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Amaral AC, Lister JP, Rueckemann JW, Wojnarowicz MW, McGaughy JA, Mokler DJ, Galler JR, Rosene DL, Rushmore RJ. Prenatal protein malnutrition decreases neuron numbers in the parahippocampal region but not prefrontal cortex in adult rats. Nutr Neurosci 2024:1-14. [PMID: 39088448 DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2024.2371256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/03/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Prenatal protein malnutrition produces anatomical and functional changes in the developing brain that persist despite immediate postnatal nutritional rehabilitation. Brain networks of prenatally malnourished animals show diminished activation of prefrontal areas and an increased activation of hippocampal regions during an attentional task [1]. While a reduction in cell number has been documented in hippocampal subfield CA1, nothing is known about changes in neuron numbers in the prefrontal or parahippocampal cortices. METHODS In the present study, we used unbiased stereology to investigate the effect of prenatal protein malnutrition on the neuron numbers in the medial prefrontal cortex and the cortices of the parahippocampal region that comprise the larger functional network. RESULTS Results show that prenatal protein malnutrition does not cause changes in the neuronal population in the medial prefrontal cortex of adult rats, indicating that the decrease in functional activation during attentional tasks is not due to a reduction in the number of neurons. Results also show that prenatal protein malnutrition is associated with a reduction in neuron numbers in specific parahippocampal subregions: the medial entorhinal cortex and presubiculum. DISCUSSION The affected regions along with CA1 comprise a tightly interconnected circuit, suggesting that prenatal malnutrition confers a vulnerability to specific hippocampal circuits. These findings are consistent with the idea that prenatal protein malnutrition produces a reorganization of structural and functional networks, which may underlie observed alterations in attentional processes and capabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- A C Amaral
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - J P Lister
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - J W Rueckemann
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - M W Wojnarowicz
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - J A McGaughy
- Department of Psychology, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, USA
| | - D J Mokler
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA
| | - J R Galler
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Pediatrics & Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, MassGeneral Hospital for Children, Boston, MA, USA
| | - D L Rosene
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - R J Rushmore
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
- Psychiatry Neuroimaging Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
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2
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Ouyang J, Cai W, Wu P, Tong J, Gao G, Yan S, Tao F, Huang K. Association between Dietary Patterns during Pregnancy and Children's Neurodevelopment: A Birth Cohort Study. Nutrients 2024; 16:1530. [PMID: 38794768 PMCID: PMC11123670 DOI: 10.3390/nu16101530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Research studies have showed that maternal diet may influence fetal neurodevelopment, but most studies have only assessed single nutrients or food groups. OBJECTIVE To investigate the impact of maternal prenatal dietary patterns during pregnancy on child neurodevelopment. METHODS Study participants were obtained from the China National Birth Cohort. The Ages and Stages Questionnaire, Third Edition, was used to assess children's neurodevelopment at 36 months old. Maternal antenatal dietary data were collected over three trimesters using food frequency questionnaires. Five distinct maternal dietary patterns throughout pregnancy were identified by principal component analysis, namely protein- and micronutrient-rich dietary patterns, low-iron dietary patterns, pasta as the staple food dietary patterns, iron-rich dietary patterns, tubers, fruits, and baked food dietary patterns. Group-based trajectory modeling was performed for dietary patterns present in all three periods. Multiple linear regression models were used for statistical analysis. RESULTS Children of mothers who followed a high protein- and micronutrient-rich dietary pattern trajectory during pregnancy presented better neurodevelopment, including higher gross motor and problem-solving scores. Furthermore, it was observed that children born of women with low-iron dietary patterns had poorer neurodevelopment. In detail, children born to mothers with a low-iron dietary pattern during the first trimester had lower problem-solving scores, while to those who were exposed to a low-iron dietary pattern in the second and third trimesters had lower gross motor scores. Additionally, children with mothers who had a low-iron dietary pattern in the third trimester had lower communication scores. CONCLUSIONS A nutrition-balanced protein- and micronutrient-rich dietary pattern and adequate iron dietary pattern for mothers throughout pregnancy may be beneficial to children's neurodevelopment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiajun Ouyang
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China; (J.O.); (W.C.); (P.W.); (J.T.); (G.G.); (S.Y.); (F.T.)
- Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle, Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Environment and Population Health across the Life Course, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
| | - Wenjin Cai
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China; (J.O.); (W.C.); (P.W.); (J.T.); (G.G.); (S.Y.); (F.T.)
- Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle, Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Environment and Population Health across the Life Course, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
| | - Penggui Wu
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China; (J.O.); (W.C.); (P.W.); (J.T.); (G.G.); (S.Y.); (F.T.)
- Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle, Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Environment and Population Health across the Life Course, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
| | - Juan Tong
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China; (J.O.); (W.C.); (P.W.); (J.T.); (G.G.); (S.Y.); (F.T.)
- Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle, Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Environment and Population Health across the Life Course, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
| | - Guopeng Gao
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China; (J.O.); (W.C.); (P.W.); (J.T.); (G.G.); (S.Y.); (F.T.)
- Maternal and Child Health Care Center of Ma’anshan, No 24 Jiashan Road, Ma’anshan 243011, China
| | - Shuangqin Yan
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China; (J.O.); (W.C.); (P.W.); (J.T.); (G.G.); (S.Y.); (F.T.)
- Maternal and Child Health Care Center of Ma’anshan, No 24 Jiashan Road, Ma’anshan 243011, China
| | - Fangbiao Tao
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China; (J.O.); (W.C.); (P.W.); (J.T.); (G.G.); (S.Y.); (F.T.)
- Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle, Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Environment and Population Health across the Life Course, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
| | - Kun Huang
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China; (J.O.); (W.C.); (P.W.); (J.T.); (G.G.); (S.Y.); (F.T.)
- Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle, Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Environment and Population Health across the Life Course, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, China
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El Karkafi R, Gebara T, Salem M, Kamel J, El Khoury G, Zalal M, Fakhoury M. Ketogenic Diet and Inflammation: Implications for Mood and Anxiety Disorders. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2023; 1411:537-554. [PMID: 36949325 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-19-7376-5_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/24/2023]
Abstract
The ketogenic diet, known as a low-carbohydrate, high-protein, and high-fat diet, drastically restrains the major source of energy for the body, forcing it to burn all excess fat through a process called ketosis-the breaking down of fat into ketone bodies. First suggested as a medical treatment for children suffering from epilepsy, this diet has gained increased popularity as a rapid weight loss strategy. Over the past few years, there have been numerous studies suggesting that the ketogenic diet may provide therapeutic effects for several psychiatric conditions such as mood- and anxiety-related disorders. However, despite significant progress in research, the mechanisms underlying its therapeutic effects remain largely unexplored and are yet to be fully elucidated. This chapter provides an in-depth overview of preclinical and clinical evidence supporting the use of a ketogenic diet in the management of mood and anxiety disorders and discusses its relationship with inflammatory processes and potential mechanisms of actions for its therapeutic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy El Karkafi
- Department of Natural Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon
| | - Tammy Gebara
- Department of Natural Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon
| | - Michael Salem
- Department of Natural Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon
| | - Jessica Kamel
- Department of Natural Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon
| | - Ghinwa El Khoury
- Department of Natural Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon
| | - Marilynn Zalal
- Department of Natural Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon
| | - Marc Fakhoury
- Department of Natural Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon.
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4
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Bauer EE, Agbemafle I, Reddy MB, Clark PJ. Edible insects prevent changes to brain monoamine profiles from malnourishment in weaned rats. Nutr Neurosci 2022:1-13. [PMID: 36125026 DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2022.2104692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Background: Childhood malnutrition can have devastating consequences on health, behavior, and cognition. Edible insects are sustainable low cost high protein and iron nutritious foods that can prevent malnutrition. However, it is unclear whether insect-based diets may help prevent changes to brain neurochemistry associated with malnutrition.Materials and Methods: Weanling male Sprague-Dawley rats were malnourished by feeding a low protein-iron diet (LPI, 5% protein and ∼2 ppm Fe) for 3 weeks or nourished by feeding a sufficient protein-iron diet (SPI, 15% protein 20 ppm FeSO4) for the duration of the study. Following 3 weeks of LPI diet, three subsets of the malnourished rats were placed on repletion diets supplemented with cricket, palm weevil larvae, or the SPI diet for 2 weeks, while the remaining rats continued the LPI diet for an additional 2 weeks. Monoamine-related neurochemicals (e.g. serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA), norepinephrine) and select monoamine metabolites were measured in the hypothalamus, hippocampus, striatum, and prefrontal cortex using Ultra High-Performance Liquid Chromatography.Results: Five weeks of LPI diets disrupted brain monoamines, most notable in the hypothalamus. Two weeks supplementation with cricket and palm weevil larvae diets prevented changes to measures of 5-HT and DA turnover in the hippocampus and hypothalamus. Moreover, these insect diets prevented the malnutrition-induced imbalance of 5-HT and DA metabolites in the hippocampus, striatum, and hypothalamus.Conclusion: Edible insects such as cricket and palm weevil larvae could be sustainable nutrition intervention to prevent behavioral and cognitive impairment associated abnormal brain monoamine activities that results from early life malnutrition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ella E. Bauer
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Isaac Agbemafle
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Manju B. Reddy
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Peter J. Clark
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
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5
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Ge Q, Hu X, Ma N, Sun M, Zhang L, Cai Z, Tan R, Lu H. Maternal high-salt diet during pregnancy impairs synaptic plasticity and memory in offspring. FASEB J 2021; 35:e21244. [PMID: 33715195 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202001890r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Excess salt intake harms the brain health and cognitive functions, but whether a maternal high-salt diet (HSD) affects the brain development and neural plasticity of offspring remains unclear. Here, using a range of behavioral tests, we reported that the offspring of maternal HSD subjects exhibited short- and long-term memory deficits, especially in spatial memory in adulthood. Moreover, impairments in synaptic transmission and plasticity in the hippocampus were observed in adult offspring by using in vivo electrophysiology. Consistently, the number of astrocytes but not neurons in the hippocampus of the offspring from the HSD group were significantly decreased, and ERK and AKT signaling pathways involved in neurodevelopment were highly activated only during juvenile. In addition, the expression of synaptic proteins decreased both in juvenile and adulthood, and this effect might be involved in synaptic dysfunction. Collectively, these data demonstrated that the maternal HSD might cause adult offspring synaptic dysfunction and memory loss. It is possibly due to the reduction of astrocytes in juvenile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Ge
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoxuan Hu
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, P.R. China.,Department of Human Anatomy and Histo-embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, P.R. China
| | - Ning Ma
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, P.R. China.,Department of Human Anatomy and Histo-embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, P.R. China
| | - Meiqi Sun
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, P.R. China
| | - Liyun Zhang
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, P.R. China.,Department of Human Anatomy and Histo-embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, P.R. China
| | - Zhenlu Cai
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, P.R. China
| | - Ruolan Tan
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, P.R. China.,Department of Human Anatomy and Histo-embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, P.R. China
| | - Haixia Lu
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, P.R. China
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6
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The Rap1 small GTPase is a critical mediator of the effects of stress on prefrontal cortical dysfunction. Mol Psychiatry 2021; 26:3223-3239. [PMID: 32651478 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-020-0835-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The neural molecular and biochemical response to stress is a distinct physiological process, and multiple lines of evidence indicate that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is particularly sensitive to, and afflicted by, exposure to stress. Largely through this PFC dysfunction, stress has a characterized role in facilitating cognitive impairment, which is often dissociable from its effects on non-cognitive behaviors. The Rap1 small GTPase pathway has emerged as a commonly disrupted intracellular target in neuropsychiatric conditions, whether it be via alterations in Rap1 expression or through alterations in the expression of direct and specific upstream Rap1 activators and inhibitors. Here we demonstrate that escalating, intermittent stress increases Rap1 in mouse PFC synapses, results in cognitive impairments, and reduces the preponderance of mature dendritic spines in PFC neurons. Using viral-mediated gene transfer, we reveal that the hyper-induction of Rap1 in the PFC is sufficient to drive stress-relevant cognitive and synaptic phenotypes. These findings point to Rap1 as a critical mediator of stress-driven neuronal and behavioral pathology and highlight a previously unrecognized involvement for Rap1 in novelty-driven PFC engagement.
