1
|
Acevedo N, Lozano A, Zakzuk J, Llinás-Caballero K, Brodin D, Nejsum P, Williams AR, Caraballo L. Cystatin from the helminth Ascaris lumbricoides upregulates mevalonate and cholesterol biosynthesis pathways and immunomodulatory genes in human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1328401. [PMID: 38481989 PMCID: PMC10936004 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1328401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Ascaris lumbricoides cystatin (Al-CPI) prevents the development of allergic airway inflammation and dextran-induced colitis in mice models. It has been suggested that helminth-derived cystatins inhibit cathepsins in dendritic cells (DC), but their immunomodulatory mechanisms are unclear. We aimed to analyze the transcriptional profile of human monocyte-derived DC (moDC) upon stimulation with Al-CPI to elucidate target genes and pathways of parasite immunomodulation. Methods moDC were generated from peripheral blood monocytes from six healthy human donors of Denmark, stimulated with 1 µM of Al-CPI, and cultured for 5 hours at 37°C. RNA was sequenced using TrueSeq RNA libraries and the NextSeq 550 v2.5 (75 cycles) sequencing kit (Illumina, Inc). After QC, reads were aligned to the human GRCh38 genome using Spliced Transcripts Alignment to a Reference (STAR) software. Differential expression was calculated by DESEq2 and expressed in fold changes (FC). Cell surface markers and cytokine production by moDC were evaluated by flow cytometry. Results Compared to unstimulated cells, Al-CPI stimulated moDC showed differential expression of 444 transcripts (|FC| ≥1.3). The top significant differences were in Kruppel-like factor 10 (KLF10, FC 3.3, PBH = 3 x 10-136), palladin (FC 2, PBH = 3 x 10-41), and the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR, FC 2.6, PBH = 5 x 10-41). Upregulated genes were enriched in regulation of cholesterol biosynthesis by sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBP) signaling pathways and immune pathways. Several genes in the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway showed significantly increased expression upon Al-CPI stimulation, even in the presence of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Regarding the pathway of negative regulation of immune response, we found a significant decrease in the cell surface expression of CD86, HLA-DR, and PD-L1 upon stimulation with 1 µM Al-CPI. Conclusion Al-CPI modifies the transcriptome of moDC, increasing several transcripts encoding enzymes involved in cholesterol biosynthesis and SREBP signaling. Moreover, Al-CPI target several transcripts in the TNF-alpha signaling pathway influencing cytokine release by moDC. In addition, mRNA levels of genes encoding KLF10 and other members of the TGF beta and the IL-10 families were also modified by Al-CPI stimulation. The regulation of the mevalonate pathway and cholesterol biosynthesis suggests new mechanisms involved in DC responses to helminth immunomodulatory molecules.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Acevedo
- Institute for Immunological Research, University of Cartagena, Cartagena, Colombia
| | - Ana Lozano
- Institute for Immunological Research, University of Cartagena, Cartagena, Colombia
| | - Josefina Zakzuk
- Institute for Immunological Research, University of Cartagena, Cartagena, Colombia
| | | | - David Brodin
- Bioinformatics and Expression Analysis Core Facility (BEA), Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Peter Nejsum
- Department of Clinical Medicine. Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Andrew R. Williams
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences. University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Luis Caraballo
- Institute for Immunological Research, University of Cartagena, Cartagena, Colombia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Burchett JR, Dailey JM, Kee SA, Pryor DT, Kotha A, Kankaria RA, Straus DB, Ryan JJ. Targeting Mast Cells in Allergic Disease: Current Therapies and Drug Repurposing. Cells 2022; 11:3031. [PMID: 36230993 PMCID: PMC9564111 DOI: 10.3390/cells11193031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The incidence of allergic disease has grown tremendously in the past three generations. While current treatments are effective for some, there is considerable unmet need. Mast cells are critical effectors of allergic inflammation. Their secreted mediators and the receptors for these mediators have long been the target of allergy therapy. Recent drugs have moved a step earlier in mast cell activation, blocking IgE, IL-4, and IL-13 interactions with their receptors. In this review, we summarize the latest therapies targeting mast cells as well as new drugs in clinical trials. In addition, we offer support for repurposing FDA-approved drugs to target mast cells in new ways. With a multitude of highly selective drugs available for cancer, autoimmunity, and metabolic disorders, drug repurposing offers optimism for the future of allergy therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - John J. Ryan
- Department of Biology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Shahinuzzaman ADA, Kamal AHM, Chakrabarty JK, Rahman A, Chowdhury SM. Identification of Inflammatory Proteomics Networks of Toll-like Receptor 4 through Immunoprecipitation-Based Chemical Cross-Linking Proteomics. Proteomes 2022; 10:proteomes10030031. [PMID: 36136309 PMCID: PMC9506174 DOI: 10.3390/proteomes10030031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is a receptor on an immune cell that can recognize the invasion of bacteria through their attachment with bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Hence, LPS is a pro-immune response stimulus. On the other hand, statins are lipid-lowering drugs and can also lower immune cell responses. We used human embryonic kidney (HEK 293) cells engineered to express HA-tagged TLR-4 upon treatment with LPS, statin, and both statin and LPS to understand the effect of pro- and anti-inflammatory responses. We performed a monoclonal antibody (mAb) directed co-immunoprecipitation (CO-IP) of HA-tagged TLR4 and its interacting proteins in the HEK 293 extracted proteins. We utilized an ETD cleavable chemical cross-linker to capture weak and transient interactions with TLR4 protein. We tryptic digested immunoprecipitated and cross-linked proteins on beads, followed by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis of the peptides. Thus, we utilized the label-free quantitation technique to measure the relative expression of proteins between treated and untreated samples. We identified 712 proteins across treated and untreated samples and performed protein network analysis using Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) software to reveal their protein networks. After filtering and evaluating protein expression, we identified macrophage myristoylated alanine-rich C kinase substrate (MARCKSL1) and creatine kinase proteins as a potential part of the inflammatory networks of TLR4. The results assumed that MARCKSL1 and creatine kinase proteins might be associated with a statin-induced anti-inflammatory response due to possible interaction with the TLR4.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A. D. A. Shahinuzzaman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, USA
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Division, Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR), Dhaka 1205, Bangladesh
| | - Abu Hena Mostafa Kamal
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, USA
- Advanced Technology Cores, Dan L Duncan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jayanta K. Chakrabarty
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, USA
- Quantitative Proteomics and Metabolomics Center, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Aurchie Rahman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, USA
| | - Saiful M. Chowdhury
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-817-272-5439
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Liu C, Yan W, Shi J, Wang S, Peng A, Chen Y, Huang K. Biological Actions, Implications, and Cautions of Statins Therapy in COVID-19. Front Nutr 2022; 9:927092. [PMID: 35811982 PMCID: PMC9257176 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.927092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) showed worse prognosis and higher mortality in individuals with obesity. Dyslipidemia is a major link between obesity and COVID-19 severity. Statins as the most common lipid regulating drugs have shown favorable effects in various pathophysiological states. Importantly, accumulating observational studies have suggested that statin use is associated with reduced risk of progressing to severe illness and in-hospital death in COVID-19 patients. Possible explanations underlie these protective impacts include their abilities of reducing cholesterol, suppressing viral entry and replication, anti-inflammation and immunomodulatory effects, as well as anti-thrombosis and anti-oxidative properties. Despite these benefits, statin therapies have side effects that should be considered, such as elevated creatinine kinase, liver enzyme and serum glucose levels, which are already elevated in severe COVID-19. Concerns are also raised whether statins interfere with the efficacy of COVID-19 vaccines. Randomized controlled trials are being conducted worldwide to confirm the values of statin use for COVID-19 treatment. Generally, the results suggest no necessity to discontinue statin use, and no evidence suggesting interference between statins and COVID-19 vaccines. However, concomitant administration of statins and COVID-19 antiviral drug Paxlovid may increase statin exposure and the risk of adverse effects, because most statins are metabolized mainly through CYP3A4 which is potently inhibited by ritonavir, a major component of Paxlovid. Therefore, more clinical/preclinical studies are still warranted to understand the benefits, harms and mechanisms of statin use in the context of COVID-19.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chengyu Liu
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Wuhan Hospital of Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Wanyao Yan
- Department of Pharmacy, Wuhan Fourth Hospital, Wuhan, China
| | - Jiajian Shi
- Tongji School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Shun Wang
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Wuhan Hospital of Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Anlin Peng
- Wuhan Third Hospital, Tongren Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yuchen Chen
- Tongji School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- *Correspondence: Yuchen Chen
| | - Kun Huang
- Tongji School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Tongji-Rongcheng Center for Biomedicine, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Patel KK, Sehgal VS, Kashfi K. Molecular targets of statins and their potential side effects: Not all the glitter is gold. Eur J Pharmacol 2022; 922:174906. [PMID: 35321818 PMCID: PMC9007885 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2022.174906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2022] [Revised: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Statins are a class of drugs widely used worldwide to manage hypercholesterolemia and the prevention of secondary heart attacks. Currently, available statins vary in terms of their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles. Although the primary target of statins is the inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase (HMGR), the rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis, statins exhibit many pleiotropic effects downstream of the mevalonate pathway. These pleiotropic effects include the ability to reduce myocardial fibrosis, pathologic cardiac disease states, hypertension, promote bone differentiation, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor effects through multiple mechanisms. Although these pleiotropic effects of statins may be a cause for enthusiasm, there are many adverse effects that, for the most part, are unappreciated and need to be highlighted. These adverse effects include myopathy, new-onset type 2 diabetes, renal and hepatic dysfunction. Although these adverse effects may be relatively uncommon, considering the number of people worldwide who use statins daily, the actual number of people affected becomes quite large. Also, co-administration of statins with several other medications, herbal agents, and foods, which interact through common enzymatic pathways, can have untoward clinical consequences. In this review, we address these concerns.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kush K Patel
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Biomedical Sciences, Sophie Davis School of Biomedical Education, City University of New York School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Viren S Sehgal
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Biomedical Sciences, Sophie Davis School of Biomedical Education, City University of New York School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Khosrow Kashfi
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Biomedical Sciences, Sophie Davis School of Biomedical Education, City University of New York School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Graduate Program in Biology, City University of New York Graduate Center, New York, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Agur T, Wedel J, Bose S, Sahankumari AGP, Goodman D, Kong SW, Ghosh CC, Briscoe DM. Inhibition of mevalonate metabolism by statins augments the immunoregulatory phenotype of vascular endothelial cells and inhibits the costimulation of CD4 + T cells. Am J Transplant 2022; 22:947-954. [PMID: 34687147 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.16872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The statin family of therapeutics is widely used clinically as cholesterol lowering agents, and their effects to target intracellular mevalonate production is a key mechanism of action. In this study, we performed full transcriptomic RNA sequencing and qPCR to evaluate the effects of mevalonate on the immunoregulatory phenotype of endothelial cells (EC). We find that mevalonate-dependent gene regulation includes a reduction in the expression of multiple pro-inflammatory genes including TNFSF4 (OX40-L) and TNFSF18 (GITR-L) and a co-incident induction of immunoregulatory genes including LGALS3 (Galectin-3) and LGALS9 (Galectin-9). In functional assays, pretreatment of EC with simvastatin to inhibit mevalonate metabolism resulted in a dose-dependent reduction in the costimulation of CD45RO+ CD4+ T cell proliferation as well as IL-2, IFNγ and IL-6 production versus vehicle-treated EC. In contrast, pre-treatment of EC with L-mevalonate in combination with simvastatin reversed phenotypic and functional responses. Collectively, these results indicate that relative mevalonate metabolism by EC is critical to sustain EC-dependent mechanisms of immunity. Our findings have broad relevance for the repurposing of statins as therapeutics to augment immunoregulation and/or to inhibit local tissue pro-inflammatory cytokine production following transplantation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Timna Agur
