive processing speed and efficiency. Working memory and executive and attentional functions tend to be most vulnerable. Learning and memory functions are also usually reduced, although in the absence of neurodegenerative disease learning and retrieval efficiency rather than memory storage are affected. Other functions, such as visual perception, language, semantics, and knowledge, are often well preserved. Structural, functional, and physiologic/metabolic brain changes correspond with age-associated cognitive decline. Physiologic and metabolic mechanisms, such as oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, may contribute to these changes, along with the contribution of comorbidities that secondarily affect the brain of older adults. Cognitive frailty often corresponds with physical frailty, both affected by multiple exogenous and endogenous factors. Neuropsychologic assessment provides a way of measuring the cognitive and functional status of older adults, which is useful for monitoring changes that may be occurring. Neuroimaging is also useful for characterizing age-associated structural, functional, physiologic, and metabolic brain changes, including alterations in cerebral blood flow and metabolite concentrations. Some interventions that may enhance cognitive function, such as cognitive training, neuromodulation, and pharmacologic approaches, exist or are being developed. Yet, preventing, slowing, and reversing the adverse effects of cognitive aging remains a challenge.

The effect of group exercises on balance, mobility, and depressive symptoms in older adults with mild cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVE:

To determine the effects of group exercises on balance, mobility, and depressive symptoms in community-dwelling older adults with mild cognitive impairment.

DESIGN:

Single blinded, randomized, matched pairs clinical trial.

SETTING:

Four primary healthcare units.

SUBJECTS:

Fifty-two sedentary subjects with mild cognitive impairment were paired (age, sex, body mass index, and Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination Revised score), tested, and then randomized into an intervention group ( n = 26) and a control group ( n = 26).

INTERVENTION:

The intervention group performed strength (ankle weights, elastic bands, and dumbbells) and aerobic exercises (walking) in their communities' public spaces, twice a week (60 minutes each), during 24 weeks. The control group maintained its usual routine.

MAIN MEASURES:

Balance (Berg Balance Scale (BBS)), mobility (Timed Up and Go Test (TUG)), and depressive symptoms (Geriatric Depression Scale-15) were assessed before and after the intervention.

RESULTS:

Before the intervention, the two groups did not differ statistically. After, the intervention group showed significant improvement ( P < 0.05) in balance (before: 53 ± 3; after: 55.1 ± 1.1 points), mobility (before: 10.7 ± 2.9 seconds; after: 8.3 ± 2 seconds), and depressive symptoms (median punctuation (interquartile range) before: 4 (1.8-6); after: 2.5 (1-4)). The control group presented a significant increase in their depressive symptoms (median before: 3.5 (2-7.3); after: 4 (2-5.3)), while their balance and mobility showed no significant modification. Small effect sizes were observed in the intervention group and control group depressive symptoms, as well as in the control group's mobility and balance. Large effect sizes were observed the intervention group's mobility and balance.

CONCLUSION:

Group exercises improved balance, mobility, and depressive symptoms in community-dwelling older adults with mild cognitive impairment.

How Old Is Your Brain? Slow-Wave Activity in Non-rapid-eye-movement Sleep as a Marker of Brain Rejuvenation After Long-Term Exercise in Mice

Physical activity is beneficial for health. It has been shown to improve brain functioning and cognition, reduce severity of mood disorders, as well as facilitate healthy sleep and healthy aging. Sleep has been studied in healthy aged mice and absolute slow-wave-activity levels (SWA, electroencephalogram power between 0.75 and 4.0 Hz) in non-rapid-eye-movement sleep (NREM) were elevated, suggesting changes in brain connectivity. To investigate whether physical activity can diminish this aging-induced effect, mice of three age groups were provided with a running wheel (RW) for 1-3 months (6-months-old, n = 9; 18-months-old, n = 9; 24-months-old, n = 8) and were compared with control sedentary mice (n = 11, n = 8 and n = 9 respectively). Two weeks before the sleep-wake recordings the running wheels were removed. The electroencephalogram (EEG) and electromyogram were continuously recorded during undisturbed 24 h baseline (BL) and a sleep-deprivation was conducted during the first 6 h of the second day. Increased waking and decreased NREM sleep was found in the young RW mice, compared to young controls. These effects were not evident in the 18 and 24 months old mice. Unlike sleep architecture, we found that SWA was altered throughout the whole age spectrum. Notably, SWA was increased with aging and attenuated with exercise, exhibiting the lowest levels in the young RW mice. To utilize the cross-age revealing features of SWA, we applied machine learning techniques and found that characteristic information regarding age and exercise was enclosed in SWA. In addition, with cluster analysis, we could classify and accurately distinguish the different groups based solely on their SWA. Therefore, our study comprises a three-fold contribution: (a) effects of exercise on sleep are sustained following 2 weeks after removal of the wheel, (b) we show that EEG SWA can be used as a physiological marker of brain age in the mouse,