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7
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Dalvi-Garcia F, Fonseca LL, Vasconcelos ATR, Hedin-Pereira C, Voit EO. A model of dopamine and serotonin-kynurenine metabolism in cortisolemia: Implications for depression. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1008956. [PMID: 33970902 PMCID: PMC8136856 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A major factor contributing to the etiology of depression is a neurochemical imbalance of the dopaminergic and serotonergic systems, which is caused by persistently high levels of circulating stress hormones. Here, a computational model is proposed to investigate the interplay between dopaminergic and serotonergic-kynurenine metabolism under cortisolemia and its consequences for the onset of depression. The model was formulated as a set of nonlinear ordinary differential equations represented with power-law functions. Parameter values were obtained from experimental data reported in the literature, biological databases, and other general information, and subsequently fine-tuned through optimization. Model simulations predict that changes in the kynurenine pathway, caused by elevated levels of cortisol, can increase the risk of neurotoxicity and lead to increased levels of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylaceltahyde (DOPAL) and 5-hydroxyindoleacetaldehyde (5-HIAL). These aldehydes contribute to alpha-synuclein aggregation and may cause mitochondrial fragmentation. Further model analysis demonstrated that the inhibition of both serotonin transport and kynurenine-3-monooxygenase decreased the levels of DOPAL and 5-HIAL and the neurotoxic risk often associated with depression. The mathematical model was also able to predict a novel role of the dopamine and serotonin metabolites DOPAL and 5-HIAL in the ethiology of depression, which is facilitated through increased cortisol levels. Finally, the model analysis suggests treatment with a combination of inhibitors of serotonin transport and kynurenine-3-monooxygenase as a potentially effective pharmacological strategy to revert the slow-down in monoamine neurotransmission that is often triggered by inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Dalvi-Garcia
- Bioinformatics Lab, National Laboratory for Scientific Computing, Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- School of Medicine and Surgery, Federal University of the State of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Luis L. Fonseca
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Ana Tereza R. Vasconcelos
- Bioinformatics Lab, National Laboratory for Scientific Computing, Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Cecilia Hedin-Pereira
- Center of Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Eberhard O. Voit
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
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Di Bartolomeo M, Stark T, Maurel OM, Iannotti FA, Kuchar M, Ruda-Kucerova J, Piscitelli F, Laudani S, Pekarik V, Salomone S, Arosio B, Mechoulam R, Maccarrone M, Drago F, Wotjak CT, Di Marzo V, Vismara M, Dell'Osso B, D'Addario C, Micale V. Crosstalk between the transcriptional regulation of dopamine D2 and cannabinoid CB1 receptors in schizophrenia: Analyses in patients and in perinatal Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-exposed rats. Pharmacol Res 2021; 164:105357. [PMID: 33285233 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.105357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 11/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Perinatal exposure to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) affects brain development and might increase the incidence of psychopathology later in life, which seems to be related to a dysregulation of endocannabinoid and/or dopaminergic systems. We here evaluated the transcriptional regulation of the genes encoding for the cannabinoid CB1 receptor (Cnr1) and the dopamine D2 receptor (Drd2) in perinatal THC-(pTHC) exposed male rats, focusing on the role of DNA methylation analyzed by pyrosequencing. Simultaneously, the molecular and behavioral abnormalities at two different time points (i.e., neonatal age and adulthood) and the potential preventive effect of peripubertal treatment with cannabidiol, a non-euphoric component of Cannabis, were assessed. The DRD2 methylation was also evaluated in a cohort of subjects with schizophrenia. We observed an increase in both Cnr1 and Drd2 mRNA levels selectively in the prefrontal cortex of adult pTHC-exposed rats with a consistent reduction in DNA methylation at the Drd2 regulatory region, paralleled by social withdrawal and cognitive impairment which were reversed by cannabidiol treatment. These adult abnormalities were preceded at neonatal age by delayed appearance of neonatal reflexes, higher Drd2 mRNA and lower 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) brain levels, which persisted till adulthood. Alterations of the epigenetic mark for DRD2 were also found in subjects with schizophrenia. Overall, reported data add further evidence to the dopamine-cannabinoid interaction in terms of DRD2 and CNR1 dysregulation which could be implicated in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia spectrum disorders, suggesting that cannabidiol treatment may normalize pTHC-induced psychopathology by modulating the altered dopaminergic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Di Bartolomeo
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
| | - Tibor Stark
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic; Neuronal Plasticity Research Group, Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - Oriana Maria Maurel
- Neuronal Plasticity Research Group, Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany; Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Fabio Arturo Iannotti
- Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Endocannabinoid Research Group, Naples, Italy
| | - Martin Kuchar
- Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Prague, Czech Republic; National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Ruda-Kucerova
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Fabiana Piscitelli
- Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Endocannabinoid Research Group, Naples, Italy
| | - Samuele Laudani
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Vladimir Pekarik
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Salvatore Salomone
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Beatrice Arosio
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy; Fondazione Ca' Granda, IRCCS, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Raphael Mechoulam
- Institute for Drug Research, Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Mauro Maccarrone
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy; European Center for Brain Research, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Carsten T Wotjak
- Neuronal Plasticity Research Group, Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany; Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & KO KG, Germany
| | - Vincenzo Di Marzo
- Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Endocannabinoid Research Group, Naples, Italy; Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic, Health, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada; Joint International Unit on Chemical and Biomolecular Research on the Microbiome and its Impact on Metabolic Health and Nutrition (UMI-MicroMeNu), between Université Laval and Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, CNR, Pozzuoli, Italy
| | - Matteo Vismara
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences 'Luigi Sacco', University of Milan, Milan, Italy; Department of Mental Health, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Milan, Italy
| | - Bernardo Dell'Osso
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences 'Luigi Sacco', University of Milan, Milan, Italy; Department of Mental Health, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Milan, Italy; "Aldo Ravelli" Research Center for Neurotechnology and Experimental Brain Therapeutics, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan Medical School, Milan, Italy; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, California, USA
| | - Claudio D'Addario
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy; Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Vincenzo Micale
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy; National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic.
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Rushmore RJ, McGaughy JA, Amaral AC, Mokler DJ, Morgane PJ, Galler JR, Rosene DL. The neural basis of attentional alterations in prenatally protein malnourished rats. Cereb Cortex 2021; 31:497-512. [PMID: 33099611 PMCID: PMC7947171 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhaa239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein malnutrition during gestation alters brain development and produces specific behavioral and cognitive changes that persist into adulthood and increase the risks of neuropsychiatric disorders. Given evidence for the role of the prefrontal cortex in such diseases, it is significant that studies in humans and animal models have shown that prenatal protein malnutrition specifically affects functions associated with prefrontal cortex. However, the neural basis underlying these changes is unclear. In the current study, prenatally malnourished and control rats performed a sustained attention task with an unpredictable distractor, a task that depends on intact prefrontal cortical function. Radiolabeled 2-deoxyglucose was used to measure neural and brain network activity during the task. Results confirmed that adult prenatally malnourished rats were more distractible than controls and exhibited lower functional activity in prefrontal cortices. Thus, prefrontal activity was a predictor of task performance in controls but not prenatally malnourished animals. Instead, prenatally malnourished animals relied on different brain networks involving limbic structures such as the hippocampus. These results provide evidence that protein reduction during brain development has more wide-reaching effects on brain networks than previously appreciated, resulting in the formation of brain networks that may reflect compensatory responses in prenatally malnourished brains.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Rushmore
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston MA
- Psychiatry Neuroimaging Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - J A McGaughy
- Department of Psychology, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH
| | - A C Amaral
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston MA
| | - D J Mokler
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of New England, Biddeford ME
| | - P J Morgane
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of New England, Biddeford ME
| | - J R Galler
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Mucosal Immunology and Biology Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Boston, MA, USA
| | - D L Rosene
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston MA
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Rushmore RJ, McGaughy JA, Mokler DJ, Rosene DL. The enduring effect of prenatal protein malnutrition on brain anatomy, physiology and behavior. Nutr Neurosci 2020; 25:1392-1399. [PMID: 33314995 DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2020.1859730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that the maternal environment exerts enduring influences on the fetal brain. In response to certain environmental stimuli such as reduced protein content, the fetus changes the course of its brain development, which leads to specific and programed changes in brain anatomy and physiology. These alterations produce a brain with a fundamentally altered organization, which then translates to alterations in adult cognitive function. The effects on brain and behavior may be linked, such that a prenatal stimulus relays a signal to alter brain development and encourage the selection and development of brain circuits and behaviors that would be beneficial for the environment in which the animal was anticipated to emerge. At the same time, the signal would deselect behaviors unlikely to be adaptive. We draw on evidence from rodent models to suggest that the brain that develops after a reduction in protein during the prenatal phase is not uniformly dysfunctional, but simply different. This perspective has implications for the role of prenatal factors in the production and expression of behavior, and may account for the elevation of risk factors for neurological and psychiatric illnesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Rushmore
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA.,Psychiatric Neuroimaging Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Center for Morphometric Analysis, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - J A McGaughy
- Department of Psychology, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, USA
| | - D J Mokler
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA
| | - D L Rosene
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
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11
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Ferroni NM, Berardino BG, Belluscio LM, Fernández MS, Fesser EA, Sonzogni SV, Cánepa ET. Perinatal protein malnutrition induces the emergence of enduring effects and age-related impairment behaviors, increasing the death risk in a mouse model. Nutr Neurosci 2020; 25:976-989. [PMID: 33034271 DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2020.1829343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Early-life adversity impacts on the offspring's brain development and is associated with a higher risk of developing age-associated diseases. In particular, perinatal protein malnutrition appears to be one of the most critical nutritional deficiencies affecting the individual's health and survival, but little is known about its effects on the persistence of behavioral alterations throughout life. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate how perinatal protein malnutrition impacts on age-related changes in the neuromuscular, cognitive and behavioral functions throughout life in a mouse model. METHODS One group of CF-1 dams received a normal-protein diet (NP: 20% casein) during gestation and lactation, whereas another group received a low-protein diet (LP: 10% casein). The offspring of both groups were analyzed by means of several behavioral tests at four different ages (young: 6-10 weeks old, mature: 22-26 weeks old, middle age: 39-43 weeks old, and old: 55-59 weeks old). RESULTS Regarding neuromuscular functions, LP mice showed an early deterioration in muscular strength and a reduction in the body weight throughout life. Regarding behavior, while NP mice showed an age-related reduction of exploratory behavior, LP mice showed a constantly low level of this behavior, as well as high anxiety-like behavior, which remained at high levels throughout life. Regarding cognitive functions, LP mice showed deteriorated working memory at middle age. Finally, LP mice died 3.4 times earlier than NP mice. Analysis of the sex-related vulnerability showed that females and males were equally affected by perinatal protein malnutrition throughout life. CONCLUSION Our results demonstrate that perinatal protein malnutrition induces enduring and age-related impairment behaviors, which culminate in higher death risk, affecting males and females equally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadina M Ferroni
- Laboratorio de Neuroepigenética, Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, and Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Bruno G Berardino
- Laboratorio de Neuroepigenética, Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, and Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Laura M Belluscio
- Laboratorio de Neuroepigenética, Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, and Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María S Fernández
- Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, and Instituto de Ecología, Genética y Evolución de Buenos Aires (IEGEBA), UBA-CONICET, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Estefanía A Fesser
- Laboratorio de Neuroepigenética, Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, and Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Silvina V Sonzogni
- Laboratorio de Neuroepigenética, Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, and Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Eduardo T Cánepa