- The Transplant Research Program and the Division of Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Johannes Wedel
- The Transplant Research Program and the Division of Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Sayantan Bose
- The Transplant Research Program and the Division of Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - A G Pramoda Sahankumari
- The Transplant Research Program and the Division of Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Daniel Goodman
- The Transplant Research Program and the Division of Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Sek Won Kong
- Computational Health Informatics Program, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Chandra C Ghosh
- The Transplant Research Program and the Division of Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - David M Briscoe
- The Transplant Research Program and the Division of Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Molecular Mechanisms of Neuroimmune Crosstalk in the Pathogenesis of Stroke. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22179486. [PMID: 34502395 PMCID: PMC8431165 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22179486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Stroke disrupts the homeostatic balance within the brain and is associated with a significant accumulation of necrotic cellular debris, fluid, and peripheral immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS). Additionally, cells, antigens, and other factors exit the brain into the periphery via damaged blood–brain barrier cells, glymphatic transport mechanisms, and lymphatic vessels, which dramatically influence the systemic immune response and lead to complex neuroimmune communication. As a result, the immunological response after stroke is a highly dynamic event that involves communication between multiple organ systems and cell types, with significant consequences on not only the initial stroke tissue injury but long-term recovery in the CNS. In this review, we discuss the complex immunological and physiological interactions that occur after stroke with a focus on how the peripheral immune system and CNS communicate to regulate post-stroke brain homeostasis. First, we discuss the post-stroke immune cascade across different contexts as well as homeostatic regulation within the brain. Then, we focus on the lymphatic vessels surrounding the brain and their ability to coordinate both immune response and fluid homeostasis within the brain after stroke. Finally, we discuss how therapeutic manipulation of peripheral systems may provide new mechanisms to treat stroke injury.
Collapse
|
8
|
Kashour T, Halwani R, Arabi YM, Sohail MR, O'Horo JC, Badley AD, Tleyjeh IM. Statins as an adjunctive therapy for COVID-19: the biological and clinical plausibility. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2021; 43:37-50. [PMID: 33406943 DOI: 10.1080/08923973.2020.1863984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that causes the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has infected millions of individuals and has claimed hundreds of thousands of human lives worldwide. Patients with underlying cardiovascular conditions are at high risk for SARS-CoV-2 infection, and COVID-19 patients have high incidence of cardiovascular complications such as acute cardiac injury, arrhythmias, heart failure, and thromboembolism. The disease has no approved proven effective therapy and hence repurposing of existing approved drugs has been considered as the fastest treatment approach. Statins have been shown to exhibit lipid lowering dependent and independent cardiovascular protective effects as well as favorable effects in various other pathophysiological states. These beneficial properties of statins are a result of their multiple pleotropic effects that include, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antithrombotic and antimicrobial properties. In this review, we provide a comprehensive description of the mechanisms of the pleotropic effects of statins, the relevant pre-clinical and clinical data pertinent to their role in infections and acute lung injury, the possible cardiovascular benefits of statins in COVID-19, and the implications of the therapeutic potential of statins in COVID-19 disease. We conclude with the rationale for conducting randomized controlled trials of statins in COVID-19 disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tarek Kashour
- Department of Cardiac Sciences, King Fahad Cardiac Center, King Saud University Medical City, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rabih Halwani
- Clinical Sciences Department, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE
| | - Yaseen M Arabi
- Intensive Care Department, Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.,King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - M Rizwan Sohail
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Baylor College of Medicine Houston, TX, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - John C O'Horo
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN, USA.,Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Andrew D Badley
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN, USA.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Imad M Tleyjeh
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN, USA.,Division of Epidemiology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN, USA.,Department of Medical Specialties, Infectious Diseases Section, King Fahad Medical City, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.,College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Dehnavi S, Sohrabi N, Sadeghi M, Lansberg P, Banach M, Al-Rasadi K, Johnston TP, Sahebkar A. Statins and autoimmunity: State-of-the-art. Pharmacol Ther 2020; 214:107614. [PMID: 32592715 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors, or statins, are potent plasma LDL-cholesterol (LDL-c) lowering agents. Since the introduction of the first statin, lovastatin, in 1987, accumulating evidence showed that non-cholesterol lowering effects play an important role in their efficacy to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Thus, these non-LDL-c lowering properties could benefit patients with immune-mediated diseases. Statins and their associated immune-modulating roles have recently received much attention. Different statins have been administered in various experimental and clinical studies focused on autoimmunity. The results indicate that statins can modulate immune responses through mevalonate pathway-dependent and -independent mechanisms. The anti-inflammatory and immune-modulating effects include cell adhesion, migration of antigen presenting cells, and differentiation, as well as activation, of T-cells. In various autoimmune diseases (e.g. rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and multiple sclerosis), promising results have been obtained to date.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sajad Dehnavi
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; Student Research Committee, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Nasrollah Sohrabi
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, School of Paramedicine, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Mahvash Sadeghi
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Peter Lansberg
- Department of Pediatrics, Section Molecular Genetics, University Medical Center Groningen, Building 3226, Room 04.14, Internal Zip Code EA12, Antonius Deusinglaan 19713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Maciej Banach
- Department of Hypertension, WAM University Hospital in Lodz, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland; Polish Mother's Memorial Hospital Research Institute (PMMHRI), Lodz, Poland
| | - Khalid Al-Rasadi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Sultan Qaboos University Hospital, Muscat, Oman
| | - Thomas P Johnston
- Division of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, United States.
| | - Amirhossein Sahebkar
- Halal Research Center of IRI, FDA, Tehran, Iran; Neurogenic Inflammation Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Švajger U, Rožman PJ. Recent discoveries in dendritic cell tolerance-inducing pharmacological molecules. Int Immunopharmacol 2020; 81:106275. [PMID: 32044665 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2020.106275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) represent one of the most important biological tools for cellular immunotherapy purposes. There are an increasing number of phase I and II studies, where regulatory or tolerogenic DCs (TolDCs) are utilized as negative vaccines, with the aim of inducing tolerogenic outcomes in patients with various autoimmune or chronic-inflammatory diseases, as well as in transplant settings. The induction of tolerogenic properties in DCs can be achieved by altering their activation state toward expression of immunosuppressive elements and/or by achieving resistance to maturation, which leads to insufficient co-stimulatory signal delivery and inability to efficiently present antigens. In the past, one of the most efficient ways to induce DC tolerance has been the application of selected pharmacological agents which actively induce a tolerogenic transcription program or inhibit major pro-inflammatory transcription factors such as Nf-κB. Important examples include immunosuppressants such as different corticosteroids, vitamin D3, rapamycin and others. The quality of TolDCs induced by different approaches is becoming a vital issue and recent evidence suggests substantial heterogeneity between variously-generated TolDCs as evidenced by their transcriptomic profile and function. The possibility of various "flavors" of TolDCs encourages future research in discovery of Tol-DC inducing agents to enrich various ways of DC manipulation. This would enable a broader range of tools to manipulate DC toward specific characteristics desirable in different disease settings. In recent years, several novel small molecules have been identified with the capacity to promote DC tolerogenic characteristics. In this review, we will present and discuss these novel findings and also highlight novel understandings of tolerogenic mechanisms by which DC tolerogenicity is induced by already established agents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Urban Švajger
- Blood Transfusion Center of Slovenia, Šlajmerjeva 6, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Primož J Rožman
- Blood Transfusion Center of Slovenia, Šlajmerjeva 6, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Chen CJ, Ding D, Ironside N, Buell TJ, Elder LJ, Warren A, Adams AP, Ratcliffe SJ, James RF, Naval NS, Worrall BB, Johnston KC, Southerland AM. Statins for neuroprotection in spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 2019; 93:1056-1066. [PMID: 31712367 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000008627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Statins, a common drug class for treatment of dyslipidemia, may be neuroprotective for spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) by targeting secondary brain injury pathways in the surrounding brain parenchyma. Statin-mediated neuroprotection may stem from downregulation of mevalonate and its derivatives, targeting key cell signaling pathways that control proliferation, adhesion, migration, cytokine production, and reactive oxygen species generation. Preclinical studies have consistently demonstrated the neuroprotective and recovery enhancement effects of statins, including improved neurologic function, reduced cerebral edema, increased angiogenesis and neurogenesis, accelerated hematoma clearance, and decreased inflammatory cell infiltration. Retrospective clinical studies have reported reduced perihematomal edema, lower mortality rates, and improved functional outcomes in patients who were taking statins before ICH. Several clinical studies have also observed lower mortality rates and improved functional outcomes in patients who were continued or initiated on statins after ICH. Subgroup analysis of a previous randomized trial has raised concerns of a potentially elevated risk of recurrent ICH in patients with previous hemorrhagic stroke who are administered statins. However, most statin trials failed to show an association between statin use and increased hemorrhagic stroke risk. Variable statin dosing, statin use in the pre-ICH setting, and selection biases have limited rigorous investigation of the effects of statins on post-ICH outcomes. Future prospective trials are needed to investigate the association between statin use and outcomes in ICH.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ching-Jen Chen
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (C.-J.C., N.I., T.J.B.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurological Surgery (D.D., R.F.J.), University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY; Clinical Trials Office (L.J.E., A.W.), University of Virginia School of Medicine; Department of Pharmacology (A.P.A.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Public Health Sciences (S.J.R., B.B.W., A.M.S.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurosurgery (N.S.N.), Baptist Health, Jacksonville, FL; and Department of Neurology (B.B.W., K.C.J., A.M.S.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA.