Neural and musculotendinous mechanisms underpinning age-related force reductions

Ageing leads to substantial force production capacity reductions, which is an indicator of frailty and disability, and a mortality predictor in elders. Understanding the age-dependent neuromuscular mechanisms underlying force reductions can optimize healthcare professionals' exercise protocol choices for patients and allows researchers to investigate new interventions to mitigate these reductions. Our primary goal was to provide an updated review about the main neural and musculotendinous mechanisms underpinning age-related reductions in force capacity. Our secondary goal was to summarize how aerobic and strength training can lessen these age-related reductions. This review suggests that several steps in the force production pathway, from cortical to muscular mechanisms, are negatively affected by ageing. However, combining aerobic and strength training can attenuate these effects. Strength training (i.e. moderate to high- intensity, progressive volume, accentuated eccentric loading and fast concentric contraction velocity) can increase overall force production capacity by producing beneficial neural and musculotendinous adaptations. Additionally, aerobic training (i.e. moderate and high intensities) plays an essential role in preserving the structure and function of the neuromuscular system.

Aging Hallmarks: The Benefits of Physical Exercise

World population has been continuously increasing and progressively aging. Aging is characterized by a complex and intraindividual process associated with nine major cellular and molecular hallmarks, namely, genomic instability, telomere attrition, epigenetic alterations, a loss of proteostasis, deregulated nutrient sensing, mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular senescence, stem cell exhaustion, and altered intercellular communication. This review exposes the positive antiaging impact of physical exercise at the cellular level, highlighting its specific role in attenuating the aging effects of each hallmark. Exercise should be seen as a polypill, which improves the health-related quality of life and functional capabilities while mitigating physiological changes and comorbidities associated with aging. To achieve a framework of effective physical exercise interventions on aging, further research on its benefits and the most effective strategies is encouraged.

Exercise Training and Epigenetic Regulation: Multilevel Modification and Regulation of Gene Expression

Exercise training elicits acute and adaptive long term changes in human physiology that mediate the improvement of performance and health state. The responses are integrative and orchestrated by several mechanisms, as gene expression. Gene expression is essential to construct the adaptation of the biological system to exercise training, since there are molecular processes mediating oxidative and non-oxidative metabolism, angiogenesis, cardiac and skeletal myofiber hypertrophy, and other processes that leads to a greater physiological status. Epigenetic is the field that studies about gene expression changes heritable by meiosis and mitosis, by changes in chromatin and DNA conformation, but not in DNA sequence, that studies the regulation on gene expression that is independent of genotype. The field approaches mechanisms of DNA and chromatin conformational changes that inhibit or increase gene expression and determine tissue specific pattern. The three major studied epigenetic mechanisms are DNA methylation, Histone modification, and regulation of noncoding RNA-associated genes. This review elucidates these mechanisms, focusing on the relationship between them and their relationship with exercise training, physical performance and the enhancement of health status. On this chapter, we clarified the relationship of epigenetic modulations and their intimal relationship with acute and chronic effect of exercise training, concentrating our effort on skeletal muscle, heart and vascular responses, that are the most responsive systems against to exercise training and play crucial role on physical performance and improvement of health state.

Effects of a multicomponent exercise program in institutionalized elders with Alzheimer's disease