- Laboratorio de Neuroepigenética, Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, and Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
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12
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Langova V, Vales K, Horka P, Horacek J. The Role of Zebrafish and Laboratory Rodents in Schizophrenia Research. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:703. [PMID: 33101067 PMCID: PMC7500259 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a severe disorder characterized by positive, negative and cognitive symptoms, which are still not fully understood. The development of efficient antipsychotics requires animal models of a strong validity, therefore the aims of the article were to summarize the construct, face and predictive validity of schizophrenia models based on rodents and zebrafish, to compare the advantages and disadvantages of these models, and to propose future directions in schizophrenia modeling and indicate when it is reasonable to combine these models. The advantages of rodent models stem primarily from the high homology between rodent and human physiology, neurochemistry, brain morphology and circuitry. The advantages of zebrafish models stem in the high fecundity, fast development and transparency of the embryo. Disadvantages of both models originate in behavioral repertoires not allowing specific symptoms to be modeled, even when the models are combined. Especially modeling the verbal component of certain positive, negative and cognitive symptoms is currently impossible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Langova
- Translational Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, Prague, Czechia
- Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Karel Vales
- Translational Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, Prague, Czechia
| | - Petra Horka
- Institute for Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Jiri Horacek
- Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
- Brain Electrophysiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Prague, Czechia
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13
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Barra R, Morgan C, Sáez-Briones P, Reyes-Parada M, Burgos H, Morales B, Hernández A. Facts and hypotheses about the programming of neuroplastic deficits by prenatal malnutrition. Nutr Rev 2020; 77:65-80. [PMID: 30445479 DOI: 10.1093/nutrit/nuy047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies in rats have shown that a decrease in either protein content or total dietary calories results in molecular, structural, and functional changes in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, among other brain regions, which lead to behavioral disturbances, including learning and memory deficits. The neurobiological bases underlying those effects depend at least in part on fetal programming of the developing brain, which in turn relies on epigenetic regulation of specific genes via stable and heritable modifications of chromatin. Prenatal malnutrition also leads to epigenetic programming of obesity, and obesity on its own can lead to poor cognitive performance in humans and experimental animals, complicating understanding of the factors involved in the fetal programming of neuroplasticity deficits. This review focuses on the role of epigenetic mechanisms involved in prenatal malnutrition-induced brain disturbances, which are apparent at a later postnatal age, through either a direct effect of fetal programming on brain plasticity or an indirect effect on the brain mediated by the postnatal development of obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Barra
- School of Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carlos Morgan
- Laboratory of Nutrition and Metabolic Regulation, Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology (INTA), University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Patricio Sáez-Briones
- School of Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Miguel Reyes-Parada
- School of Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Talca, Chile
| | - Héctor Burgos
- Núcleo Disciplinar Psicología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile.,Center of Innovation on Information Technologies for Social Applications (CITIAPS), University of Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Bernardo Morales
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, University of Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Alejandro Hernández
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, University of Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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14
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Prakash N, Stark CJ, Keisler MN, Luo L, Der-Avakian A, Dulcis D. Serotonergic Plasticity in the Dorsal Raphe Nucleus Characterizes Susceptibility and Resilience to Anhedonia. J Neurosci 2020; 40:569-584. [PMID: 31792153 PMCID: PMC6961996 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1802-19.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic stress induces anhedonia in susceptible but not resilient individuals, a phenomenon observed in humans as well as animal models, but the molecular mechanisms underlying susceptibility and resilience are not well understood. We hypothesized that the serotonergic system, which is implicated in stress, reward, and antidepressant therapy, may play a role. We found that plasticity of the serotonergic system contributes to the differential vulnerability to stress displayed by susceptible and resilient animals. Stress-induced anhedonia was assessed in adult male rats using social defeat and intracranial self-stimulation, while changes in serotonergic phenotype were investigated using immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. Susceptible, but not resilient, rats displayed an increased number of neurons expressing the biosynthetic enzyme for serotonin, tryptophan-hydroxylase-2 (TPH2), in the ventral subnucleus of the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRv). Further, a decrease in the number of DRv glutamatergic (VGLUT3+) neurons was observed in all stressed rats. This neurotransmitter plasticity is activity-dependent, as was revealed by chemogenetic manipulation of the central amygdala, a stress-sensitive nucleus that forms a major input to the DR. Activation of amygdalar corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)+ neurons abolished the increase in DRv TPH2+ neurons and ameliorated stress-induced anhedonia in susceptible rats. These findings show that activation of amygdalar CRH+ neurons induces resilience, and suppresses the gain of serotonergic phenotype in the DRv that is characteristic of susceptible rats. This molecular signature of vulnerability to stress-induced anhedonia and the active nature of resilience could be targeted to develop new treatments for stress-related disorders like depression.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Depression and other mental disorders can be induced by chronic or traumatic stressors. However, some individuals are resilient and do not develop depression in response to chronic stress. A complete picture of the molecular differences between susceptible and resilient individuals is necessary to understand how plasticity of limbic circuits is associated with the pathophysiology of stress-related disorders. Using a rodent model, our study identifies a novel molecular marker of susceptibility to stress-induced anhedonia, a core symptom of depression, and a means to modulate it. These findings will guide further investigation into cellular and circuit mechanisms of resilience, and the development of new treatments for depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nandkishore Prakash
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Christiana J Stark
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Maria N Keisler
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Lily Luo
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Andre Der-Avakian
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Davide Dulcis
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
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15
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Mokler DJ, McGaughy JA, Bass D, Morgane PJ, Rosene DL, Amaral AC, Rushmore RJ, Galler JR. Prenatal Protein Malnutrition Leads to Hemispheric Differences in the Extracellular Concentrations of Norepinephrine, Dopamine and Serotonin in the Medial Prefrontal Cortex of Adult Rats. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:136. [PMID: 30890908 PMCID: PMC6411819 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to prenatal protein malnutrition (PPM) leads to a reprogramming of the brain, altering executive functions involving the prefrontal cortex (PFC). In this study we used in vivo microdialysis to assess the effects of PPM on extracellular concentrations of norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT) bilaterally in the ventral portion of the medial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC; ventral prelimbic and infralimbic cortices) of adult Long-Evans rats. Female Long-Evans rats were fed either a low protein (6%) or adequate protein diet (25%) prior to mating and throughout pregnancy. At birth, all litters were culled and fostered to dams fed a 25% (adequate) protein diet. At 120 days of age, 2 mm microdialysis probes were placed into left and right vmPFC. Basal extracellular concentrations of NE, DA, and 5-HT were determined over a 1-h period using HPLC. In rats exposed to PPM there was a decrease in extracellular concentrations of NE and DA in the right vmPFC and an increase in the extracellular concentration of 5-HT in the left vmPFC compared to controls (prenatally malnourished: N = 10, well-nourished: N = 20). Assessment of the cerebral laterality of extracellular neurotransmitters in the vmPFC showed that prenatally malnourished animals had a significant shift in laterality from the right to the left hemisphere for NE and DA but not for serotonin. In a related study, these animals showed cognitive inflexibility in an attentional task. In animals in the current study, NE levels in the right vmPFC of well-nourished animals correlated positively with performance in an attention task, while 5-HT in the left vmPFC of well-nourished rats correlated negatively with performance. These data, in addition to previously published studies, suggest a long-term reprogramming of the vmPFC in rats exposed to PPM which may contribute to attention deficits observed in adult animals exposed to PPM.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J. Mokler
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, United States
| | - Jill A. McGaughy
- Department of Psychology, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, United States
| | - Donna Bass
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, United States
| | - Peter J. Morgane
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, United States
| | - Douglas L. Rosene
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Ana C. Amaral
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - R. Jarrett Rushmore
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Janina R. Galler
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Mucosal Immunology and Biology Research Center, MassGeneral Hospital for Children, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
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16
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Newman LA, Baraiolo J, Mokler DJ, Rabinowitz AG, Galler JR, McGaughy JA. Prenatal Protein Malnutrition Produces Resistance to Distraction Similar to Noradrenergic Deafferentation of the Prelimbic Cortex in a Sustained Attention Task. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:123. [PMID: 30853881 PMCID: PMC6396814 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to malnutrition early in development increases likelihood of neuropsychiatric disorders, affective processing disorders, and attentional problems later in life. Many of these impairments are hypothesized to arise from impaired development of the prefrontal cortex. The current experiments examine the impact of prenatal malnutrition on the noradrenergic and cholinergic axons in the prefrontal cortex to determine if these changes contribute to the attentional deficits seen in prenatal protein malnourished rats (6% casein vs. 25% casein). Because prenatally malnourished animals had significant decreases in noradrenergic fibers in the prelimbic cortex with spared innervation in the anterior cingulate cortex and showed no changes in acetylcholine innervation of the prefrontal cortex, we compared deficits produced by malnutrition to those produced in adult rats by noradrenergic lesions of the prelimbic cortex. All animals were able to perform the baseline sustained attention task accurately. However, with the addition of visual distractors to the sustained attention task, animals that were prenatally malnourished and those that were noradrenergically lesioned showed cognitive rigidity, i.e., were less distractible than control animals. All groups showed similar changes in behavior when exposed to withholding reinforcement, suggesting specific attentional impairments rather than global difficulties in understanding response rules, bottom-up perceptual problems, or cognitive impairments secondary to dysfunction in sensitivity to reinforcement contingencies. These data suggest that prenatal protein malnutrition leads to deficits in noradrenergic innervation of the prelimbic cortex associated with cognitive rigidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori A. Newman
- Department of Psychology, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, United States
- Department of Psychological Science, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY, United States
| | - Jaime Baraiolo
- Department of Psychology, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, United States
| | - David J. Mokler
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, United States
| | | | - Janina R. Galler
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Mucosal Immunology and Biology Research Center, MassGeneral Hospital for Children, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Jill A. McGaughy
- Department of Psychology, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, United States
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Astragaloside IV ameliorates neuroinflammation-induced depressive-like behaviors in mice via the PPARγ/NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome axis. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2018; 39:1559-1570. [PMID: 29795356 DOI: 10.1038/aps.2017.208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Major depressive disorder is a common but devastating mental disorder, and recent evidence shows that neuroinflammation may play a pivotal role in the etiology of depression. Astragaloside IV (AS-IV) is an active component purifed from Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch) Bge, which has shown anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative and anti-apoptotic effects. In this study, we explored whether AS-IV produced antidepressant effects via its inhibition of neuroinflammation in mouse models of depression. Depressive-like behaviors including decreased sucrose consumption, reduced locomotor activity and increased immobility time were induced in mice using repeated restraint stress (RRS). We found that administration of AS-IV (16, 32 and 64 mg·kg-1·d-1, ig) significantly attenuated RRS-induced depressive-like behaviors. Furthermore, AS-IV administration significantly reduced the levels of TNF-α and IL-1β, increased PPARγ expression and GSK3β phosphorylation, decreased NF-κB phosphorylation, and reduced NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containingprotein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome and caspase-1 p20 generation in the hippocampus of the mice. LPS-induced depression-like behaviors were induced by LPS injection (1 mg·kg-1·d-1, ip), which were ameliorated by administration of AS-IV (20, 40 mg·kg-1·d-1, ig). The results of the LPS-induced mouse model were in accordance with those acquired from the RRS-induced mouse model: LPS injection significantly increased TNF-α and IL-1β expression in the mouse hippocampus, which was reversed by administration of AS-IV. Moreover, administration of AS-IV significantly increased PPARγ expression and GSK3β phosphorylation, and decreased NF-κB phosphorylation and NLRP3 inflammasome. These results suggest that AS-IV is a potential drug against depression, and its antidepressant effects are partially mediated by inhibition of neuroinflammation via the upregulation of PPARγ expression.