| | - Dale Ding
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (C.-J.C., N.I., T.J.B.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurological Surgery (D.D., R.F.J.), University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY; Clinical Trials Office (L.J.E., A.W.), University of Virginia School of Medicine; Department of Pharmacology (A.P.A.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Public Health Sciences (S.J.R., B.B.W., A.M.S.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurosurgery (N.S.N.), Baptist Health, Jacksonville, FL; and Department of Neurology (B.B.W., K.C.J., A.M.S.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA
| | - Natasha Ironside
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (C.-J.C., N.I., T.J.B.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurological Surgery (D.D., R.F.J.), University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY; Clinical Trials Office (L.J.E., A.W.), University of Virginia School of Medicine; Department of Pharmacology (A.P.A.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Public Health Sciences (S.J.R., B.B.W., A.M.S.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurosurgery (N.S.N.), Baptist Health, Jacksonville, FL; and Department of Neurology (B.B.W., K.C.J., A.M.S.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA
| | - Thomas J Buell
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (C.-J.C., N.I., T.J.B.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurological Surgery (D.D., R.F.J.), University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY; Clinical Trials Office (L.J.E., A.W.), University of Virginia School of Medicine; Department of Pharmacology (A.P.A.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Public Health Sciences (S.J.R., B.B.W., A.M.S.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurosurgery (N.S.N.), Baptist Health, Jacksonville, FL; and Department of Neurology (B.B.W., K.C.J., A.M.S.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA
| | - Lori J Elder
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (C.-J.C., N.I., T.J.B.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurological Surgery (D.D., R.F.J.), University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY; Clinical Trials Office (L.J.E., A.W.), University of Virginia School of Medicine; Department of Pharmacology (A.P.A.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Public Health Sciences (S.J.R., B.B.W., A.M.S.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurosurgery (N.S.N.), Baptist Health, Jacksonville, FL; and Department of Neurology (B.B.W., K.C.J., A.M.S.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA
| | - Amy Warren
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (C.-J.C., N.I., T.J.B.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurological Surgery (D.D., R.F.J.), University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY; Clinical Trials Office (L.J.E., A.W.), University of Virginia School of Medicine; Department of Pharmacology (A.P.A.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Public Health Sciences (S.J.R., B.B.W., A.M.S.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurosurgery (N.S.N.), Baptist Health, Jacksonville, FL; and Department of Neurology (B.B.W., K.C.J., A.M.S.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA
| | - Amy P Adams
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (C.-J.C., N.I., T.J.B.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurological Surgery (D.D., R.F.J.), University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY; Clinical Trials Office (L.J.E., A.W.), University of Virginia School of Medicine; Department of Pharmacology (A.P.A.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Public Health Sciences (S.J.R., B.B.W., A.M.S.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurosurgery (N.S.N.), Baptist Health, Jacksonville, FL; and Department of Neurology (B.B.W., K.C.J., A.M.S.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA
| | - Sarah J Ratcliffe
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (C.-J.C., N.I., T.J.B.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurological Surgery (D.D., R.F.J.), University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY; Clinical Trials Office (L.J.E., A.W.), University of Virginia School of Medicine; Department of Pharmacology (A.P.A.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Public Health Sciences (S.J.R., B.B.W., A.M.S.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurosurgery (N.S.N.), Baptist Health, Jacksonville, FL; and Department of Neurology (B.B.W., K.C.J., A.M.S.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA
| | - Robert F James
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (C.-J.C., N.I., T.J.B.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurological Surgery (D.D., R.F.J.), University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY; Clinical Trials Office (L.J.E., A.W.), University of Virginia School of Medicine; Department of Pharmacology (A.P.A.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Public Health Sciences (S.J.R., B.B.W., A.M.S.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurosurgery (N.S.N.), Baptist Health, Jacksonville, FL; and Department of Neurology (B.B.W., K.C.J., A.M.S.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA
| | - Neeraj S Naval
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (C.-J.C., N.I., T.J.B.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurological Surgery (D.D., R.F.J.), University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY; Clinical Trials Office (L.J.E., A.W.), University of Virginia School of Medicine; Department of Pharmacology (A.P.A.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Public Health Sciences (S.J.R., B.B.W., A.M.S.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurosurgery (N.S.N.), Baptist Health, Jacksonville, FL; and Department of Neurology (B.B.W., K.C.J., A.M.S.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA
| | - Bradford B Worrall
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (C.-J.C., N.I., T.J.B.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurological Surgery (D.D., R.F.J.), University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY; Clinical Trials Office (L.J.E., A.W.), University of Virginia School of Medicine; Department of Pharmacology (A.P.A.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Public Health Sciences (S.J.R., B.B.W., A.M.S.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurosurgery (N.S.N.), Baptist Health, Jacksonville, FL; and Department of Neurology (B.B.W., K.C.J., A.M.S.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA
| | - Karen C Johnston
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (C.-J.C., N.I., T.J.B.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurological Surgery (D.D., R.F.J.), University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY; Clinical Trials Office (L.J.E., A.W.), University of Virginia School of Medicine; Department of Pharmacology (A.P.A.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Public Health Sciences (S.J.R., B.B.W., A.M.S.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurosurgery (N.S.N.), Baptist Health, Jacksonville, FL; and Department of Neurology (B.B.W., K.C.J., A.M.S.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA
| | - Andrew M Southerland
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (C.-J.C., N.I., T.J.B.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurological Surgery (D.D., R.F.J.), University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY; Clinical Trials Office (L.J.E., A.W.), University of Virginia School of Medicine; Department of Pharmacology (A.P.A.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Public Health Sciences (S.J.R., B.B.W., A.M.S.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA; Department of Neurosurgery (N.S.N.), Baptist Health, Jacksonville, FL; and Department of Neurology (B.B.W., K.C.J., A.M.S.), University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Kamal AHM, Aloor JJ, Fessler MB, Chowdhury SM. Cross-linking Proteomics Indicates Effects of Simvastatin on the TLR2 Interactome and Reveals ACTR1A as a Novel Regulator of the TLR2 Signal Cascade. Mol Cell Proteomics 2019; 18:1732-1744. [PMID: 31221720 PMCID: PMC6731082 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.ra119.001377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2019] [Revised: 05/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) is a pattern recognition receptor that, upon ligation by microbial molecules, interacts with other proteins to initiate pro-inflammatory responses by the cell. Statins (hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors), drugs widely prescribed to reduce hypercholesterolemia, are reported to have both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects upon cells. Some of these responses are presumed to be driven by effects on signaling proteins at the plasma membrane, but the underlying mechanisms remain obscure. We reasoned that profiling the effect of statins on the repertoire of TLR2-interacting proteins might provide novel insights into the mechanisms by which statins impact inflammation. In order to study the TLR2 interactome, we designed a coimmunoprecipitation (IP)-based cross-linking proteomics study. A hemagglutinin (HA)-tagged-TLR2 transfected HEK293 cell line was used to precipitate the TLR2 interactome upon cell exposure to the TLR2 agonist Pam3CSK4 and simvastatin, singly and in combination. To stabilize protein interactors, we used two different chemical cross-linkers with different spacer chain lengths. Proteomic analysis revealed important combinatorial effects of simvastatin and Pam3CSK4 on the TLR2 interactome. After stringent data filtering, we identified alpha-centractin (ACTR1A), an actin-related protein and subunit of the dynactin complex, as a potential interactor of TLR2. The interaction was validated using biochemical methods. RNA interference studies revealed an important role for ACTR1A in induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Taken together, we report that statins remodel the TLR2 interactome, and we identify ACTR1A, a part of the dynactin complex, as a novel regulator of TLR2-mediated immune signaling pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abu Hena Mostafa Kamal
- ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at Arlington, Texas 76019
| | - Jim J Aloor
- §Immunity, Inflammation and Disease Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
| | - Michael B Fessler
- §Immunity, Inflammation and Disease Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
| | - Saiful M Chowdhury
- ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at Arlington, Texas 76019.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
On the immunoregulatory role of statins in multiple sclerosis: the effects on Th17 cells. Immunol Res 2019; 67:310-324. [DOI: 10.1007/s12026-019-09089-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
|
14
|
Beneficial effect of atorvastatin-modified dendritic cells pulsed with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein autoantigen on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Neuroreport 2019; 29:317-327. [PMID: 29394220 DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0000000000000962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
It is well known that dendritic cells play a key role in producing antigen-specific responses. Inversely, tolerogenic dendritic cells (TolDCs), a specialized subset, induce immune tolerance and negatively regulate autoimmune responses. Statins, the inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase in the mevalonate pathway for cholesterol biosynthesis, might be a promising inductive agent for inducing TolDCs. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of TolDCs induced by atorvastatin pulsed with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein 35-55 peptide (MOG35-55) in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis mice established by MOG35-55 immunization and to investigate the potential effects on Th17/Treg balance in the murine model of multiple sclerosis. Our results showed that atorvastatin-treated dendritic cells maintained a steady semimature phenotype with a low level of costimulatory molecules and proinflammatory cytokines. Upon an intraperitoneal injection into experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis mice, TolDCs pulsed with MOG (TolDCs-MOG) significantly alleviated disease activity and regulated Th17/Treg balance with a marked decrease in Th17 cells and an obvious increase in regulatory T cells. Taken together, TolDCs-MOG modified by atorvastatin showed a characteristic tolerogenic phenotype and the antigen-specific TolDCs might represent a new promising strategy for the future treatments for multiple sclerosis.