This study examined the effect of a Multicomponent Training (MT) intervention on cognitive function, functional fitness and anthropometric variables in institutionalized patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Thirty-seven institutionalized elders (84.05 ± 5.58 years) clinically diagnosed with AD (mild and moderate stages) were divided into two groups: Experimental Group (EG, n = 19) and Control Group (CG, n = 18). The EG participated in a six-month supervised MT program (aerobic, muscular resistance, flexibility and postural exercises) of 45-55 minutes/session, twice/week. Cognitive function (MMSE), physical fitness (Senior Fitness Test) and anthropometric variables (Body Mass Index and Waist Circumference), were assessed before (M1), after three months (M2) and after six months (M3) of the experimental protocol. A two-way ANOVA, with repeated measures, revealed significant group and time interactions on cognitive function, chair stand, arm curl, 2-min step, 8-foot up-and-go (UG), chair sit-and-reach (CSR) and back scratch tests as well as waist circumference. Accordingly, for those variables a different response in each group was evident over the time, supported by a significantly better EG performance in chair stand, arm curl, 2-min step, UG, CSR and back scratch tests from M1 to M3, and a significant increase in MMSE from M1 to M2. The CG's performance decreased over time (M1 to M3) in chair stand, arm curl, 2-min step, UG, CSR, back scratch and MMSE. Results suggest that MT programs may be an important non-pharmacological strategy to improve physical and cognitive functions in institutionalized AD patients.

Exercise attenuates the major hallmarks of aging

Regular exercise has multi-system anti-aging effects. Here we summarize how exercise impacts the major hallmarks of aging. We propose that, besides searching for novel pharmaceutical targets of the aging process, more research efforts should be devoted to gaining insights into the molecular mediators of the benefits of exercise and to implement effective exercise interventions for elderly people.

Aerobic training as a means to enhance inhibition: what's yet to be studied?

Some of the neurodegenerative processes in healthy aging, including changes in structural and biochemical properties of the brain, are argued to affect cortical inhibitory functions. Age-related deficits in the ability to control cerebral inhibition may explain wide range of motor and cognitive deficits that healthy older adults experience in daily life such as impaired coordination skills and declines in attention, concentration, and learning abilities. Importantly, evidence from many studies suggests that impaired inhibitory control in advancing age can be delayed or even alleviated by aerobic exercise training. Findings from a recent study by Duchesne and colleagues (2015) may provide insights into this process. First, observations from Duchesne et al. indicated that aerobic exercise training program improved cognitive inhibitory functioning in both patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) and matched older controls. Second, Duchesne et al. showed that cognitive inhibition and motor skills were highly correlated both pre- and post-exercise in PD but not in controls. Based on the aforementioned findings we highlight possible mechanisms that may play a role in the interactions between cognitive and motor inhibitory functions in healthy elderly that could benefit from aerobic exercise training: specifically, the brain neurotransmission systems and the frontal-basal ganglia network. In conclusion, we raise two fundamental questions which are yet to be addressed: (1) the extent to which different brain neurotransmitter systems are affected by aerobic exercise training; (2) the extent to which neurotransmitter levels prior to the onset of intervention may facilitate (or impede) training-induced neuroplasticity in the aging brain.

Epigenetics and Colorectal Neoplasia: the Evidence for Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior

Studies demonstrate that regular physical activity and, more recently, limited sedentary behavior are associated with reduced risk of colorectal neoplasia. However, the biological mechanisms of action for physical activity versus sedentary behavior are not clear. Epigenetic variation is suggested as a potential mechanism that would allow for independent, or possibly even synergistic, effects of activity and inactivity on colorectal epithelium. We describe the evidence for epigenetic variation as a link between physical activity and sedentary behavior in colorectal neoplasia risk. There are few studies that directly evaluate this relationship. However, the growing literature describes a variety of gene targets influenced by activity that are also important to colorectal neoplasia etiology. Future studies may identify epigenetic markers with translational significance in identifying high-risk individuals or those for whom a personalized activity regimen could significantly alter the methylation signature in colon epithelial cells, and thus future risk of colorectal cancer.

Mechanisms and correlates of a healthy brain: a commentary

In this monograph, the message is that early inactivity and obesity lead to later chronic disease, and, as such, physical inactivity should be recognized as a public health crisis. Sedentary behavior, to some extent, serves a purpose in our current culture (e.g., keeping children indoors keeps them safe), and, as such, may not be amenable to change. Thus, it is important that we understand the underpinnings of later-developing chronic disease as this complex public health issue may have roots that go deeper than sedentary behavior. In this commentary, I speculate on the mechanisms for physical activity exacting positive changes on cognitive abilities. Three potential mechanisms are discussed: glucose transport, postnatal neurogenesis, and vitamin synthesis, all of which are inextricably linked to nutrition. This discussion of mechanisms is followed by a discussion of tractable correlates of the progression to non-communicable disease in the adult.

