Three-dimensional architecture of the rod sensory cilium and its disruption in retinal neurodegeneration

Temporal Regulation of Myopia and Inflammation-Associated Pathways in the Interphotoreceptor Retinoid-Binding Protein Knockout Mouse Model

PURPOSE

Myopia is a complex disorder with etiology involving an interplay between several genetic and environmental factors. Interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (IRBP) is found in the subretinal space and is crucial in the visual cycle. The interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein knockout mouse (IRBP KO) was established as a model system to understand myopia and retinal degeneration. The current study investigated genes associated with myopia, retinal homeostasis, and inflammation in IRBP KO.

METHODS

RNA from retinas of congenic IRBP KO and wild-type C57BL/6J (WT) mice at postnatal day 5 (P5), P40, and P213 were subjected to digital droplet PCR (ddPCR) using a Bio-Rad automated droplet generator and QX200 reader. Target genes were selected based on genome-wide association studies, animal models, myopia studies, and other genes associated with retinal homeostasis and inflammation. HPRT, a housekeeping gene, was used for normalization. An average expression ratio (target/HPRT) and standard deviation (SD) were calculated. ANOVA assessed statistical significance, and a p < 0.05 was considered significant.

RESULTS

The ddPCR data analysis indicated that numerous myopia and inflammation-associated genes were differentially regulated in IRBP KO retinas with distinct temporal variation (upregulated at P5, decreased at P40, and no change at P213 relative to WT). C1qa, Gjd2, Sntb1, and Vsx2 emerged as top genetic candidate pathways. Compared with WT, immunoblotting analysis of C1qa showed no significant differences at P5 but significantly increased protein levels at P7 in IRBP KOs. Vsx2 remained unaltered at P5 and P7 in KO when compared with WT.

CONCLUSIONS

Data analysis indicated significant contributions from C1q, Gjd2, Sntb1, and Vsx2 genes in IRBP deficiency.

A cryo-electron tomography study of ciliary rootlet organization

Ciliary rootlets are striated bundles of filaments that connect the base of cilia to internal cellular structures. Rootlets are critical for the sensory and motile functions of cilia. However, the mechanisms underlying these functions remain unknown, in part due to a lack of structural information of rootlet organization. In this study, we obtain 3D reconstructions of membrane-associated and purified rootlets from mouse retina using cryo-electron tomography. We show that flexible protrusions on the rootlet surface, which emanate from the cross-striations, connect to intracellular membranes. In purified rootlets, the striations were classified into amorphous (A)-bands, associated with accumulations on the rootlet surface, and discrete (D)-bands corresponding to punctate lines of density that run through the rootlet. These striations connect a flexible network of longitudinal filaments. Subtomogram averaging suggests the filaments consist of two intertwined coiled coils. The rootlet's filamentous architecture, with frequent membrane-connecting cross-striations, lends itself well for anchoring large membranes in the cell.

Mechanisms of amphibian arrestin 1 self-association and dynamic distribution in retinal photoreceptors

Visual arrestin 1 (Arr1) is an essential protein for termination of the light response in photoreceptors. While mammalian Arr1s form dimers and tetramers at physiological concentrations in vitro, oligomerization in other vertebrates has not been studied. Here we examine self-association of Arr1 from two amphibian species, Xenopus laevis (xArr1) and Ambystoma tigrinum (salArr1). Sedimentation velocity analytical ultracentrifugation showed that xArr1 and salArr1 oligomerization is limited to dimers. The KD for dimer formation was 53 μM for xArr1 and 44 μM for salArr1, similar to the 69 μM KD for bovine Arr1 (bArr1) dimers. Mutations of orthologous amino acids important for mammalian Arr1 oligomerization had no impact on xArr1 dimerization. Crystallography showed that the fold of xArr1 closely resembles that of bArr1 and crystal structures in different space groups revealed two potential xArr1 dimer forms: a symmetric dimer with a C-domain interface (CC dimer), resembling the bArr1 solution dimer, and an asymmetric dimer with an N-domain/C-domain interface. Mutagenesis of residues predicted to interact in either of these two dimer forms yielded modest reduction in dimer affinity, suggesting that the dimer interfaces compete or are not unique. Indeed, small-angle X-ray scattering and protein painting data were consistent with a symmetric anti-parallel solution dimer (AP dimer) distinct from the assemblies observed by crystallography. Finally, a computational model evaluating xArr1 binding to compartment-specific partners and partitioning based on heterogeneity of available cytoplasmic spaces shows that Arr1 distribution in dark-adapted photoreceptors is largely explained by the excluded volume effect together with tuning by oligomerization.