Collapse
|
15
|
Xia Y, Xie Y, Yu Z, Xiao H, Jiang G, Zhou X, Yang Y, Li X, Zhao M, Li L, Zheng M, Han S, Zong Z, Meng X, Deng H, Ye H, Fa Y, Wu H, Oldfield E, Hu X, Liu W, Shi Y, Zhang Y. The Mevalonate Pathway Is a Druggable Target for Vaccine Adjuvant Discovery. Cell 2018; 175:1059-1073.e21. [PMID: 30270039 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.08.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Motivated by the clinical observation that interruption of the mevalonate pathway stimulates immune responses, we hypothesized that this pathway may function as a druggable target for vaccine adjuvant discovery. We found that lipophilic statin drugs and rationally designed bisphosphonates that target three distinct enzymes in the mevalonate pathway have potent adjuvant activities in mice and cynomolgus monkeys. These inhibitors function independently of conventional "danger sensing." Instead, they inhibit the geranylgeranylation of small GTPases, including Rab5 in antigen-presenting cells, resulting in arrested endosomal maturation, prolonged antigen retention, enhanced antigen presentation, and T cell activation. Additionally, inhibiting the mevalonate pathway enhances antigen-specific anti-tumor immunity, inducing both Th1 and cytolytic T cell responses. As demonstrated in multiple mouse cancer models, the mevalonate pathway inhibitors are robust for cancer vaccinations and synergize with anti-PD-1 antibodies. Our research thus defines the mevalonate pathway as a druggable target for vaccine adjuvants and cancer immunotherapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yun Xia
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China; Joint Graduate Program of Peking-Tsinghua-NIBS, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Yonghua Xie
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Zhengsen Yu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Hongying Xiao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China; Joint Graduate Program of Peking-Tsinghua-NIBS, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan, China
| | - Guimei Jiang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan, China
| | - Xiaoying Zhou
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Yunyun Yang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Xin Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China; Joint Graduate Program of Peking-Tsinghua-NIBS, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Meng Zhao
- Joint Graduate Program of Peking-Tsinghua-NIBS, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China; MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Liping Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Mingke Zheng
- Institute for Immunology and School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Shuai Han
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Zhaoyun Zong
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Xianbin Meng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Haiteng Deng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Huahu Ye
- Laboratory Animal Center, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, 100071 Beijing, China
| | - Yunzhi Fa
- Laboratory Animal Center, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, 100071 Beijing, China
| | - Haitao Wu
- Department of Neurobiology, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, 100850 Beijing, China
| | - Eric Oldfield
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Xiaoyu Hu
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan, China; Institute for Immunology and School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Wanli Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China; Institute for Immunology and School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China.
| | - Yan Shi
- Institute for Immunology and School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China; Institute Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Snyder Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.
| | - Yonghui Zhang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China; Joint Graduate Program of Peking-Tsinghua-NIBS, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan, China.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Arefieva TI, Filatova AY, Potekhina AV, Shchinova AM. Immunotropic Effects and Proposed Mechanism of Action for 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A Reductase Inhibitors (Statins). BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2018; 83:874-889. [PMID: 30208827 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297918080023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Inhibitors of HMG-CoA reductase (statins) are the major group of lipid-lowering drugs. Along with hypocholesterolemic activity, statins exhibit anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties that expand their clinical use, particularly, in the treatment of chronic inflammatory and autoimmune disorders. In this review, we critically analyze the data of statin effects on immune cells (e.g., monocytes and T cells) involved in the development of atherosclerosis and other chronic inflammatory diseases. We (i) discuss the properties of statins and routes of cell entry, as well as their major intracellular targets; (ii) evaluate the data on the effects of statins on the subset composition of circulatory monocytes, ability of monocytes to migrate to the site of inflammation (cell motility and expression of adhesion molecules and chemokine receptors), production of cytokines, matrix metalloproteinases, and reactive oxygen species by monocytes/macrophages, and antigen-presenting activity in peripheral blood monocyte-derived dendritic cells; and (iii) summarize the data on the regulation of proliferation and differentiation of various CD4+ T cell subsets (type 1/2/17 helper T cells and regulatory T cells) by statins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T I Arefieva
- National Medical Research Center of Cardiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 121552, Russia.,Kurchatov Institute National Research Center Complex, Moscow, 123182, Russia
| | - A Yu Filatova
- National Medical Research Center of Cardiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 121552, Russia.
| | - A V Potekhina
- National Medical Research Center of Cardiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 121552, Russia
| | - A M Shchinova
- National Medical Research Center of Cardiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 121552, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Gruenbacher G, Thurnher M. Mevalonate Metabolism in Immuno-Oncology. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1714. [PMID: 29250078 PMCID: PMC5717006 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Immuno-oncology not only refers to the multifaceted relationship between our immune system and a developing cancer but also includes therapeutic approaches that harness the body's immune system to fight cancer. The recognition that metabolic reprogramming governs immunity was a key finding with important implications for immuno-oncology. In this review, we want to explore how activation and differentiation-induced metabolic reprogramming affects the mevalonate pathway for cholesterol biosynthesis in immune and cancer cells. Glycolysis-fueled mevalonate metabolism is a critical pathway in immune effector cells, which may, however, be shared by cancer stem cells, complicating the development of therapeutic strategies. Additional engagement of fatty acidy oxidation, as it occurs in regulatory immune cells as well as in certain tumor types, may influence mevalonate pathway activity. Transcellular mevalonate metabolism may play an as yet unanticipated role in the crosstalk between the various cell types and may add another level of complexity. In humans, a subset of γδ T cells is specifically adapted to perform surveillance of mevalonate pathway dysregulation. While the mevalonate pathway remains an important target in immuno-oncology, in terms of personalized medicine, it may be the type or stage of a malignant disease that determines whether mevalonate metabolism requires training or attenuation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Georg Gruenbacher
- Immunotherapy Unit, Department of Urology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Martin Thurnher
- Immunotherapy Unit, Department of Urology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Ding YH, Qian LY, Pang J, Lin JY, Xu Q, Wang LH, Huang DS, Zou H. The regulation of immune cells by Lactobacilli: a potential therapeutic target for anti-atherosclerosis therapy. Oncotarget 2017; 8:59915-59928. [PMID: 28938693 PMCID: PMC5601789 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.18346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease regulated by several immune cells including lymphocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells. Gut probiotic bacteria like Lactobacilli have been shown immunomodificatory effects in the progression of atherogenesis. Some Lactobacillus stains can upregulate the activity of regulatory T-lymphocytes, suppress T-lymphocyte helper (Th) cells Th1, Th17, alter the Th1/Th2 ratio, influence the subsets ratio of M1/M2 macrophages, inhibit foam cell formation by suppressing macrophage phagocytosis of oxidized low-density lipoprotein, block the activation of the immune system with dendritic cells, which are expected to suppress the atherosclerosis-related inflammation. However, various strains can have various effects on inflammation. Some other Lactobacillus strains were found have potential pro-atherogenic effect through promote Th1 cell activity, increase pro-inflammatory cytokines levels as well as decrease anti-inflammatory cytokines levels. Thus, identifying the appropriate strains is essential to the therapeutic potential of Lactobacilli as an anti-atherosclerotic therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Hui Ding
- Department of Cardiology, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Hangzhou 310014, Chinaa.,People's Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Lin-Yan Qian
- Department of Cardiology, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Hangzhou 310014, Chinaa.,People's Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Jie Pang
- Department of Cardiology, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Hangzhou 310014, Chinaa.,People's Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Jing-Yang Lin
- Department of Cardiology, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Hangzhou 310014, Chinaa.,People's Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Qiang Xu
- Department of Cardiology, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Hangzhou 310014, Chinaa.,People's Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Li-Hong Wang
- Department of Cardiology, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Hangzhou 310014, Chinaa.,People's Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Dong-Sheng Huang
- People's Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, China.,Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Hai Zou
- Department of Cardiology, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Hangzhou 310014, Chinaa.,People's Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, China
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Nasi A, Bollampalli VP, Sun M, Chen Y, Amu S, Nylén S, Eidsmo L, Rothfuchs AG, Réthi B. Immunogenicity is preferentially induced in sparse dendritic cell cultures. Sci Rep 2017; 7:43989. [PMID: 28276533 PMCID: PMC5343661 DOI: 10.1038/srep43989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously shown that human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DCs) acquired different characteristics in dense or sparse cell cultures. Sparsity promoted the development of IL-12 producing migratory DCs, whereas dense cultures increased IL-10 production. Here we analysed whether the density-dependent endogenous breaks could modulate DC-based vaccines. Using murine bone marrow-derived DC models we show that sparse cultures were essential to achieve several key functions required for immunogenic DC vaccines, including mobility to draining lymph nodes, recruitment and massive proliferation of antigen-specific CD4+ T cells, in addition to their TH1 polarization. Transcription analyses confirmed higher commitment in sparse cultures towards T cell activation, whereas DCs obtained from dense cultures up-regulated immunosuppressive pathway components and genes suggesting higher differentiation plasticity towards osteoclasts. Interestingly, we detected a striking up-regulation of fatty acid and cholesterol biosynthesis pathways in sparse cultures, suggesting an important link between DC immunogenicity and lipid homeostasis regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aikaterini Nasi