The heritable path of human physical performance: from single polymorphisms to the "next generation"

Human physical performance is a complex multifactorial trait. Historically, environmental factors (e.g., diet, training) alone have been unable to explain the basis of all prominent phenotypes for physical performance. Therefore, there has been an interest in the study of the contribution of genetic factors to the development of these phenotypes. Support for a genetic component is found with studies that shown that monozygotic twins were more similar than were dizygotic twins for many physiological traits. The evolution of molecular techniques and the ability to scan the entire human genome enabled association of several genetic polymorphisms with performance. However, some biases related to the selection of cohorts and inadequate definition of the study variables have complicated the already difficult task of studying such a large and polymorphic genome, often resulting in inconsistent results about the influence of candidate genes. This review aims to provide a critical overview of heritable genetic aspects. Novel molecular technologies, such as next-generation sequencing, are discussed and how they can contribute to improving understanding of the molecular basis for athletic performance. It is important to ensure that the large amount of data that can be generated using these tools will be used effectively by ensuring well-designed studies.

Midlife and Late-Life Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Brain Volume Changes in Late Adulthood: Results From the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging

BACKGROUND

Higher cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) is cross-sectionally associated with more conserved brain volume in older age, but longitudinal studies are rare. This study examined whether higher midlife CRF was prospectively associated with slower atrophy, which in turn was associated with higher late-life CRF.

METHODS

Brain volume by magnetic resonance imaging was determined annually from 1994 to 2003 in 146 participants (M baseline age = 69.6 years). Peak oxygen uptake on a treadmill yielded estimated midlife CRF in 138 and late-life CRF in 73 participants.

RESULTS

Higher midlife CRF was associated with greater middle temporal gyrus, perirhinal cortex, and temporal and parietal white matter, but was not associated with atrophy progression. Slower atrophy in middle frontal and angular gyri was associated with higher late-life CRF, independent of CRF at baseline magnetic resonance imaging.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher midlife CRF may play a role in preserving middle and medial temporal volumes in late adulthood. Slower atrophy in middle frontal and angular gyri may predict late-life CRF.

Physiological geroscience: targeting function to increase healthspan and achieve optimal longevity

Most nations of the world are undergoing rapid and dramatic population ageing, which presents great socio-economic challenges, as well as opportunities, for individuals, families, governments and societies. The prevailing biomedical strategy for reducing the healthcare impact of population ageing has been 'compression of morbidity' and, more recently, to increase healthspan, both of which seek to extend the healthy period of life and delay the development of chronic diseases and disability until a brief period at the end of life. Indeed, a recently established field within biological ageing research, 'geroscience', is focused on healthspan extension. Superimposed on this background are new attitudes and demand for 'optimal longevity' - living long, but with good health and quality of life. A key obstacle to achieving optimal longevity is the progressive decline in physiological function that occurs with ageing, which causes functional limitations (e.g. reduced mobility) and increases the risk of chronic diseases, disability and mortality. Current efforts to increase healthspan centre on slowing the fundamental biological processes of ageing such as inflammation/oxidative stress, increased senescence, mitochondrial dysfunction, impaired proteostasis and reduced stress resistance. We propose that optimization of physiological function throughout the lifespan should be a major emphasis of any contemporary biomedical policy addressing global ageing. Effective strategies should delay, reduce in magnitude or abolish reductions in function with ageing (primary prevention) and/or improve function or slow further declines in older adults with already impaired function (secondary prevention). Healthy lifestyle practices featuring regular physical activity and ideal energy intake/diet composition represent first-line function-preserving strategies, with pharmacological agents, including existing and new pharmaceuticals and novel 'nutraceutical' compounds, serving as potential complementary approaches. Future research efforts should focus on defining the temporal patterns of functional declines with ageing, identifying the underlying mechanisms and modulatory factors involved, and establishing the most effective lifestyle practices and pharmacological options for maintaining function. Continuing development of effective behavioural approaches for enhancing adherence to healthy ageing practices in diverse populations, and ongoing analysis of the socio-economic costs and benefits of healthspan extension will be important supporting goals. To meet the demands created by rapid population ageing, a new emphasis in physiological geroscience is needed, which will require the collaborative, interdisciplinary efforts of investigators working throughout the translational research continuum from basic science to public health.