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18
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Mouse maternal protein restriction during preimplantation alone permanently alters brain neuron proportion and adult short-term memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:E7398-E7407. [PMID: 29941596 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1721876115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Maternal protein malnutrition throughout pregnancy and lactation compromises brain development in late gestation and after birth, affecting structural, biochemical, and pathway dynamics with lasting consequences for motor and cognitive function. However, the importance of nutrition during the preimplantation period for brain development is unknown. We have previously shown that maternal low-protein diet (LPD) confined to the preimplantation period (Emb-LPD) in mice, with normal nutrition thereafter, is sufficient to induce cardiometabolic and locomotory behavioral abnormalities in adult offspring. Here, using a range of in vivo and in vitro techniques, we report that Emb-LPD and sustained LPD reduce neural stem cell (NSC) and progenitor cell numbers at E12.5, E14.5, and E17.5 through suppressed proliferation rates in both ganglionic eminences and cortex of the fetal brain. Moreover, Emb-LPD causes remaining NSCs to up-regulate the neuronal differentiation rate beyond control levels, whereas in LPD, apoptosis increases to possibly temper neuron formation. Furthermore, Emb-LPD adult offspring maintain the increase in neuron proportion in the cortex, display increased cortex thickness, and exhibit short-term memory deficit analyzed by the novel-object recognition assay. Last, we identify altered expression of fragile X family genes as a potential molecular mechanism for adverse programming of brain development. Collectively, these data demonstrate that poor maternal nutrition from conception is sufficient to cause abnormal brain development and adult memory loss.
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19
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Dutra‐Tavares AC, Silva JO, Nunes‐Freitas AL, Guimarães VM, Araújo UC, Conceição EP, Moura EG, Lisboa PC, Filgueiras CC, Manhães AC, Abreu‐Villaça Y, Ribeiro‐Carvalho A. Maternal undernutrition during lactation alters nicotine reward and DOPAC/dopamine ratio in cerebral cortex in adolescent mice, but does not affect nicotine‐induced nAChRs upregulation. Int J Dev Neurosci 2017; 65:45-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2017.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Revised: 10/15/2017] [Accepted: 10/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ana C. Dutra‐Tavares
- Departamento de Ciências FisiológicasInstituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de JaneiroAv. Prof. Manoel de Abreu 444, 5 andar – Vila IsabelRio de JaneiroRJ20550‐170Brazil
| | - Juliana O. Silva
- Departamento de Ciências FisiológicasInstituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de JaneiroAv. Prof. Manoel de Abreu 444, 5 andar – Vila IsabelRio de JaneiroRJ20550‐170Brazil
| | - André L. Nunes‐Freitas
- Departamento de Ciências FisiológicasInstituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de JaneiroAv. Prof. Manoel de Abreu 444, 5 andar – Vila IsabelRio de JaneiroRJ20550‐170Brazil
| | - Vinícius M.S. Guimarães
- Departamento de Ciências FisiológicasInstituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de JaneiroAv. Prof. Manoel de Abreu 444, 5 andar – Vila IsabelRio de JaneiroRJ20550‐170Brazil
| | - Ulisses C. Araújo
- Departamento de Ciências FisiológicasInstituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de JaneiroAv. Prof. Manoel de Abreu 444, 5 andar – Vila IsabelRio de JaneiroRJ20550‐170Brazil
| | - Ellen P.S. Conceição
- Departamento de Ciências FisiológicasInstituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de JaneiroAv. Prof. Manoel de Abreu 444, 5 andar – Vila IsabelRio de JaneiroRJ20550‐170Brazil
| | - Egberto G. Moura
- Departamento de Ciências FisiológicasInstituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de JaneiroAv. Prof. Manoel de Abreu 444, 5 andar – Vila IsabelRio de JaneiroRJ20550‐170Brazil
| | - Patrícia C. Lisboa
- Departamento de Ciências FisiológicasInstituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de JaneiroAv. Prof. Manoel de Abreu 444, 5 andar – Vila IsabelRio de JaneiroRJ20550‐170Brazil
| | - Cláudio C. Filgueiras
- Departamento de Ciências FisiológicasInstituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de JaneiroAv. Prof. Manoel de Abreu 444, 5 andar – Vila IsabelRio de JaneiroRJ20550‐170Brazil
| | - Alex C. Manhães
- Departamento de Ciências FisiológicasInstituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de JaneiroAv. Prof. Manoel de Abreu 444, 5 andar – Vila IsabelRio de JaneiroRJ20550‐170Brazil
| | - Yael Abreu‐Villaça
- Departamento de Ciências FisiológicasInstituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de JaneiroAv. Prof. Manoel de Abreu 444, 5 andar – Vila IsabelRio de JaneiroRJ20550‐170Brazil
| | - Anderson Ribeiro‐Carvalho
- Departamento de Ciências, Faculdade de Formação de Professores da Universidade do Estado do Rio de JaneiroRua Dr. Francisco Portela 1470 – PatronatoSão GonçaloRJ24435‐005Brazil
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Reyes-Castro LA, Padilla-Gómez E, Parga-Martínez NJ, Castro-Rodríguez DC, Quirarte GL, Díaz-Cintra S, Nathanielsz PW, Zambrano E. Hippocampal mechanisms in impaired spatial learning and memory in male offspring of rats fed a low-protein isocaloric diet in pregnancy and/or lactation. Hippocampus 2017; 28:18-30. [PMID: 28843045 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.22798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Revised: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Maternal nutritional challenges during fetal and neonatal development result in developmental programming of multiple offspring organ systems including brain maturation and function. A maternal low-protein diet during pregnancy and lactation impairs associative learning and motivation. We evaluated effects of a maternal low-protein diet during gestation and/or lactation on male offspring spatial learning and hippocampal neural structure. Control mothers (C) ate 20% casein and restricted mothers (R) 10% casein, providing four groups: CC, RR, CR, and RC (first letter pregnancy, second lactation diet). We evaluated the behavior of young adult male offspring around postnatal day 110. Corticosterone and ACTH were measured. Males were tested for 2 days in the Morris water maze (MWM). Stratum lucidum mossy fiber (MF) area, total and spine type in basal dendrites of stratum oriens in the hippocampal CA3 field were measured. Corticosterone and ACTH were higher in RR vs. CC. In the MWM acquisition test CC offspring required two, RC three, and CR seven sessions to learn the maze. RR did not learn in eight trials. In a retention test 24 h later, RR, CR, and RC spent more time locating the platform and performed fewer target zone entries than CC. RR and RC offspring spent less time in the target zone than CC. MF area, total, and thin spines were lower in RR, CR, and RC than CC. Mushroom spines were lower in RR and RC than CC. Stubby spines were higher in RR, CR, and RC than CC. We conclude that maternal low-protein diet impairs spatial acquisition and memory retention in male offspring, and that alterations in hippocampal presynaptic (MF), postsynaptic (spines) elements and higher glucocorticoid levels are potential mechanisms to explain these learning and memory deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Reyes-Castro
- Departamento de Biología de la Reproducción, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición SZ, México 14080, México
| | - E Padilla-Gómez
- Departamento de Neurobiología del Desarrollo y Neurofisiología, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Juriquilla, Querétaro 76230, México
| | - N J Parga-Martínez
- Departamento de Neurobiología Conductual y Cognitiva, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Juriquilla, Querétaro 76230, México
| | - D C Castro-Rodríguez
- Departamento de Biología de la Reproducción, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición SZ, México 14080, México
| | - G L Quirarte
- Departamento de Neurobiología Conductual y Cognitiva, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Juriquilla, Querétaro 76230, México
| | - S Díaz-Cintra
- Departamento de Neurobiología del Desarrollo y Neurofisiología, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Juriquilla, Querétaro 76230, México
| | - P W Nathanielsz
- Department of Animal Science, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming 82071-3684
| | - E Zambrano
- Departamento de Biología de la Reproducción, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición SZ, México 14080, México
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Neurochemical Changes Associated with Stress-Induced Sleep Disturbance in Rats: In Vivo and In Vitro Measurements. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153346. [PMID: 27078855 PMCID: PMC4831675 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2016] [Accepted: 03/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The goal of this study was to quantitatively assess the changes in the cerebral neurochemical profile and to identify those factors that contribute to the alteration of endogenous biomolecules when rats are subjected to stress-induced sleep disturbance. We exposed Sprague-Dawley rats (controls: n = 9; stress-induced sleep perturbation rats: n = 11) to a psychological stressor (cage exchange method) to achieve stress-induced sleep perturbation. In vivo magnetic resonance imaging assessments were carried out using a high-resolution 9.4 T system. For in vivo neurochemical analysis, a single voxel was localized in the right dorsal hippocampal region, and in vivo spectra were quantified for 17 cerebral neurochemical signals. Rats were sacrificed upon completion of the magnetic resonance spectroscopy protocol, and whole-brain tissue was harvested from twenty subjects. The dopamine and serotonin signals were obtained by performing in vitro liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry on the harvested tissue. In the right dorsal hippocampal region, the gamma-aminobutyric-acid (GABA) and glutamine (Gln) concentrations were significantly higher in the sleep-perturbed rats than in the sham controls. The ratios of Gln/Glu (glutamate), Gln/tCr (total-creatine), and GABA/Glu were also significantly higher in the sleep-perturbed group, while serotonin concentrations were significantly lower in the sleep-perturbed rats. Pearson correlation results among individual rat data indicate that concentrations of dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT) were significantly higher in SSP rats. A larger correlation coefficient was also observed for the SSP rats. Analysis of the correlation between the in vivo and in vitro signals indicated that the concentrations of Gln, 5-HT, and DA exhibited a significant negative correlation in the SSP rat data but not in that of control rats. The authors propose that the altered and correlated GABA, Gln, 5-HT, and DA concentrations/ratios could be considered key markers of neurological function in animal models of stress-induced sleep perturbation.