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Meng Sun
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital and Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Yang Chen
- Department of Medicine, Science for Life Laboratory, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Sylvie Amu
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Susanne Nylén
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Liv Eidsmo
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital and Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | | | - Bence Réthi
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital and Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Lei A, Yang Q, Li X, Chen H, Shi M, Xiao Q, Cao Y, He Y, Zhou J. Atorvastatin promotes the expansion of myeloid-derived suppressor cells and attenuates murine colitis. Immunology 2016; 149:432-446. [PMID: 27548304 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2016] [Revised: 08/16/2016] [Accepted: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Statins, widely prescribed as cholesterol-lowering drugs, have recently been extensively studied for their pleiotropic effects on immune systems, especially their beneficial effects on autoimmune and inflammatory disorders. However, the mechanism of statin-induced immunosuppression is far from understood. Here, we found that atorvastatin promoted the expansion of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) both in vitro and in vivo. Atorvastatin-derived MDSCs suppressed T-cell responses by nitric oxide production. Addition of mevalonate, a downstream metabolite of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase, almost completely abrogated the effect of atorvastatin on MDSCs, indicating that the mevalonate pathway was involved. Along with the amelioration of dextran sodium sulphate (DSS) -induced murine acute and chronic colitis, we observed a higher MDSC level both in spleen and intestine tissue compared with that from DSS control mice. More importantly, transfer of atorvastatin-derived MDSCs attenuated DSS acute colitis and T-cell transfer of chronic colitis. Hence, our data suggest that the expansion of MDSCs induced by statins may exert a beneficial effect on autoimmune diseases. In summary, our study provides a novel potential mechanism for statins-based treatment in inflammatory bowel disease and perhaps other autoimmune diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aihua Lei
- Programme in Immunology, Affiliated Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Centre, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Institute of Human Virology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qiong Yang
- Programme in Immunology, Affiliated Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Centre, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Institute of Human Virology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xing Li
- Programme in Immunology, Affiliated Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Centre, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Institute of Human Virology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Haiwen Chen
- Programme in Immunology, Affiliated Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Centre, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Institute of Human Virology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Maohua Shi
- Department of Rheumatology, First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qiang Xiao
- Programme in Immunology, Affiliated Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Centre, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Institute of Human Virology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yingjiao Cao
- Programme in Immunology, Affiliated Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Centre, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Institute of Human Virology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yumei He
- Programme in Immunology, Affiliated Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Centre, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Institute of Human Virology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jie Zhou
- Programme in Immunology, Affiliated Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Centre, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China. .,Institute of Human Virology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China. .,Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control (Sun Yat-sen University), Chinese Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Xu X, Li H. Integrated microRNA‑gene analysis of coronary artery disease based on miRNA and gene expression profiles. Mol Med Rep 2016; 13:3063-73. [PMID: 26936111 PMCID: PMC4805068 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2016.4936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to investigate the key genes and microRNAs (miRNA/miRs) associated with coronary artery disease (CAD) progression. The gene expression profile of GSE20680 and GSE12288, and the miRNA expression profile of GSE28858 were downloaded from the gene expression omnibus database. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in GSE20680 and GSE12288, and the differentially expressed miRNAs in GSE28858 were screened using the limma package in R software. Common DEGs between GSE20680 and GSE12288 were selected. Functions and pathways of DEGs and miRNAs were enriched using the DAVID tool from the GO and KEGG databases. The regulatory network of miRNA and selected CAD-associated DEGs was constructed. A total of 270 DEGs (167 upregulated and 103 downregulated) based on the GSE20680 dataset, and 2,268 DEGs (534 upregulated and 1,734 downregulated) based on the GSE12288 dataset, were screened. For the differentially expressed miRNAs, 214 were identified (102 upregulated and 112 downregulated) in CAD samples and were screened. Interferon regulatory factor 2 (IRF2) and cell death-inducing DFFA-like effector b (CIDEB), which are regulated by signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 and myc-associated factor X, were identified as common DEGs for CAD. miR-455-5p, miR-455-3p and miR-1257, which are involved in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)protein assembly pathway and peptide antigen assembly with MHC class I protein complex pathway, may regulate various miRNAs and target genes, including pro-opiomelancortin (POMC), toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), interleukin 10 (IL10), activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6) and calreticulin (CALR). The current study identified IRF2 and CIDEB as crucial genes, and miRNA-455-5p, miRNA-455-3p and miR-1257 along with their target genes POMC, TLR4 and CALR, as miRNAs involved in CAD progression. Thus, the present study may provide a basis for future research into the progression mechanism of CAD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiangdong Xu
- Vasculocardiology Department, Jiading Central Hospital, Shanghai 201800, P.R China
| | - Hongsong Li
- Vasculocardiology Department, Jiading Central Hospital, Shanghai 201800, P.R China
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Chandra A, Xu YM. Cholesterol: A necessary evil from a multiple sclerosis perspective. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/cen3.12289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Avinash Chandra
- Buffalo Neuroimaging Analysis Center; Department of Neurology; Buffalo General Hospital; Buffalo NY USA
- Department of Neurology; Annapurna Neurological Institute and Allied Sciences; Kathmandu Nepal
| | - Yu Ming Xu
- Department of Neurology III; The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University; Zhengzhou China
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Simvastatin ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by inhibiting Th1/Th17 response and cellular infiltration. Inflammopharmacology 2015; 23:343-54. [PMID: 26559850 DOI: 10.1007/s10787-015-0252-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
AIM Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a CD4(+)-mediated autoimmune pathology of the central nervous system (CNS) that is used as a model for the study of the human neuroinflammatory disease, multiple sclerosis. During the development of EAE, auto-reactive Th1 and Th17 CD4(+) T cells infiltrate the CNS promoting inflammatory cells recruitment, focal inflammation and tissue destruction. In this sense, statins, agents used to lower lipid levels, have recently shown to exert interesting immunomodulatory function. In fact, statins promote a bias towards a Th2 response, which ameliorates the clinical outcome of EAE. Additionally, simvastatin can inhibit Th17 differentiation. However, many other effects exerted on the immune system by statins have yet to be clarified, in particular during neuroinflammation. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of simvastatin on the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. METHODS Mice were immunized with MOG(35-55) and EAE severity was assessed daily and scored using a clinical scale. Cytokine secretion by mononuclear cells infiltrating the CNS was evaluated by flow cytometry. RESULTS Simvastatin (5 mg/kg/day) improved clinical outcome, induced an increase in TGF-β mRNA expression and inhibited IL-6, IL-12p40, IL-12p70, RANTES and MIP-1β secretion (p < 0.05). This was accompanied by a significant decrease in CNS inflammatory mononuclear cell infiltration, with reduced frequencies of both Th1 and Th17 cells. Simvastatin inhibited the proliferation of T lymphocytes co-cultured with primary microglial cells. CONCLUSIONS Simvastatin treatment promotes EAE clinical amelioration by inhibiting T cell proliferation and CNS infiltration by pathogenic Th1 and Th17 cells.
Collapse
|
24
|
Ladak K, Pope JE. A review of the effects of statins in systemic sclerosis. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2015; 45:698-705. [PMID: 26639033 DOI: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2015.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2015] [Revised: 10/10/2015] [Accepted: 10/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We performed a literature review assessing possible benefits of statins in systemic sclerosis (SSc). METHODS PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Databases, and Medline were searched. Full-text English publications were identified in which the effects of statins in SSc were examined. Letters, review articles, and studies on morphea were excluded. RESULTS In all, 18 of 404 studies were relevant. In vitro, statins decreased transcription and translation of IL-6 and collagen, with reversal via mevalonate. Animal studies demonstrated reduced production of Ras (a protein superfamily of GTPases), Rho (part of the Ras superfamily), and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK), less fibrosis and myofibroblast transdifferentiation, and improved macrovasculature. In human studies, IL-6, an inflammatory cytokine, was reduced. Usually endothelial progenitor cell concentrations increased, and flow-mediated dilatation improved. Raynaud's phenomenon, digital ulcers, and physician global assessments improved in the majority of studies of statin treatment in SSc. None of the 256 patients receiving statins experienced transaminitis or myopathy. CONCLUSIONS Not all findings were consistent. However, in general, in vitro, animal, and human studies demonstrated benefit in SSc pathophysiology, likely mediated through inhibition of lipid intermediate synthesis. Clinical improvement in SSc circulatory complications was observed. Statins seemed safe and well tolerated in SSc. Larger longer-term multi-site randomized trials are needed to further determine the role of statins as adjunctive treatment of this complex, heterogeneous connective tissue disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karim Ladak
- De Groote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Janet E Pope
- Schulich School of Medicine, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada; St. Joseph's Health Care, 268 Grosvenor St., London, Ontario, Canada N6A 4V2.