Acute stress affects the global DNA methylation profile in rat brain: modulation by physical exercise

The vulnerability of epigenetic marks of brain cells to environmental stimuli and its implication for health have been recently debated. Thus, we used the rat model of acute restraint stress (ARS) to evaluate the impact of stress on the global DNA methylation and on the expression of the Dnmt1 and Bdnf genes of hippocampus, cortex, hypothalamus and periaqueductal gray (PAG). Furthermore, we verified the potential of physical exercise to modulate epigenetic responses evoked by ARS. Sedentary male Wistar rats were submitted to ARS at the 75th postnatal day (PND), whereas animals from a physically active group were previously submitted to swimming sessions (35-74th PND) and to ARS at the 75th PND. Global DNA methylation profile was quantified using an ELISA-based method and the quantitative expression of the Dnmt1 and Bdnf genes was evaluated by real-time PCR. ARS induced a decrease in global DNA methylation in hippocampus, cortex and PAG of sedentary animals and an increased expression of Bdnf in PAG. No change in DNA methylation was associated with ARS in the exercised animals, although it was associated with abnormal expression of Dnmt1 and Bdnf in cortex, hypothalamus and PAG. Our data reveal that ARS evokes adaptive changes in global DNA methylation of rat brain that are independent of the expression of the Dnmt1 gene but might be linked to abnormal expression of the Bdnf gene in the PAG. Furthermore, our evidence indicates that physical exercise has the potential to modulate changes in DNA methylation and gene expression consequent to ARS.

Exercise: putting action into our epigenome

Most human phenotypes are influenced by a combination of genomic and environmental factors. Engaging in regular physical exercise prevents many chronic diseases, decreases mortality risk and increases longevity. However, the mechanisms involved are poorly understood. The modulating effect of physical (aerobic and resistance) exercise on gene expression has been known for some time now and has provided us with an understanding of the biological responses to physical exercise. Emerging research data suggest that epigenetic modifications are extremely important for both development and disease in humans. In the current review, we summarise findings on the effect of exercise on epigenetic modifications and their effects on gene expression. Current research data suggest epigenetic modifications (DNA methylation and histone acetylation) and microRNAs (miRNAs) are responsive to acute aerobic and resistance exercise in brain, blood, skeletal and cardiac muscle, adipose tissue and even buccal cells. Six months of aerobic exercise alters whole-genome DNA methylation in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue and directly influences lipogenesis. Some miRNAs are related to maximal oxygen consumption (VO(2max)) and VO(2max) trainability, and are differentially expressed amongst individuals with high and low VO(2max). Remarkably, miRNA expression profiles discriminate between low and high responders to resistance exercise (miR-378, -26a, -29a and -451) and correlate to gains in lean body mass (miR-378). The emerging field of exercise epigenomics is expected to prosper and additional studies may elucidate the clinical relevance of miRNAs and epigenetic modifications, and delineate mechanisms by which exercise confers a healthier phenotype and improves performance.

Therapeutics with SPION-labeled stem cells for the main diseases related to brain aging: a systematic review

The increase in clinical trials assessing the efficacy of cell therapy for structural and functional regeneration of the nervous system in diseases related to the aging brain is well known. However, the results are inconclusive as to the best cell type to be used or the best methodology for the homing of these stem cells. This systematic review analyzed published data on SPION (superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticle)-labeled stem cells as a therapy for brain diseases, such as ischemic stroke, Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and dementia. This review highlights the therapeutic role of stem cells in reversing the aging process and the pathophysiology of brain aging, as well as emphasizing nanotechnology as an important tool to monitor stem cell migration in affected regions of the brain.

Voluntary exercise promotes beneficial anti-aging mechanisms in SAMP8 female brain

Regular physical exercise mediates health and longevity promotion involving Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1)-regulated pathways. The anti-aging activity of SIRT1 is achieved, at least in part, by means of fine-tuning the adenosine monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway by preventing the transition of an originally pro-survival program into a pro-aging mechanism. Additionally, SIRT1 promotes mitochondrial function and reduces the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) through regulating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α), the master controller of mitochondrial biogenesis. Here, by using senescence-accelerated mice prone 8 (SAMP8) as a model for aging, we determined the effect of wheel-running as a paradigm for long-term voluntary exercise on SIRT1-AMPK pathway and mitochondrial functionality measured by oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) complex content in the hippocampus and cortex. We found differential activation of SIRT1 in both tissues and hippocampal-specific activation of AMPK. These findings correlated well with significant changes in OXPHOS in the hippocampal, but not in the cerebral cortex, area. Collectively, the results revealed greater benefits of the exercise in the wheel-running intervention in a murine model of senescence, which was directly related with mitochondrial function and which was mediated through the modulation of SIRT1 and AMPK pathways.