Intraflagellar transport: A critical player in photoreceptor development and the pathogenesis of retinal degenerative diseases

In vertebrate vision, photons are detected by highly specialized sensory cilia called outer segments. Photoreceptor outer segments form by remodeling the membrane of a primary cilium into a stack of flattened disks. Intraflagellar transport (IFT) is critical to the formation of most types of eukaryotic cilia including the outer segments. This review covers the state of knowledge of the role of IFT in the formation and maintenance of outer segments and the human diseases that result from mutations in genes encoding the IFT complex and associated motors.

Mapping protein distribution in the canine photoreceptor sensory cilium and calyceal processes by ultrastructure expansion microscopy

Photoreceptors are highly polarized sensory neurons, possessing a unique ciliary structure known as the photoreceptor sensory cilium (PSC). Vertebrates have two subtypes of photoreceptors: rods, which are responsible for night vision, and cones, which support daylight vision and color perception. Despite identifying functional and morphological differences between these subtypes, ultrastructural analyses of the PSC molecular architecture in rods and cones are still lacking. In this study, we employed ultrastructure expansion microscopy (U-ExM) to characterize the molecular architecture of the PSC in canine retina. We demonstrated that U-ExM is applicable to both non-frozen and cryopreserved retinal tissues with standard paraformaldehyde fixation. Using this validated U-ExM protocol, we revealed the molecular localization of numerous ciliopathy-related proteins in canine photoreceptors. Furthermore, we identified significant architectural differences in the PSC, ciliary rootlet, and calyceal processes between canine rods and cones. These findings pave the way for a better understanding of alterations in the molecular architecture of the PSC in canine models of retinal ciliopathies.

The Formation and Renewal of Photoreceptor Outer Segments

The visual system is essential for humans to perceive the environment. In the retina, rod and cone photoreceptor neurons are the initial sites where vision forms. The apical region of both cone and rod photoreceptors contains a light-sensing organelle known as the outer segment (OS), which houses tens of thousands of light-sensitive opsins. The OSs of photoreceptors are not static; they require rhythmic renewal to maintain normal physiological functions. Disruptions in OS renewal can lead to various genetic disorders, such as retinitis pigmentosa (RP). Understanding the patterns and molecular mechanisms of photoreceptor OS renewal remains one of the most intriguing topics in visual biology. This review aims to elucidate the structure of photoreceptor OSs, the molecular mechanisms underlying photoreceptor OS renewal, and the retinal diseases resulting from defects in this renewal process. Additionally, we will explore retinal diseases related to photoreceptor OS renewal and potential therapeutic strategies, concluding with a discussion on future research directions for OS renewal.

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid - mediated Cellular Rejuvenation for Reversing Age-related Vision Decline

The retina is uniquely enriched in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are primarily localized in cell membranes, where they govern membrane biophysical properties such as diffusion, permeability, domain formation, and curvature generation. During aging, alterations in lipid metabolism lead to reduced content of very long-chain PUFAs (VLC-PUFAs) in the retina, and this decline is associated with normal age-related visual decline and pathological age-related macular degeneration (AMD). ELOVL2 (Elongation of very-long-chain fatty acids-like 2) encodes a transmembrane protein that produces precursors to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and VLC-PUFAs, and methylation level of its promoter is currently the best predictor of chronological age. Here, we show that mice lacking ELOVL2-specific enzymatic activity (Elovl2 C234W ) have impaired contrast sensitivity and slower rod response recovery following bright light exposure. Intravitreal supplementation with the direct product of ELOVL2, 24:5n-3, in aged animals significantly improved visual function and reduced accumulation of ApoE, HTRA1 and complement proteins in sub-RPE deposits. At the molecular level, the gene expression pattern observed in retinas supplemented with 24:5n-3 exhibited a partial rejuvenation profile, including decreased expression of aging-related genes and a transcriptomic signature of younger retina. Finally, we present the first human genetic data showing significant association of several variants in the human ELOVL2 locus with the onset of intermediate AMD, underlying the translational significance of our findings. In sum, our study identifies novel therapeutic opportunities and defines ELOVL2 as a promising target for interventions aimed at preventing age-related vision loss.