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Li HQ, Zhang Q, Chen L, Yin CS, Chen P, Tang J, Rong R, Li TT, Hu LQ. Captopril inhibits maturation of dendritic cells and maintains their tolerogenic property in atherosclerotic rats. Int Immunopharmacol 2015; 28:715-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2015.05.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2015] [Revised: 05/11/2015] [Accepted: 05/31/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
26
|
Pihl-Jensen G, Tsakiri A, Frederiksen JL. Statin treatment in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. CNS Drugs 2015; 29:277-91. [PMID: 25795002 DOI: 10.1007/s40263-015-0239-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease that leads to progressive disability. Statins [hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors] are widely prescribed drugs in hypercholesterolemia. They exert immunomodulatory and neurotrophic effects and are attractive candidates for MS treatment due to reliable safety profiles and favorable costs. Studies of statins in a murine MS model and in open-label trials in MS have shown decreased disease severity. OBJECTIVE Our objective was to assess current evidence to support statin treatment in MS and clinically isolated syndrome (CIS). METHODS We conducted a systematic literature review of EMBASE, PubMed, and CINAHL databases, clinical trials registries, and unpublished conference meeting abstracts as well as reference lists between 1 and 8 June 2014 and repeated it on 1 December 2014. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of statins, in any form or dosage, as monotherapy or add-on to established therapy in relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS), progressive MS, and CIS were included. Data were extracted using pre-defined fields to measure study quality. Meta-analysis was performed with regards to pre-defined outcome measures of relapse activity, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) activity, Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) progression, and adverse events using a fixed-effects model due to low heterogeneity between studies. RESULTS Eight trials were included in the review [five of statin add-on to interferon (IFN)-β treatment in RRMS, one of statin monotherapy in CIS, one of statin monotherapy in optic neuritis (ON)/CIS, and one of statin monotherapy in secondary progressive MS (SPMS)]. Three trials with eligible characteristics had not been published in peer-reviewed journals and were therefore not included. Due to the low number of trials in CIS and SPMS, meta-analysis of primary outcomes was only performed for RRMS studies. Meta-analysis showed no significant effect of statin add-on to IFNβ therapy. Indeed, a trend towards an increase in disease activity was shown in the statin group with regards to new T2 lesions, proportion of patients with relapse, and whole brain atrophy but not for EDSS progression. In SPMS, statin monotherapy showed significant reduction in brain atrophy and disability progression but no effect on relapse rate. In CIS, a phase II trial showed no difference in relapse activity, MRI activity or risk of MS between statin monotherapy and placebo. In acute ON, statin monotherapy produced better visual outcome but no difference in relapse activity, MRI activity, or risk of MS. CONCLUSIONS The pleiotropic effects and effects in the murine model of MS could not be converted to a proven effect in relapsing MS and hence statin therapy either as a monotherapy or in combination with IFNβ treatment for RRMS, and statin monotherapy for CIS cannot at present be recommended. However, indications are that statins may be beneficial in SPMS. The benefit thereof and whether this is due to a direct immunomodulatory and neuroprotective effect warrant further studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gorm Pihl-Jensen
- Clinic of Optic Neuritis and Clinic of Multiple Sclerosis, Neurological Department, Glostrup Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Nordre Ringvej 57, 2600, Glostrup, Denmark,
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Marini BL, Choi SW, Byersdorfer CA, Cronin S, Frame DG. Treatment of dyslipidemia in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant patients. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2014; 21:809-20. [PMID: 25459644 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbmt.2014.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2014] [Accepted: 10/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
As survival rates in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) continue to improve, attention to long-term complications, including cardiovascular disease, becomes a major concern. Cardiovascular disease and dyslipidemia are a common, yet often overlooked occurrence post-HSCT that results in significant morbidity and mortality. Also, increasing evidence shows that several anti-hyperlipidemia medications, the 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors in particular, may have a role in modulating graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). However, factors such as drug-drug interactions, adverse effect profiles, and the relative efficacy in lowering cholesterol and triglyceride levels must be taken into account when choosing safe and effective lipid-lowering therapy in this setting. This review seeks to provide guidance to the clinician in the management of dyslipidemia in the allogeneic HSCT population, taking into account the recently published American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association guidelines on hyperlipidemia management, special considerations in this challenging population, and the evidence for each agent's potential role in modulating GVHD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bernard Lawrence Marini
- Department of Pharmacy Services and Clinical Sciences, University of Michigan Health System and College of Pharmacy, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
| | - Sung Won Choi
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Craig Alan Byersdorfer
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Simon Cronin
- Department of Pharmacy, Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, Michigan
| | - David G Frame
- Department of Pharmacy Services and Clinical Sciences, University of Michigan Health System and College of Pharmacy, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Shimabukuro-Vornhagen A, Zoghi S, Liebig TM, Wennhold K, Chemitz J, Draube A, Kochanek M, Blaschke F, Pallasch C, Holtick U, Scheid C, Theurich S, Hallek M, von Bergwelt-Baildon MS. Inhibition of protein geranylgeranylation specifically interferes with CD40-dependent B cell activation, resulting in a reduced capacity to induce T cell immunity. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 193:5294-305. [PMID: 25311809 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1203436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Ab-independent effector functions of B cells, such as Ag presentation and cytokine production, have been shown to play an important role in a variety of immune-mediated conditions such as autoimmune diseases, transplant rejection, and graft-versus-host disease. Most current immunosuppressive treatments target T cells, are relatively unspecific, and result in profound immunosuppression that places patients at an increased risk of developing severe infections and cancer. Therapeutic strategies, which interfere with B cell activation, could therefore be a useful addition to the current immunosuppressive armamentarium. Using a transcriptomic approach, we identified upregulation of genes that belong to the mevalonate pathway as a key molecular event following CD40-mediated activation of B cells. Inhibition of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase, the rate-limiting enzyme of the mevalonate pathway, by lipophilic statins such as simvastatin and atorvastatin resulted in a specific inhibition of B cell activation via CD40 and impaired their ability to act as stimulatory APCs for allospecific T cells. Mechanistically, the inhibitory effect resulted from the inhibition of protein geranylgeranylation subsequent to the depletion of mevalonate, the metabolic precursor for geranylgeranyl. Thus, inhibition of geranylgeranylation either directly through geranylgeranyl transferase inhibitors or indirectly through statins represents a promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of diseases in which Ag presentation by B cells plays a role.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Shimabukuro-Vornhagen
- Cologne Interventional Immunology, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Stem Cell Transplantation Program, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Intensive Care Unit and Laboratory for Department I of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany;
| | - Shahram Zoghi
- Cologne Interventional Immunology, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany
| | - Tanja M Liebig
- Cologne Interventional Immunology, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany
| | - Kerstin Wennhold
- Cologne Interventional Immunology, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany
| | - Jens Chemitz
- Stem Cell Transplantation Program, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany
| | - Andreas Draube
- Cologne Interventional Immunology, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany
| | - Matthias Kochanek
- Stem Cell Transplantation Program, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Intensive Care Unit and Laboratory for Department I of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany
| | - Florian Blaschke
- Department of Cardiology, Charité Campus Virchow-Klinikum, 13353 Berlin, Germany; and Experimental and Clinical Research Center, a joint cooperation between the Charité Medical Faculty and the Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Pallasch
- Stem Cell Transplantation Program, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany
| | - Udo Holtick
- Cologne Interventional Immunology, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Stem Cell Transplantation Program, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany
| | - Christof Scheid
- Stem Cell Transplantation Program, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany
| | - Sebastian Theurich
- Cologne Interventional Immunology, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Stem Cell Transplantation Program, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany
| | - Michael Hallek
- Stem Cell Transplantation Program, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Intensive Care Unit and Laboratory for Department I of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany
| | - Michael S von Bergwelt-Baildon
- Cologne Interventional Immunology, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Stem Cell Transplantation Program, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Intensive Care Unit and Laboratory for Department I of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Cologne, 50924 Cologne, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Ulivieri C, Baldari CT. Statins: From cholesterol-lowering drugs to novel immunomodulators for the treatment of Th17-mediated autoimmune diseases. Pharmacol Res 2014; 88:41-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2014.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2013] [Revised: 03/04/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
|
30
|
Urra X, Miró F, Chamorro A, Planas AM. Antigen-specific immune reactions to ischemic stroke. Front Cell Neurosci 2014; 8:278. [PMID: 25309322 PMCID: PMC4162361 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2014] [Accepted: 08/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain proteins are detected in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood of stroke patients and their concentration is related to the extent of brain damage. Antibodies against brain antigens develop after stroke, suggesting a humoral immune response to the brain injury. Furthermore, induced immune tolerance is beneficial in animal models of cerebral ischemia. The presence of circulating T cells sensitized against brain antigens, and antigen presenting cells (APCs) carrying brain antigens in draining lymphoid tissue of stroke patients support the notion that stroke might induce antigen-specific immune responses. After stroke, brain proteins that are normally hidden from the periphery, inflammatory mediators, and danger signals can exit the brain through several efflux routes. They can reach the blood after leaking out of the damaged blood-brain barrier (BBB) or following the drainage of interstitial fluid to the dural venous sinus, or reach the cervical lymph nodes through the nasal lymphatics following CSF drainage along the arachnoid sheaths of nerves across the nasal submucosa. The route and mode of access of brain antigens to lymphoid tissue could influence the type of response. Central and peripheral tolerance prevents autoimmunity, but the actual mechanisms of tolerance to brain antigens released into the periphery in the presence of inflammation, danger signals, and APCs, are not fully characterized. Stroke does not systematically trigger autoimmunity, but under certain circumstances, such as pronounced systemic inflammation or infection, autoreactive T cells could escape the tolerance controls. Further investigation is needed to elucidate whether antigen-specific immune events could underlie neurological complications impairing recovery from stroke.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xabier Urra
- Functional Unit of Cerebrovascular Diseases, Hospital Clínic Barcelona, Spain ; August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS) Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francesc Miró
- August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS) Barcelona, Spain
| | - Angel Chamorro
- Functional Unit of Cerebrovascular Diseases, Hospital Clínic Barcelona, Spain ; August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS) Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anna M Planas
- August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS) Barcelona, Spain ; Department of Brain Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas de Barcelona (IIBB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) Barcelona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Leuenberger T, Pfueller CF, Luessi F, Bendix I, Paterka M, Prozorovski T, Treue D, Luenstedt S, Herz J, Siffrin V, Infante-Duarte C, Zipp F, Waiczies S. Modulation of dendritic cell immunobiology via inhibition of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase. PLoS One 2014; 9:e100871. [PMID: 25013913 PMCID: PMC4094470 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0100871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2014] [Accepted: 05/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The maturation status of dendritic cells determines whether interacting T cells are activated or if they become tolerant. Previously we could induce T cell tolerance by applying a 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitor (HMGCRI) atorvastatin, which also modulates MHC class II expression and has therapeutic potential in autoimmune disease. Here, we aimed at elucidating the impact of this therapeutic strategy on T cell differentiation as a consequence of alterations in dendritic cell function. We investigated the effect of HMGCRI during differentiation of peripheral human monocytes and murine bone marrow precursors to immature DC in vitro and assessed their phenotype. To examine the stimulatory and tolerogenic capacity of these modulated immature dendritic cells, we measured proliferation and suppressive function of CD4+ T cells after stimulation with the modulated immature dendritic cells. We found that an HMGCRI, atorvastatin, prevents dendrite formation during the generation of immature dendritic cells. The modulated immature dendritic cells had a diminished capacity to take up and present antigen as well as to induce an immune response. Of note, the consequence was an increased capacity to differentiate naïve T cells towards a suppressor phenotype that is less sensitive to proinflammatory stimuli and can effectively inhibit the proliferation of T effector cells in vitro. Thus, manipulation of antigen-presenting cells by HMGCRI contributes to an attenuated immune response as shown by promotion of T cells with suppressive capacities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tina Leuenberger
- Department of Neurology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
- Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine Berlin-Buch, Berlin, Germany
| | - Caspar F. Pfueller
- NeuroCure Clinical Research Center, Charité University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Felix Luessi
- Department of Neurology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Ivo Bendix
- Department of Pediatrics I/Neonatology, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Magdalena Paterka
- Department of Neurology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
- Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine Berlin-Buch, Berlin, Germany
| | - Timour Prozorovski
- Department of Neurology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Denise Treue