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Kaneko F, Kawahara Y, Kishikawa Y, Hanada Y, Yamada M, Kakuma T, Kawahara H, Nishi A. Long-Term Citalopram Treatment Alters the Stress Responses of the Cortical Dopamine and Noradrenaline Systems: the Role of Cortical 5-HT1A Receptors. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2016; 19:pyw026. [PMID: 27029212 PMCID: PMC5006198 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyw026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cortical dopamine and noradrenaline are involved in the stress response. Citalopram, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, has direct and indirect effects on the serotonergic system. Furthermore, long-term treatment with citalopram affects the dopamine and noradrenaline systems, which could contribute to the therapeutic action of antidepressants. METHODS The effects of long-term treatment with citalopram on the responses of the dopamine and noradrenaline systems in the rat prefrontal cortex to acute handling stress were evaluated using in vivo microdialysis. RESULTS Acute handling stress increased dopamine and noradrenaline levels in the prefrontal cortex. The dopamine and noradrenaline responses were suppressed by local infusion of a 5-HT1A receptor agonist, 7-(Dipropylamino)-5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalen-1-ol;hydrobromide, into the prefrontal cortex. The dopamine response was abolished by long-term treatment with citalopram, and the abolished dopamine response was reversed by local infusion of a 5-HT1A receptor antagonist, (Z)-but-2-enedioic acid;N-[2-[4-(2-methoxyphenyl)piperazin-1-yl]ethyl]-N-pyridin-2-ylcyclohexanecarboxamide into the prefrontal cortex. On the other hand, long-term treatment with citalopram reduced the basal noradrenaline levels (approximately 40% of the controls), but not the basal dopamine levels. The noradrenaline response was maintained despite the low basal noradrenaline levels. Signaling from the 5-HT1A receptors and α2-adrenoceptors was not involved in the decrease in the basal noradrenaline levels but partially affected the noradrenaline response. CONCLUSIONS Chronic citalopram treatment differentially suppresses the dopamine and noradrenaline systems in the prefrontal cortex, and the dopamine stress response was preferentially controlled by upregulating 5-HT1A receptor signaling. Our findings provide insight into how antidepressants modulate the dopamine and noradrenaline systems to overcome acute stress.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yukie Kawahara
- Department of Pharmacology, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan (Ms Kaneko and Drs Kawahara, Kishikawa, Hanada, and Nishi); Department of Psychiatry, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan (Dr Yamada); Biostatistics Center, Kurume University, Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan (Dr Kakuma); Department of Dental Anesthesiology, School of Dentistry, Tsurumi University, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan (Dr Kawahara).
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Holly EN, Miczek KA. Ventral tegmental area dopamine revisited: effects of acute and repeated stress. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2016; 233:163-86. [PMID: 26676983 PMCID: PMC4703498 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-015-4151-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Accepted: 11/06/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Aversive events rapidly and potently excite certain dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), promoting phasic increases in the medial prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens. This is in apparent contradiction to a wealth of literature demonstrating that most VTA dopamine neurons are strongly activated by reward and reward-predictive cues while inhibited by aversive stimuli. How can these divergent processes both be mediated by VTA dopamine neurons? The answer may lie within the functional and anatomical heterogeneity of the VTA. We focus on VTA heterogeneity in anatomy, neurochemistry, electrophysiology, and afferent/efferent connectivity. Second, recent evidence for a critical role of VTA dopamine neurons in response to both acute and repeated stress will be discussed. Understanding which dopamine neurons are activated by stress, the neural mechanisms driving the activation, and where these neurons project will provide valuable insight into how stress can promote psychiatric disorders associated with the dopamine system, such as addiction and depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth N Holly
- Department of Psychology, Tufts University, 530 Boston Avenue, Medford, MA, 02155, USA.
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Klaus A Miczek
- Department of Psychology, Tufts University, 530 Boston Avenue, Medford, MA, 02155, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Tufts University, 145 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA, 02111, USA
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Naik AA, Patro IK, Patro N. Slow Physical Growth, Delayed Reflex Ontogeny, and Permanent Behavioral as Well as Cognitive Impairments in Rats Following Intra-generational Protein Malnutrition. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:446. [PMID: 26696810 PMCID: PMC4672086 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Environmental stressors including protein malnutrition (PMN) during pre-, neo- and post-natal age have been documented to affect cognitive development and cause increased susceptibility to neuropsychiatric disorders. Most studies have addressed either of the three windows and that does not emulate the clinical conditions of intra-uterine growth restriction (IUGR). Such data fail to provide a complete picture of the behavioral alterations in the F1 generation. The present study thus addresses the larger window from gestation to F1 generation, a new model of intra-generational PMN. Naive Sprague Dawley (SD) dams pre-gestationally switched to LP (8% protein) or HP (20% protein) diets for 45 days were bred and maintained throughout gestation on same diets. Pups born (HP/LP dams) were maintained on the respective diets post-weaningly. The present study aimed to show the sex specific differences in the neurobehavioral evolution and behavioral phenotype of the HP/LP F1 generation pups. A battery of neurodevelopmental reflex tests, behavioral (Open field and forelimb gripstrength test), and cognitive [Elevated plus maze (EPM) and Morris water maze (MWM)] assays were performed. A decelerated growth curve with significantly restricted body and brain weight, delays in apparition of neuro-reflexes and poor performance in the LP group rats was recorded. Intra-generational PMN induced poor habituation-with-time in novel environment exploration, low anxiety and hyperactive like profile in open field test in young and adult rats. The study revealed poor forelimb neuromuscular strength in LP F1 pups till adulthood. Group occupancy plots in MWM test revealed hyperactivity with poor learning, impaired memory retention and integration, thus modeling the signs of early onset Alzehemier phenotype. In addition, a gender specific effect of LP diet with severity in males and favoring female sex was also noticed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aijaz A Naik
- School of Studies in Neuroscience, Jiwaji University Gwalior, India ; School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University Gwalior, India
| | - Ishan K Patro
- School of Studies in Neuroscience, Jiwaji University Gwalior, India ; School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University Gwalior, India
| | - Nisha Patro
- School of Studies in Neuroscience, Jiwaji University Gwalior, India
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Van Schoors J, Lens C, Maes K, Michotte Y, Smolders I, Van Eeckhaut A. Reassessment of the antioxidative mixture for the challenging electrochemical determination of dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin in microdialysis samples. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2015; 998-999:63-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2015.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2015] [Revised: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/12/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Besson AA, Lagisz M, Senior AM, Hector KL, Nakagawa S. Effect of maternal diet on offspring coping styles in rodents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2015; 91:1065-1080. [DOI: 10.1111/brv.12210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2014] [Revised: 06/07/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anne A. Besson
- Department of Zoology; University of Otago; PO Box 56 Dunedin 9054 New Zealand
| | - Malgorzata Lagisz
- Department of Zoology; University of Otago; PO Box 56 Dunedin 9054 New Zealand
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre and School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Biological Science Building; University of New South Wales; Sydney 2052 New South Wales Australia
| | - Alistair M. Senior
- Department of Zoology; University of Otago; PO Box 56 Dunedin 9054 New Zealand
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney; Johns Hopkins Drive, Sydney 2009 New South Wales Australia
| | - Katie L. Hector
- Department of Zoology; University of Otago; PO Box 56 Dunedin 9054 New Zealand
| | - Shinichi Nakagawa
- Department of Zoology; University of Otago; PO Box 56 Dunedin 9054 New Zealand
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre and School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Biological Science Building; University of New South Wales; Sydney 2052 New South Wales Australia
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Abstract
Chronic stress can influence behaviors associated with medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) function, such as cognition and emotion regulation. Dopamine in the mPFC is responsive to stress and modulates its behavioral effects. The current study tested whether exposure to 10 days of chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) altered the effects of acute elevation stress on dopamine release in the mPFC and on spatial recognition memory. Male rats previously exposed to CUS or nonstressed controls were tested behaviorally, underwent microdialysis to assess mPFC dopamine levels or underwent blood sampling for corticosterone analysis. Dopamine in the mPFC significantly increased in both groups during acute elevation stress compared with baseline levels, but the level was attenuated in CUS rats compared with controls. Control rats exposed to elevation stress immediately before the T-maze test showed impaired performance, whereas CUS rats did not. No group differences were observed in general motor activity or plasma corticosterone levels following elevation stress. The present results indicate that prior exposure to this CUS procedure reduced dopamine release in the mPFC during acute elevation stress and prevented the impairment of performance on a spatial recognition test following an acute stressor. These findings may contribute to an understanding of the complex behavioral consequences of stress.