- Institute of Pathology, Charité University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sarah Luenstedt
- Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine Berlin-Buch, Berlin, Germany
| | - Josephine Herz
- Department of Pediatrics I/Neonatology, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Volker Siffrin
- Department of Neurology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
- Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine Berlin-Buch, Berlin, Germany
| | - Carmen Infante-Duarte
- Institute for Medical Immunology, Charité University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Frauke Zipp
- Department of Neurology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
- Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine Berlin-Buch, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sonia Waiczies
- Berlin Ultrahigh Field Facility (B.U.F.F.), Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Kim YC, Song SB, Lee SK, Park SM, Kim YS. The Nuclear Orphan Receptor NR4A1 is Involved in the Apoptotic Pathway Induced by LPS and Simvastatin in RAW 264.7 Macrophages. Immune Netw 2014; 14:116-22. [PMID: 24851101 PMCID: PMC4022779 DOI: 10.4110/in.2014.14.2.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2014] [Revised: 03/26/2014] [Accepted: 03/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Macrophage death plays a role in several physiological and inflammatory pathologies such as sepsis and arthritis. In our previous work, we showed that simvastatin triggers cell death in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 mouse macrophage cells through both caspase-dependent and independent apoptotic pathways. Here, we show that the nuclear orphan receptor NR4A1 is involved in a caspase-independent apoptotic process induced by LPS and simvastatin. Simvastatin-induced NR4A1 expression in RAW 264.7 macrophages and ectopic expression of a dominant-negative mutant form of NR4A1 effectively suppressed both DNA fragmentation and the disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) during LPS- and simvastatin-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, apoptosis was accompanied by Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) translocation to the mitochondria. Our findings suggest that NR4A1 expression and mitochondrial translocation of Bax are related to simvastatin-induced apoptosis in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 macrophages.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yong Chan Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Natural Sciences, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 305-764, Korea
| | - Seok Bean Song
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Natural Sciences, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 305-764, Korea
| | - Sang Kyu Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Natural Sciences, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 305-764, Korea
| | - Sang Min Park
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Natural Sciences, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 305-764, Korea
| | - Young Sang Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Natural Sciences, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 305-764, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Ciurleo R, Bramanti P, Marino S. Role of statins in the treatment of multiple sclerosis. Pharmacol Res 2014; 87:133-43. [PMID: 24657241 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2014.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2014] [Revised: 03/10/2014] [Accepted: 03/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Statins as inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase are widely prescribed for hypercholesterolemia treatment. In the last years, statins have also been shown to exert immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects which appear to be related to inhibition of isoprenylation of small GTP-binding proteins and, at least in part, independent of their cholesterol-lowering effects. These "pleiotropic" effects make statins an attractive treatment option for immune-mediated disorders such as multiple sclerosis. Studies in vitro and in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis animal model seem to support not only the efficacy of statins as immunomodulatory agents but also their potential neuroprotective properties, although the exact mechanism with which statins exert these effects has not yet been fully understood. The immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties of statins provided the incentive for several clinical trials in multiple sclerosis, in which they were tested not only as mono-therapy but also in combination with interferon-β. However, the attempt to translate the results of animal model studies in humans produced conflicting results. Further large, prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials, designed to evaluate the long-term effects of statins alone or in add-on to other disease-modifying therapies, are needed to support their routine clinical use in multiple sclerosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Silvia Marino
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino-Pulejo", Messina, Italy; Department of Biomedical Sciences and Morphological and Functional Imaging, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Zanette DL, van Eggermond MC, Haasnoot G, van den Elsen PJ. Simvastatin reduces CCL2 expression in monocyte-derived cells by induction of a repressive CCL2 chromatin state. Hum Immunol 2014; 75:10-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.humimm.2013.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2013] [Revised: 09/20/2013] [Accepted: 09/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
|
35
|
Affiliation(s)
- Anette Christ
- Department of Pathology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands (A.C., L.T., B.L., E.A.L.B.); Department of Cell Biology, Institute for Biomedical Engineering, Aachen University Hospital, Aachen, Germany (A.C.); and Department of Pathology, Amsterdam Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (M.J.A.P.D.)
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Tuuminen R, Nykänen AI, Saharinen P, Gautam P, Keränen MAI, Arnaudova R, Rouvinen E, Helin H, Tammi R, Rilla K, Krebs R, Lemström KB. Donor simvastatin treatment prevents ischemia-reperfusion and acute kidney injury by preserving microvascular barrier function. Am J Transplant 2013; 13:2019-34. [PMID: 23773358 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.12315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2012] [Revised: 03/31/2013] [Accepted: 04/07/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) after kidney transplantation may result in delayed graft function. We used rat renal artery clamping and transplantation models to investigate cholesterol-independent effects of clinically relevant single-dose peroral simvastatin treatment 2 h before renal ischemia on microvascular injury. The expression of HMG-CoA reductase was abundant in glomerular and peritubular microvasculature of normal kidneys. In renal artery clamping model with 30-min warm ischemia, simvastatin treatment prevented peritubular microvascular permeability and perfusion disturbances, glomerular barrier disruption, tubular dysfunction and acute kidney injury. In fully MHC-mismatched kidney allografts with 16-h cold and 1-h warm ischemia, donor simvastatin treatment increased the expression of flow-regulated transcription factor KLF2 and vasculoprotective eNOS and HO-1, and preserved glomerular and peritubular capillary barrier integrity during preservation. In vitro EC Weibel-Palade body exocytosis assays showed that simvastatin inhibited ischemia-induced release of vasoactive angiopoietin-2 and endothelin-1. After reperfusion, donor simvastatin treatment prevented microvascular permeability, danger-associated ligand hyaluronan induction, tubulointerstitial injury marker Kim-1 immunoreactivity and serum creatinine and NGAL levels, and activation of innate and adaptive immune responses. In conclusion, donor simvastatin treatment prevented renal microvascular dysfunction and IRI with beneficial effects on adaptive immune and early fibroproliferative responses. Further studies may determine potential benefits in clinical cadaveric kidney transplantation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Tuuminen
- Cardiac Surgery, Heart and Lung Center, Transplantation Laboratory, Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Bobryshev YV, Karagodin VP, Orekhov AN. Dendritic cells and their role in immune reactions of atherosclerosis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1134/s1990519x1302003x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
|
38
|
Li XL, Liu Y, Cao LL, Li H, Yue LT, Wang S, Zhang M, Li XH, Dou YC, Duan RS. Atorvastatin-modified dendritic cells in vitro ameliorate experimental autoimmune myasthenia gravis by up-regulated Treg cells and shifted Th1/Th17 to Th2 cytokines. Mol Cell Neurosci 2013; 56:85-95. [PMID: 23541702 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2013.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2012] [Revised: 01/25/2013] [Accepted: 03/11/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Conventional therapies for autoimmune diseases produce nonspecific immune suppression, which are usually continued lifelong to maintain disease control, and associated with a variety of adverse effects. In this study, we found that spleen-derived dendritic cells (DCs) from the ongoing experimental autoimmune myasthenia gravis (EAMG) rats can be induced into tolerogenic DCs by atorvastatin in vitro. Administration of these tolerogenic DCs to EAMG rats on days 5 and 13 post immunization (p.i.) resulted in improved clinical symptoms, which were associated with increased numbers of CD4(+)CD25(+) T regulatory (Treg) cells and Foxp3 expression, decreased lymphocyte proliferation among lymph node mononuclear cells (MNC), shifted cytokine profile from Th1/Th17 to Th2 type cytokines, decreased level of anti-R97-116 peptide (region 97-116 of the rat acetylcholine receptor α subunit) IgG antibody in serum. These tolerogenic DCs can migrate to spleen, thymus, popliteal and inguinal lymph nodes after they were injected into the EAMG rats intraperitoneally. Furthermore, these tolerogenic DCs played their immunomodulatory effects in vivo mainly by decreased expression of CD86 and MHC class II on endogenous DCs. All these data provided us a new strategy to treat EAMG and even human myasthenia gravis (MG).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Li Li
- Department of Neurology, Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan 250014, PR China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Zhang X, Tao Y, Wang J, Garcia-Mata R, Markovic-Plese S. Simvastatin inhibits secretion of Th17-polarizing cytokines and antigen presentation by DCs in patients with relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis. Eur J Immunol 2012; 43:281-9. [DOI: 10.1002/eji.201242566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2012] [Revised: 08/16/2012] [Accepted: 10/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhang
- Department of Neurology; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; NC; USA
| | - Yazhong Tao
- Department of Neurology; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; NC; USA
| | - Jinzhao Wang
- Department of Neurology; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; NC; USA
| | - Rafael Garcia-Mata
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; NC; USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Hu LH, Zhang T, Shao Q, Li DD, Jin SX, Nie P, Yi J, He B, Shen LH. Atorvastatin suppresses oxidized LDL-induced dendritic cell-like differentiation of RAW264.7 cells regulated by the p38 MAPK pathway. Mol Cell Biochem 2012; 371:105-13. [DOI: 10.1007/s11010-012-1427-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2012] [Accepted: 08/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
|
41
|
Jöhrer K, Hofbauer SW, Zelle-Rieser C, Greil R, Hartmann TN. Chemokine-dependent B cell-T cell interactions in chronic lymphocytic leukemia and multiple myeloma - targets for therapeutic intervention? Expert Opin Biol Ther 2012; 12:425-41. [PMID: 22332909 DOI: 10.1517/14712598.2012.664128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Chemokines and their receptors play essential roles in the development, maintenance and proper functioning of the immune system. B cell-T cell interactions are modulated by chemokines. In B cell malignancies, these interactions may have tumor-promoting consequences. AREAS COVERED This review summarizes physiological B cell-T cell interactions and discusses their pathological role in the onset and progression of B cell malignancies with a special focus on chronic lymphocytic leukemia and multiple myeloma. Experimental data on chemokine-guided B cell-T cell actions in B cell malignancies from murine models as well as in vitro data are summarized and their potential as future therapeutic targets is critically discussed. EXPERT OPINION Direct or indirect targeting of chemokine receptors involved in localization and T-cell-dependent activation of B lymphocytes can provide strong synergisms with conventional or immunomodulatory therapies by disrupting the microenvironmental conditions necessary for survival and proliferation of malignant B lymphocytes. However, further knowledge of these interactions between B and T cells is needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karin Jöhrer
- Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Austria.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Gazzerro P, Proto MC, Gangemi G, Malfitano AM, Ciaglia E, Pisanti S, Santoro A, Laezza C, Bifulco M. Pharmacological actions of statins: a critical appraisal in the management of cancer. Pharmacol Rev 2011; 64:102-46. [PMID: 22106090 DOI: 10.1124/pr.111.004994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 316] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Statins, among the most commonly prescribed drugs worldwide, are cholesterol-lowering agents used to manage and prevent cardiovascular and coronary heart diseases. Recently, a multifaceted action in different physiological and pathological conditions has been also proposed for statins, beyond anti-inflammation and neuroprotection. Statins have been shown to act through cholesterol-dependent and -independent mechanisms and are able to affect several tissue functions and modulate specific signal transduction pathways that could account for statin pleiotropic effects. Typically, statins are prescribed in middle-aged or elderly patients in a therapeutic regimen covering a long life span during which metabolic processes, aging, and concomitant novel diseases, including cancer, could occur. In this context, safety, toxicity, interaction with other drugs, and the state of health have to be taken into account in subjects treated with statins. Some evidence has shown a dichotomous effect of statins with either cancer-inhibiting or -promoting effects. To date, clinical trials failed to demonstrate a reduced cancer occurrence in statin users and no sufficient data are available to define the long-term effects of statin use over a period of 10 years. Moreover, results from clinical trials performed to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of statins in cancer did not suggest statin use as chemotherapeutic or adjuvant agents. Here, we reviewed the pharmacology of the statins, providing a comprehensive update of the current knowledge of their effects on tissues, biological processes, and pathological conditions, and we dissected the disappointing evidence on the possible future use of statin-based drugs in cancer therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Gazzerro
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, University of Salerno, Via Ponte Don Melillo, 84084 Fisciano (Salerno), Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Regulation of suppressors of cytokine signaling as a therapeutic approach in autoimmune diseases, with an emphasis on multiple sclerosis. JOURNAL OF SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION 2011; 2011:635721. [PMID: 22132325 PMCID: PMC3206360 DOI: 10.1155/2011/635721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2011] [Accepted: 09/09/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory demyelinating, presumably autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Among the available MS therapies, interferon (IFN)β and the recently introduced statins have been reported to exert their immunomodulatory effects through the induction of SOCS1 and SOCS3 in various inflammatory cell subsets. The SOCS proteins negatively regulate cytokine and Toll-like receptors- (TLR-) induced signaling in the inflammatory cells. SOCS1 and SOCS3 have been reported to play an important role in the regulation of Th17-cell differentiation through their effects on the cells of the innate and adaptive immune systems. IFNβ and statins inhibit Th17-cell differentiation directly and indirectly via induction of SOCS1 and SOCS3 expression in monocytes, dendritic cells (DCs), and B-cells. Due to their rapid induction and degradation, and SOCS-mediated regulation of multiple cytokine-signaling pathways, they represent an attractive therapeutic target in the autoimmune diseases, and particularly relapsing remitting (RR) MS.
Collapse
|
44
|
Dendritic cells in human atherosclerosis: from circulation to atherosclerotic plaques. Mediators Inflamm 2011; 2011:941396. [PMID: 21976788 PMCID: PMC3184502 DOI: 10.1155/2011/941396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2011] [Accepted: 07/31/2011] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background. Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease with atherosclerotic plaques containing inflammatory infiltrates predominantly consisting of monocytes/macrophages and activated T cells. More recent is the implication of dendritic cells (DCs) in the disease. Since DCs were demonstrated in human arteries in 1995, numerous studies in humans suggest a role for these professional antigen-presenting cells in atherosclerosis. Aim. This paper focuses on the observations made in blood and arteries of patients with atherosclerosis. In principal, flow cytometric analyses show that circulating myeloid (m) and plasmacytoid (p) DCs are diminished in coronary artery disease, while immunohistochemical studies describe increased intimal DC counts with evolving plaque stages. Moreover, mDCs and pDCs appear to behave differently in atherosclerosis. Yet, the origin of plaque DCs and their relationship with blood DCs are unknown. Therefore, several explanations for the observed changes are postulated. In addition, the technical challenges and discrepancies in the research field are discussed. Future. Future studies in humans, in combination with experimental animal studies will unravel mechanisms leading to altered blood and plaque DCs in atherosclerosis. As DCs are crucial for inducing but also dampening immune responses, understanding their life cycle, trafficking and function in atherosclerosis will determine potential use of DCs in antiatherogenic therapies.
Collapse
|
45
|
Thorp E, Subramanian M, Tabas I. The role of macrophages and dendritic cells in the clearance of apoptotic cells in advanced atherosclerosis. Eur J Immunol 2011; 41:2515-8. [PMID: 21952808 PMCID: PMC3289088 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201141719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence supports the notion that defective phagocytic clearance of dying cells, or defective "efferocytosis," is causally linked to the progression of advanced atherosclerosis. In advanced atherosclerotic lesions, defective efferocytosis leads to post-apoptotic necrosis, expansion of plaque necrotic cores, and susceptibility to atherothrombosis. Both macrophages and DC-like efferocytes are juxtaposed near expanding necrotic cores, where they engage apoptotic cells. In this Viewpoint, we discuss how reduced efferocytosis by macrophages and CD11c(HI) DC-like cells may combine to reduce overall plaque stability and therefore promote susceptibility to acute atherothrombosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edward Thorp
- Department of Medicine, Division of Molecular Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Saggini A, Anogeianaki A, Maccauro G, Teté S, Salini V, Caraffa A, Conti F, Fulcheri M, Galzio R, Shaik-Dasthagirisaheb Y. Cholesterol, Cytokines and Diseases. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 2011; 24:567-81. [DOI: 10.1177/039463201102400303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A high level of cholesterol is associated with obesity, cardiovascular diseases and atherosclerosis. Immune response in atherosclerosis is mediated by chemokines which attract monocytes, leading to the innate immune response characterised by the production of cytokines. The immunoregulatory cytokines are an important bridge between innate and adductive immunity. TH1 cytokines are involved as effector T cells in inflammatory response, while TH2 cytokines can be anti-inflammatory such as IL-10 and IL-4. It is well known that statins enhance the production of TH2 cytokines whereas the secretion of TH1 cytokines is suppressed. For this purpose, we studied the significance of anti-inflammatory effect and suppression of inflammation by statins. In this paper we revisited the role of cholesterol and cytokines IL-18, IL-10, IL-12, TNF-α, interferon-γ, and chemokines in inflammatory diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A. Saggini
- Department of Dermatology, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - A. Anogeianaki
- Physiology Department, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - G. Maccauro
- Department of Orthopaedics, Catholic University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - S. Teté
- School of Dentistry, University of Chieti, Italy
| | - V. Salini
- Orthopaedics Division, University of Chieti, Chieti, Italy
| | - A. Caraffa
- Orthopaedics Division, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - F. Conti
- Department of Gyneacology, “Santo Spirito” Hospital, Pescara, Italy
| | - M. Fulcheri
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Chieti, Italy
| | - R. Galzio
- Department of Health Sciences, University of L'Aquila, Italy
| | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
|
48
|
Mok CC, Wong CK, To CH, Lai JPS, Lam CS. Effects of rosuvastatin on vascular biomarkers and carotid atherosclerosis in lupus: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2011; 63:875-83. [DOI: 10.1002/acr.20440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|
49
|
He M, Kratz LE, Michel JJ, Vallejo AN, Ferris L, Kelley RI, Hoover JJ, Jukic D, Gibson KM, Wolfe LA, Ramachandran D, Zwick ME, Vockley J. Mutations in the human SC4MOL gene encoding a methyl sterol oxidase cause psoriasiform dermatitis, microcephaly, and developmental delay. J Clin Invest 2011; 121:976-84. [PMID: 21285510 DOI: 10.1172/jci42650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2010] [Accepted: 12/08/2010] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Defects in cholesterol synthesis result in a wide variety of symptoms, from neonatal lethality to the relatively mild dysmorphic features and developmental delay found in individuals with Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome. We report here the identification of mutations in sterol-C4-methyl oxidase–like gene (SC4MOL) as the cause of an autosomal recessive syndrome in a human patient with psoriasiform dermatitis, arthralgias, congenital cataracts, microcephaly, and developmental delay. This gene encodes a sterol-C4-methyl oxidase (SMO), which catalyzes demethylation of C4-methylsterols in the cholesterol synthesis pathway. C4-Methylsterols are meiosis-activating sterols (MASs). They exist at high concentrations in the testis and ovary and play roles in meiosis activation. In this study, we found that an accumulation of MASs in the patient led to cell overproliferation in both skin and blood. SMO deficiency also substantially altered immunocyte phenotype and in vitro function. MASs serve as ligands for liver X receptors α and β(LXRα and LXRβ), which are important in regulating not only lipid transport in the epidermis, but also innate and adaptive immunity. Deficiency of SMO represents a biochemical defect in the cholesterol synthesis pathway, the clinical spectrum of which remains to be defined.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miao He
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Tongxinluo inhibits oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced maturation of human dendritic cells via activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma pathway. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2010; 56:177-83. [PMID: 20489656 DOI: 10.1097/fjc.0b013e3181e5f0f8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
TongXinLuo (TXL) is a traditional Chinese herbal medicine with multiple vasoprotective activities. Dendritic cells (DCs) play an active role in the immunological processes related to atherosclerosis. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect and possible mechanisms of TXL on oxidized low-density lipoprotein (OX-LDL)-induced maturation and immune function of DCs. Human monocyte-derived DCs were incubated with TXL or ciglitazone and were subsequently stimulated with OX-LDL to induce maturation. Similar to ciglitazone, a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) gamma agonist, TXL could significantly reduce the maturation-associated markers induced by OX-LDL, such as CD40, CD86, CD1a, and human leukocyte antigen-DR; improved the endocytotic function; and decreased secretions of cytokine interleukin-12 and tumor necrosis factor alpha. These inhibitory effects of TXL could be partly reversed by silencing the expression of PPAR gamma in DCs. In conclusion, TXL could inhibit OX-LDL-induced maturation of DCs through activating PPAR gamma pathway.
Collapse
|