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Sussman D, Germann J, Henkelman M. Gestational ketogenic diet programs brain structure and susceptibility to depression & anxiety in the adult mouse offspring. Brain Behav 2015; 5:e00300. [PMID: 25642385 PMCID: PMC4309881 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Revised: 10/12/2014] [Accepted: 11/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The ketogenic diet (KD) has seen an increase in popularity for clinical and non-clinical purposes, leading to rise in concern about the diet's impact on following generations. The KD is known to have a neurological effect, suggesting that exposure to it during prenatal brain development may alter neuro-anatomy. Studies have also indicated that the KD has an anti-depressant effect on the consumer. However, it is unclear whether any neuro-anatomical and/or behavioral changes would occur in the offspring and persist into adulthood. METHODS To fill this knowledge gap we assessed the brain morphology and behavior of 8-week-old young-adult CD-1 mice, who were exposed to the KD in utero, and were fed only a standard-diet (SD) in postnatal life. Standardized neuro-behavior tests included the Open-Field, Forced-Swim, and Exercise Wheel tests, and were followed by post-mortem Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to assess brain anatomy. RESULTS The adult KD offspring exhibit reduced susceptibility to anxiety and depression, and elevated physical activity level when compared with controls exposed to the SD both in utero and postnatally. Many neuro-anatomical differences exist between the KD offspring and controls, including, for example, a cerebellar volumetric enlargement by 4.8%, a hypothalamic reduction by 1.39%, and a corpus callosum reduction by 4.77%, as computed relative to total brain volume. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that prenatal exposure to the KD programs the offspring neuro-anatomy and influences their behavior in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dafna Sussman
- Physiology and Experimental Medicine, The Hospital for Sick ChildrenToronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jurgen Germann
- Mouse Imaging Center (MICe), The Hospital for Sick ChildrenToronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mark Henkelman
- Mouse Imaging Center (MICe), The Hospital for Sick ChildrenToronto, Ontario, Canada
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Fischer LK, McGaughy JA, Bradshaw SE, Weissner WJ, Amaral AC, Rosene DL, Mokler DJ, Fitzmaurice GM, Galler JR. Prenatal protein level impacts homing behavior in Long-Evans rat pups. Nutr Neurosci 2015; 19:187-95. [PMID: 25603489 DOI: 10.1179/1476830515y.0000000001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study assessed the effect of varying prenatal protein levels on the development of homing behavior in rat pups. METHODS Long-Evans rats were fed one of the four isocaloric diets containing 6% (n = 7 litters), 12% (n = 9), 18% (n = 9), or 25% (n = 10) casein prior to mating and throughout pregnancy. At birth, litters were fostered to well-nourished control mothers fed a 25% casein diet during pregnancy, and an adequate protein diet (25% casein) was provided to weaning. On postnatal days 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13, homing behaviors, including activity levels, rate of successful returns to the nest quadrant and latencies to reach the nest over a 3-minute test period were recorded from two starting positions in the home cage. Adult body and brain weights were obtained at sacrifice (postnatal day 130 or 200). RESULTS Growth was impaired in pups whose mothers were fed a 6% or, to a lesser extent, a 12% casein diet relative to pups whose mothers were fed the 18 and 25% casein diets. The 6 and 12% prenatal protein levels resulted in lower activity levels, with the greatest reduction on postnatal day 13. However, only the 6% pups had reduced success and higher latencies in reaching the nest quadrant when compared with pups from the three other nutrition groups. Latency in reaching the nest quadrant was significantly and negatively associated with adult brain weight. DISCUSSION Home orientation is a sensitive measure of developmental deficits associated with variations in prenatal protein levels, including levels of protein deficiency that do not lead to overt growth failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- L K Fischer
- a Judge Baker Children's Center and Department of Psychiatry , Harvard Medical School , Boston , MA , USA
| | - J A McGaughy
- b Department of Psychology , University of New Hampshire , Durham , NH , USA
| | - S E Bradshaw
- a Judge Baker Children's Center and Department of Psychiatry , Harvard Medical School , Boston , MA , USA
| | - W J Weissner
- c Department of Biological Sciences , University of New England , Biddeford , ME , USA
| | - A C Amaral
- d Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology , Boston University Medical Campus , Boston , MA , USA
| | - D L Rosene
- d Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology , Boston University Medical Campus , Boston , MA , USA
| | - D J Mokler
- c Department of Biological Sciences , University of New England , Biddeford , ME , USA
| | - G M Fitzmaurice
- e Department of Biostatistics , Harvard School of Public Health , Boston , MA , USA.,f Laboratory for Psychiatric Biostatistics , McLean Hospital , Belmont , MA , USA
| | - J R Galler
- a Judge Baker Children's Center and Department of Psychiatry , Harvard Medical School , Boston , MA , USA
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Abstract
Early-life serotonin [5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)] signaling modulates brain development, which impacts adult behavior, but 5-HT-sensitive periods, neural substrates, and behavioral consequences remain poorly understood. Here we identify the period ranging from postnatal day 2 (P2) to P11 as 5-HT sensitive, with 5-HT transporter (5-HTT) blockade increasing anxiety- and depression-like behavior, and impairing fear extinction learning and memory in adult mice. Concomitantly, P2-P11 5-HTT blockade causes dendritic hypotrophy and reduced excitability of infralimbic (IL) cortex pyramidal neurons that normally promote fear extinction. By contrast, the neighboring prelimbic (PL) pyramidal neurons, which normally inhibit fear extinction, become more excitable. Excitotoxic IL but not PL lesions in adult control mice reproduce the anxiety-related phenotypes. These findings suggest that increased 5-HT signaling during P2-P11 alters adult mPFC function to increase anxiety and impair fear extinction, and imply a differential role for IL and PL neurons in regulating affective behaviors. Together, our results support a developmental mechanism for the etiology and pathophysiology of affective disorders and fear-related behaviors.
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Vargas-Martínez F, Uvnäs-Moberg K, Petersson M, Olausson HA, Jiménez-Estrada I. Neuropeptides as neuroprotective agents: Oxytocin a forefront developmental player in the mammalian brain. Prog Neurobiol 2014; 123:37-78. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2014.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/06/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Amaral AC, Jakovcevski M, McGaughy JA, Calderwood SK, Mokler DJ, Rushmore RJ, Galler JR, Akbarian SA, Rosene DL. Prenatal protein malnutrition decreases KCNJ3 and 2DG activity in rat prefrontal cortex. Neuroscience 2014; 286:79-86. [PMID: 25446346 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Revised: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 11/04/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Prenatal protein malnutrition (PPM) in rats causes enduring changes in brain and behavior including increased cognitive rigidity and decreased inhibitory control. A preliminary gene microarray screen of PPM rat prefrontal cortex (PFC) identified alterations in KCNJ3 (GIRK1/Kir3.1), a gene important for regulating neuronal excitability. Follow-up with polymerase chain reaction and Western blot showed decreased KCNJ3 expression in the PFC, but not hippocampus or brainstem. To verify localization of the effect to the PFC, baseline regional brain activity was assessed with (14)C-2-deoxyglucose. Results showed decreased activation in the PFC but not hippocampus. Together these findings point to the unique vulnerability of the PFC to the nutritional insult during early brain development, with enduring effects in adulthood on KCNJ3 expression and baseline metabolic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- A C Amaral
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, United States.
| | | | - J A McGaughy
- Department of Psychology, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, United States
| | - S K Calderwood
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Beth Israel Deaconess Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, United States
| | - D J Mokler
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of New England, Biddeford, ME 02120, United States
| | - R J Rushmore
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, United States
| | - J R Galler
- Judge Baker Children's Center and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02120, United States
| | - S A Akbarian
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, United States; Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, United States
| | - D L Rosene
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, United States
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Acute effects of restraint, shock and training in the elevated T-Maze on noradrenaline and serotonin systems of the prefrontal cortex. ACTA COLOMBIANA DE PSICOLOGIA 2014. [DOI: 10.14718/acp.2014.17.2.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) participates in cognitive functions and stress regulation. Noradrenaline (NA) and serotonin (5-HT) levels in some regions of the central nervous system are modified by acute stress. The effects depend on the type of stressor and the time elapsed between the presence of the stressor and the assessment. The aims of the present study were to assess the acute effect of different stressors on NA and 5-HT activities in the PFC and its relation with corticosterone levels. Independent groups of male Wistar rats (250-280 g) were submitted to restraint, footshock or training in the elevated T-maze (ETMT). The animals were sacrificed immediately (T0) or one hour (T1) after stress exposure. An untreated group sacrificed concurrently with treated animals was included as control. Samples of the PFC were dissected and the concentration of NA, 5-HT and their metabolites were measured by HPLC. Corticosterone levels were measured in serum. None of the treatments modified NA levels in the PFC. Animals exposed to footshock or ETMT showed significantly higher concentrations of 5-HT at T0. Restraint and footshock treatments were associated with higher corticosterone levels at T0 and T1 after the respective treatment. Taken together the results show that in the PFC, the noradrenergic and serotonergic systems, and the corticosterone levels respond in different ways to different stressors.
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Waber DP, Bryce CP, Fitzmaurice GM, Zichlin ML, McGaughy J, Girard JM, Galler JR. Neuropsychological outcomes at midlife following moderate to severe malnutrition in infancy. Neuropsychology 2014; 28:530-40. [PMID: 24635710 DOI: 10.1037/neu0000058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare neuropsychological profiles of adults who had experienced an episode of moderate to severe protein-energy malnutrition confined to the first year of life with that of a healthy community comparison group. METHOD We assessed neuropsychological functioning in a cohort of Barbadian adults, all of whom had birth weight >2268 g. The previously malnourished group (N = 77, mean age = 38 years, 53% male) had been hospitalized during the first year of life for moderate to severe protein energy malnutrition and subsequently enrolled in a program providing nutrition education, home visits and subsidized foods to 12 years of age. They also had documented, adequate nutrition throughout childhood and complete catch-up in growth by the end of adolescence. The healthy comparison group (N = 59, mean age = 38 years, 54% male) were recruited as children from the same classrooms and neighborhoods. RESULTS Adjusted for effects of standard of living during childhood and adolescence and current intellectual ability level, there were nutrition group differences on measures of cognitive flexibility and concept formation, as well as initiation, verbal fluency, working memory, processing speed, and visuospatial integration. Behavioral and cognitive regulation were not affected. CONCLUSIONS Postnatal malnutrition confined to the first year of life is associated with neurocognitive compromise persisting into midlife. Early malnutrition may have a specific neuropsychological signature, affecting response initiation to a somewhat greater extent than response inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Jill McGaughy
- Department of Psychology, University of New Hampshire
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Belluscio LM, Berardino BG, Ferroni NM, Ceruti JM, Cánepa ET. Early protein malnutrition negatively impacts physical growth and neurological reflexes and evokes anxiety and depressive-like behaviors. Physiol Behav 2014; 129:237-54. [PMID: 24607933 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.02.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 02/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Malnutrition is a worldwide problem affecting millions of unborn and young children during the most vulnerable stages of their development. In humans, poor maternal nutrition is a major cause of intrauterine growth restriction which is associated with an increased risk of perinatal mortality and long-term morbidity. In addition, intrauterine growth restriction correlates with neurodevelopmental delays and alterations of brain structure and neurochemistry. While there is no doubt that maternal malnutrition is a principal cause of perturbed development of the fetal brain and that all nutrients have certain influence on brain maturation, proteins appear to be the most critical for the development of neurological functions. In the present study we assessed male and female mouse offspring, born to dams protein restricted during pregnancy and lactation, in physical growth and neurobehavioral development and also in social interaction, motivation, anxiety and depressive behaviors. Moreover, we evaluate the impact of the low protein diet on dams in relation to their maternal care and anxiety-related behavior given that these clearly affect pups development. We observed that maternal protein restriction during pregnancy and lactation delayed the physical growth and neurodevelopment of the offspring in a sex-independent manner. In addition, maternal undernutrition negatively affected offspring's juvenile social play, motivation, exploratory activity and risk assessment behaviors. These findings show that protein restriction during critical periods of development detrimentally program progeny behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M Belluscio
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria Pabellón II, 1428 Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Bruno G Berardino
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria Pabellón II, 1428 Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Nadina M Ferroni
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria Pabellón II, 1428 Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Julieta M Ceruti
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria Pabellón II, 1428 Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Eduardo T Cánepa
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria Pabellón II, 1428 Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Lee B, Sur B, Park J, Kim SH, Kwon S, Yeom M, Shim I, Lee H, Hahm DH. Chronic administration of baicalein decreases depression-like behavior induced by repeated restraint stress in rats. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY & PHARMACOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY AND THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF PHARMACOLOGY 2013; 17:393-403. [PMID: 24227939 PMCID: PMC3823951 DOI: 10.4196/kjpp.2013.17.5.393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2013] [Revised: 07/12/2013] [Accepted: 08/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Baicalein (BA), a plant-derived active flavonoid present in the root of Scutellaria baicalensis, has been widely used for the treatment of stress-related neuropsychiatric disorders including depression. Previous studies have demonstrated that repeated restraint stress disrupts the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, resulting in depression. The behavioral and neurochemical basis of the BA effect on depression remain unclear. The present study used the forced swimming test (FST) and changes in brain neurotransmitter levels to confirm the impact of BA on repeated restraint stress-induced behavioral and neurochemical changes in rats. Male rats received 10, 20, or 40 mg/kg BA (i.p.) 30 min prior to daily exposure to repeated restraint stress (2 h/day) for 14 days. Activation of the HPA axis in response to repeated restraint stress was confirmed by measuring serum corticosterone levels and the expression of corticotrophin-releasing factor in the hypothalamus. Daily BA administration significantly decreased the duration of immobility in the FST, increased sucrose consumption, and restored the stress-related decreases in dopamine concentrations in the hippocampus to near normal levels. BA significantly inhibited the stress-induced decrease in neuronal tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity in the ventral tegmental area and the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA in the hippocampus. Taken together, these findings indicate that administration of BA prior to the repeated restraint stress significantly improves helpless behaviors and depressive symptoms, possibly by preventing the decrease in dopamine and BDNF expression. Thus, BA may be a useful agent for the treatment or alleviation of the complex symptoms associated with depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bombi Lee
- Acupuncture and Meridian Science Research Center, College of Oriental Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
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Otten W, Kanitz E, Tuchscherer M, Gräbner M, Nürnberg G, Bellmann O, Hennig U, Rehfeldt C, Metges CC. Effects of low and high protein:carbohydrate ratios in the diet of pregnant gilts on maternal cortisol concentrations and the adrenocortical and sympathoadrenal reactivity in their offspring. J Anim Sci 2013; 91:2680-92. [PMID: 23482575 DOI: 10.2527/jas.2012-6080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Inadequate maternal nutrition during gestation may cause an adverse environment for the fetus leading to alterations of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and sympatho-adrenomedullary (SAM) systems later in life. In the present study, we investigated the effects of diets with low and high protein:carbohydrate ratios on cortisol concentrations of pregnant gilts as well as the long-term effects on the function of the HPA and SAM axes in their offspring. Throughout gestation, 33 German Landrace gilts were fed high (HP, 30%), low (LP, 6.5%), or adequate (AP, 12.1%) protein diets, which were made isocaloric by adjusting the carbohydrate content. The salivary cortisol concentrations of the sows were measured in the course of the gestation period. The offspring were cross-fostered, and the plasma cortisol and catecholamine concentrations of the offspring were determined on postnatal d (PND) 1 and 27 and under specific challenging conditions: after weaning (PND 29) and after ACTH and insulin challenges (PND 68 and 70, respectively). Glucocorticoid receptor (GR) binding and neurotransmitter concentrations were measured in stress-related brain regions, and histological analyses of the adrenal were performed. Maternal salivary cortisol concentrations increased throughout gestation (P < 0.001) and the LP gilts had greater salivary cortisol compared with the AP and HP gilts (P < 0.05). No differences between diets were found for cortisol, corticosteroid-binding globulin, and catecholamine concentrations in plasma and for GR binding in hippocampus and hypothalamus in piglets at PND 1 and 27. However, the cortisol response to weaning was increased in LP piglets (P < 0.05), and in HP offspring the basal plasma noradrenaline concentrations were increased (P < 0.05). The cortisol response to the ACTH and the insulin challenge did not differ between diets. On PND 81, an increased adrenal medulla area was observed in LP offspring compared with the AP offspring (P < 0.05). Our results show that maternal diets with aberrant protein:carbohydrate ratios during gestation have moderate long-term effects on the function of the HPA and SAM system in the offspring, which indicates that pigs show a considerable plasticity to cope with maternal malnutrition.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Otten
- Behavioral Physiology, Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN Dummerstorf), Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2,D-18196 Dummerstorf, Germany.
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de Oliveira JC, Lisboa PC, de Moura EG, Barella LF, Miranda RA, Malta A, Franco CCDS, Ribeiro TADS, Torrezan R, Gravena C, Mathias PCDF. Poor pubertal protein nutrition disturbs glucose-induced insulin secretion process in pancreatic islets and programs rats in adulthood to increase fat accumulation. J Endocrinol 2013; 216:195-206. [PMID: 23151360 DOI: 10.1530/joe-12-0408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Similar to gestation/lactation, puberty is also a critical phase in which neuronal connections are still being produced and during which metabolic changes may occur if nutrition is disturbed. In the present study we aimed to determine whether peripubertal protein restriction induces metabolic programming. Thirty-day-old male rats were fed either a low protein (LP group) diet (4% w/w protein) or a normal protein (NP group) diet (23%) until 60 days of age, when they received the NP diet until they were 120 days old. Body weight (BW), food intake, fat tissue accumulation, glucose tolerance, and insulin secretion were evaluated. The nerve electrical activity was recorded to evaluate autonomous nervous system (ANS) function. Adolescent LP rats presented hypophagia and lower BW gain during the LP diet treatment (P<0.001). However, the food intake and BW gain by the LP rats were increased (P<0.001) after the NP diet was resumed. The LP rats presented mild hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, severe hyperleptinemia upon fasting, peripheral insulin resistance and increased fat tissue accumulation and vagus nerve activity (P<0.05). Glucose-induced insulin secretion was greater in the LP islets than in the NP islets; however, the cholinergic response was decreased (P<0.05). Compared with the islets from the NP rats, the LP islets showed changes in the activity of muscarinic receptors (P<0.05); in addition, the inhibition of glucose-induced insulin secretion by epinephrine was attenuated (P<0.001). Protein restriction during adolescence caused high-fat tissue accumulation in adult rats. Islet dysfunction could be related to an ANS imbalance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Júlio Cezar de Oliveira
- Laboratory of Secretion Cell Biology, Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, State University of Maringá, Block H67, Room 19, Colombo Avenue 5970, 87020-900 Maringá, Paraná, Brazil
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Effects of protein restriction during gestation and lactation on cell proliferation in the hippocampus and subventricular zone: Functional implications. Protein restriction alters hippocampal/SVZ cell proliferation. Brain Res 2013; 1496:10-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.10.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2012] [Revised: 10/24/2012] [Accepted: 10/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Prenatal stress exposure increases the excitation of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area and alters their reponses to psychostimulants. Neuropsychopharmacology 2013; 38:293-301. [PMID: 22948974 PMCID: PMC3527115 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2012.168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Prenatal stress exposure (PSE) is known to increase addiction risk. Dopamine (DA) neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) play an important role in addiction. In order to understand the cellular mechanisms underlying PSE-induced increase in addiction risk, we examined the effects of PSE on the electrical impulse activity of VTA DA neurons using the in vivo extracellular single-unit recording technique. Amphetamine self-administration was also conducted to confirm increased addiction risk after PSE. The PSE was carried out by restraining pregnant dams from GD 11 to 20. Adult male offspring (3-6 months old) were used in the experiments. Animals with PSE showed enhanced amphetamine self-administration compared with controls when amphetamine dose was reduced after acquisition. The number of spontaneously active VTA DA neurons was also reduced in PSE rats. The reduction was reversed by acute apomorphine that normally inhibits the impulse activity of DA neurons. The reversal effect suggests that PSE-induced reduction in the number of spontaneously active VTA DA neurons is caused by overexcitation to the extent of depolarization block. Furthermore, the reduced number of spontaneously active VTA DA neurons was also reversed by acute psychostimulants (eg, amphetamine; cocaine), which in control rats inhibited the activity of VTA DA neurons. The reversal effect on VTA DA neuron in PSE animals represents an actual increase in the impulse activity. This effect might contribute to increased responding to psychostimulants and mediate increased addiction risk after PSE.
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Sharopov S, Moser J, Chen R, Kolbaev SN, Bernedo VE, Werhahn KJ, Luhmann HJ, Kilb W. Dopaminergic modulation of low-Mg2+-induced epileptiform activity in the intact hippocampus of the newborn mouse in vitro. J Neurosci Res 2012; 90:2020-33. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2011] [Revised: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 04/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Alamy M, Bengelloun WA. Malnutrition and brain development: an analysis of the effects of inadequate diet during different stages of life in rat. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012; 36:1463-80. [PMID: 22487135 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2011] [Revised: 03/19/2012] [Accepted: 03/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Protein malnutrition or undernutrition can result in abnormal development of the brain. Depending on type, age at onset and duration, different structural and functional deficits can be observed. In the present review, we discuss the neuroanatomical, behavioral, neurochemical and oxidative status changes associated with protein malnutrition or undernutrition at different ages during prenatal and immediately postnatal periods as well as in adult rat. Analysis of all data suggests that protein malnutrition as well as undernutrition induced impaired learning and retention when imposed during the immediately postnatal period and in adulthood, whereas hyperactivity including increased impulsiveness and greater reactivity to aversive stimuli occurred when malnutrition or undernutrition was imposed either pre or postnatally. This general state of hyperreactivity may be linked essentially to an alteration in dopaminergic system. Hence, the present review shows that in spite of the attention devoted in the literature to prenatal effects, cognitive deficits are more serious following malnutrition or undernutrition after birth. We thus clearly establish a special vulnerability to malnutrition after weaning in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meryem Alamy
- Faculty of Science, Mohammed V-Agdal University, Rabat, Morocco
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Masuda T, Nakagawa S, Boku S, Nishikawa H, Takamura N, Kato A, Inoue T, Koyama T. Noradrenaline increases neural precursor cells derived from adult rat dentate gyrus through β2 receptor. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2012; 36:44-51. [PMID: 21914456 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2011.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2011] [Revised: 08/18/2011] [Accepted: 08/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Several preclinical researches indicate that increased neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus might underlie the therapeutic effect of antidepressant treatment. Most antidepressant drugs have ability to increase serotonin (5-HT) and/or noradrenaline (NA) in brain, and chronic treatment with antidepressant drugs increases the number of proliferating neural precursor cells and neurogenesis in hippocampus. However, the direct effects of antidepressant drugs, 5-HT and NA on the neural precursor cells remain largely unknown. Neural precursor cells in adult hippocampus are divided into stem/progenitor cells of four types based on stages of neural development. We recently established a culture system of adult rat dentate gyrus-derived neural precursor cells (ADPs), which correspond to be type 2a early progenitor cells. Here the direct effects of antidepressant drugs of four types (fluoxetine, imipramine, reboxetine, and tranylcypromine) and two neurotransmitters (5-HT and NA) on the proliferation of ADPs were investigated. Neither antidepressant drugs of all types nor 5-HT increased the number of ADPs. On the other hand, NA increased the number and the DNA synthesis of ADPs. The effect of NA on ADP proliferation was antagonized by propranolol and timolol (β-adrenergic receptor (AR) antagonists), but not by phentolamine (α-AR antagonist), prazosin (α1-AR antagonist), or yohimbine (α2-AR antagonist). Moreover, it was antagonized by ICI 118, 551 (β2-AR selective antagonist) and salmeterol (β2-AR selective agonist) promoted ADP proliferation. These results suggest that NA might increase the proliferation of early progenitor cells in adult hippocampus via β2-AR directly, but antidepressant drugs and 5-HT do not.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Masuda
- Department of Psychiatry, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
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Wyrwoll CS, Holmes MC. Prenatal excess glucocorticoid exposure and adult affective disorders: a role for serotonergic and catecholamine pathways. Neuroendocrinology 2012; 95:47-55. [PMID: 22042385 PMCID: PMC3388616 DOI: 10.1159/000331345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2011] [Accepted: 07/29/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Fetal glucocorticoid exposure is a key mechanism proposed to underlie prenatal 'programming' of adult affective behaviours such as depression and anxiety. Indeed, the glucocorticoid metabolising enzyme 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11β-HSD2), which is highly expressed in the placenta and the developing fetus, acts as a protective barrier from the high maternal glucocorticoids which may alter developmental trajectories. The programmed changes resulting from maternal stress or bypass or from the inhibition of 11β-HSD2 are frequently associated with alterations in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Hence, circulating glucocorticoid levels are increased either basally or in response to stress accompanied by CNS region-specific modulations in the expression of both corticosteroid receptors (mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptors). Furthermore, early-life glucocorticoid exposure also affects serotonergic and catecholamine pathways within the brain, with changes in both associated neurotransmitters and receptors. Indeed, global removal of 11β-HSD2, an enzyme that inactivates glucocorticoids, increases anxiety- and depressive-like behaviour in mice; however, in this case the phenotype is not accompanied by overt perturbation in the HPA axis but, intriguingly, alterations in serotonergic and catecholamine pathways are maintained in this programming model. This review addresses one of the potential adverse effects of glucocorticoid overexposure in utero, i.e. increased incidence of affective behaviours, and the mechanisms underlying these behaviours including alteration of the HPA axis and serotonergic and catecholamine pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin S. Wyrwoll
- *C.S. Wyrwoll, Endocrinology Unit, Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen's Medical Research Institute, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ (UK), Tel. +44 131 242 6746, E-Mail
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Cognitive impairment as a mediator in the developmental pathway from infant malnutrition to adolescent depressive symptoms in Barbadian youth. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2011; 32:225-32. [PMID: 21285893 PMCID: PMC3166772 DOI: 10.1097/dbp.0b013e31820b7707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Depressive symptoms are elevated in adolescents who experienced significant malnutrition early in life. Early malnutrition can also have a significant impact on cognitive functioning, presumably because of the adverse impact of the malnutrition on the very young brain. In the context of a developmental cascade model, we tested the hypothesis that the association between early malnutrition and adolescent depressive symptoms is mediated by the cognitive impairment that ensues from the malnutrition. METHODS We evaluated Barbadian youth (N = 57) hospitalized for moderate to severe protein-energy malnutrition in the first year of life and healthy controls (N = 60) longitudinally. The primary hypothesis was tested by multiple regression models. RESULTS After adjusting for covariates, early malnutrition predicted both cognitive functioning in childhood (IQ, p < .001; attention problems, p < .01; Common Entrance Examination, p < .01; and adolescent depressive symptoms, p < .05). Childhood cognitive functioning mediated the association between early malnutrition and depressive symptoms in adolescence (p < .001). Maternal depressive symptoms were a significant but independent predictor of adolescent depressive symptoms (p < .05). CONCLUSIONS Cognitive compromise in childhood accounts indirectly for elevated depressive symptoms in previously malnourished adolescents, consistent with a developmental cascade model. The direct link between malnutrition and depressive symptoms in adolescence is small.
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Prenatal stress: role in psychotic and depressive diseases. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2011; 214:89-106. [PMID: 20949351 PMCID: PMC3050113 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-010-2035-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2010] [Accepted: 09/26/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The birth of neurons, their migration to appropriate positions in the brain, and their establishment of the proper synaptic contacts happen predominately during the prenatal period. Environmental stressors during gestation can exert a major impact on brain development and thereby contribute to the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric illnesses, such as depression and psychotic disorders including schizophrenia. OBJECTIVE The objectives here are to present recent preclinical studies of the impact of prenatal exposure to gestational stressors on the developing fetal brain and discuss their relevance to the neurobiological basis of mental illness. The focus is on maternal immune activation, psychological stresses, and malnutrition, due to the abundant clinical literature supporting their role in the etiology of neuropsychiatric illnesses. RESULTS Prenatal maternal immune activation, viral infection, unpredictable psychological stress, and malnutrition all appear to foster the development of behavioral abnormalities in exposed offspring that may be relevant to the symptom domains of schizophrenia and psychosis, including sensorimotor gating, information processing, cognition, social function, and subcortical hyperdopaminergia. Depression-related phenotypes, such as learned helplessness or anxiety, are also observed in some model systems. These changes appear to be mediated by the presence of proinflammatory cytokines and/or corticosteroids in the fetal compartment that alter the development the neuroanatomical substrates involved in these behaviors. CONCLUSION Prenatal exposure to environmental stressors alters the trajectory of brain development and can be used to generate animal preparations that may be informative in understanding the pathophysiological processes involved in several human neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Vucetic Z, Reyes TM. Central dopaminergic circuitry controlling food intake and reward: implications for the regulation of obesity. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-SYSTEMS BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2011; 2:577-593. [PMID: 20836049 DOI: 10.1002/wsbm.77] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Prevalence of obesity in the general population has increased in the past 15 years from 15% to 35%. With increasing obesity, the coincident medical and social consequences are becoming more alarming. Control over food intake is crucial for the maintenance of body weight and represents an important target for the treatment of obesity. Central nervous system mechanisms responsible for control of food intake have evolved to sense the nutrient and energy levels in the organism and to coordinate appropriate responses to adjust energy intake and expenditure. This homeostatic system is crucial for maintenance of stable body weight over long periods of time of uneven energy availability. However, not only the caloric and nutritional value of food but also hedonic and emotional aspects of feeding affect food intake. In modern society, the increased availability of highly palatable and rewarding (fat, sweet) food can significantly affect homeostatic balance, resulting in dysregulated food intake. This review will focus on the role of hypothalamic and mesolimbic/mesocortical dopaminergic (DA) circuitry in coding homeostatic and hedonic signals for the regulation of food intake and maintenance of caloric balance. The interaction of dopamine with peripheral and central indices of nutritional status (e.g., leptin, ghrelin, neuropeptide Y), and the susceptibility of the dopamine system to prenatal insults will be discussed. Additionally, the importance of alterations in dopamine signaling that occur coincidently with obesity will be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zivjena Vucetic
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Teresa M Reyes
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.,Institute for Translational Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
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The canary in the coalmine: the sensitivity of mesolimbic dopamine to environmental adversity during development. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2010; 35:794-803. [PMID: 20888857 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2010] [Revised: 07/19/2010] [Accepted: 09/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis has been the focus of extensive research with regard to the phenotypic plasticity this system shows in response to environmental influences on mammalian development. This review proposes that the mesolimbic dopamine system is similarly reactive to indicators of environmental adversity during development. Physical, physiological, and toxicological stressors encountered during perinatal development have been routinely demonstrated to affect dopamine neurophysiology, most likely through consequent exposure to maternal glucocorticoids or a reduction in oxygen supply. However, findings remain inconsistent with regard to the nature of impact these events have on the dopamine system. Both hyper- and hypo-dopaminergic changes have been noted. This review argues that the directionality of change is a function of chronicity and severity of the insult, and that both resultant phenotypes are adaptive developmental responses, despite their potential for conferring vulnerability for psychopathology in humans.
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Wilson C, Terry AV. Neurodevelopmental animal models of schizophrenia: role in novel drug discovery and development. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 4:124-37. [PMID: 20643635 DOI: 10.3371/csrp.4.2.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a devastating mental illness that is associated with a lifetime of disability. For patients to successfully function in society, the amelioration of disease symptoms is imperative. The recently published results of two large antipsychotic clinical trials (e.g., CATIE, CUtLASS) clearly exemplified the limitations of currently available treatment options for schizophrenia, and further highlighted the critical need for novel drug discovery and development in this field. One of the biggest challenges in schizophrenia-related drug discovery is to find an appropriate animal model of the illness so that novel hypotheses can be tested at the basic science level. A number of pharmacological, genetic, and neurodevelopmental models have been introduced; however, none of these models has been rigorously evaluated for translational relevance or to satisfy requirements of "face," "construct" and "predictive" validity. Given the apparent polygenic nature of schizophrenia and the limited translational significance of pharmacological models, neurodevelopmental models may offer the best chance of success. The purpose of this review is to provide a general overview of the various neurodevelopmental models of schizophrenia that have been introduced to date, and to summarize their behavioral and neurochemical phenotypes that may be useful from a drug discovery and development standpoint. While it may be that, in the final analysis, no single animal model will satisfy all the requirements necessary for drug discovery purposes, several of the models may be useful for modeling various phenomenological and pathophysiological components of schizophrenia that could be targeted independently with separate molecules or multi-target drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Wilson
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Graduate Studies, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912-2300, USA
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Gilbert M, MacPhail R, Baldwin J, Moser V, Chernoff N. Moderate developmental undernutrition: Impact on growth and cognitive function in youth and old age. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2010; 32:362-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2009.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2009] [Revised: 10/29/2009] [Accepted: 12/21/2009] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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