Mathematical model for rod outer segment dynamics during retinal detachment

Retinal detachment (RD) is the separation of the neural layer from the retinal pigmented epithelium thereby preventing the supply of nutrients to the cells within the neural layer of the retina. In vertebrates, primary photoreceptor cells consisting of rods and cones undergo daily renewal of their outer segment through the addition of disc-like structures and shedding of these discs at their distal end. When the retina detaches, the outer segment of these cells begins to degenerate and, if surgical procedures for reattachment are not done promptly, the cells can die and lead to blindness. The precise effect of RD on the renewal process is not well understood. Additionally, a time frame within which reattachment of the retina can restore proper photoreceptor cell function is not known. Focusing on rod cells, we propose a mathematical model to clarify the influence of retinal detachment on the renewal process. Our model simulation and analysis suggest that RD stops or significantly reduces the formation of new discs and that an alternative removal mechanism is needed to explain the observed degeneration during RD. Sensitivity analysis of our model parameters points to the disc removal rate as the key regulator of the critical time within which retinal reattachment can restore proper photoreceptor cell function.

Automated quantification of photoreceptor outer segments in developing and degenerating retinas on microscopy images across scales

The functionality of photoreceptors, rods, and cones is highly dependent on their outer segments (POS), a cellular compartment containing highly organized membranous structures that generate biochemical signals from incident light. While POS formation and degeneration are qualitatively assessed on microscopy images, reliable methodology for quantitative analyses is still limited. Here, we developed methods to quantify POS (QuaPOS) maturation and quality on retinal sections using automated image analyses. POS formation was examined during the development and in adulthood of wild-type mice via light microscopy (LM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). To quantify the number, size, shape, and fluorescence intensity of POS, retinal cryosections were immunostained for the cone POS marker S-opsin. Fluorescence images were used to train the robust classifier QuaPOS-LM based on supervised machine learning for automated image segmentation. Characteristic features of segmentation results were extracted to quantify the maturation of cone POS. Subsequently, this quantification method was applied to characterize POS degeneration in "cone photoreceptor function loss 1" mice. TEM images were used to establish the ultrastructural quantification method QuaPOS-TEM for the alignment of POS membranes. Images were analyzed using a custom-written MATLAB code to extract the orientation of membranes from the image gradient and their alignment (coherency). This analysis was used to quantify the POS morphology of wild-type and two inherited retinal degeneration ("retinal degeneration 19" and "rhodopsin knock-out") mouse lines. Both automated analysis technologies provided robust characterization and quantification of POS based on LM or TEM images. Automated image segmentation by the classifier QuaPOS-LM and analysis of the orientation of membrane stacks by QuaPOS-TEM using fluorescent or TEM images allowed quantitative evaluation of POS formation and quality. The assessments showed an increase in POS number, volume, and membrane coherency during wild-type postnatal development, while a decrease in all three observables was detected in different retinal degeneration mouse models. All the code used for the presented analysis is open source, including example datasets to reproduce the findings. Hence, the QuaPOS quantification methods are useful for in-depth characterization of POS on retinal sections in developmental studies, for disease modeling, or after therapeutic interventions affecting photoreceptors.

Ciliary tip actin dynamics regulate photoreceptor outer segment integrity

As signalling organelles, cilia regulate their G protein-coupled receptor content by ectocytosis, a process requiring localised actin dynamics to alter membrane shape. Photoreceptor outer segments comprise an expanse of folded membranes (discs) at the tip of highly-specialised connecting cilia, into which photosensitive GPCRs are concentrated. Discs are shed and remade daily. Defects in this process, due to mutations, cause retinitis pigmentosa (RP). Whilst fundamental for vision, the mechanism of photoreceptor disc generation is poorly understood. Here, we show membrane deformation required for disc genesis is driven by dynamic actin changes in a process akin to ectocytosis. We show RPGR, a leading RP gene, regulates actin-binding protein activity central to this process. Actin dynamics, required for disc formation, are perturbed in Rpgr mouse models, leading to aborted membrane shedding as ectosome-like vesicles, photoreceptor death and visual loss. Actin manipulation partially rescues this, suggesting the pathway could be targeted therapeutically. These findings help define how actin-mediated dynamics control outer segment turnover.

Centriole and transition zone structures in photoreceptor cilia revealed by cryo-electron tomography

Primary cilia mediate sensory signaling in multiple organisms and cell types but have structures adapted for specific roles. Structural defects in them lead to devastating diseases known as ciliopathies in humans. Key to their functions are structures at their base: the basal body, the transition zone, the "Y-shaped links," and the "ciliary necklace." We have used cryo-electron tomography with subtomogram averaging and conventional transmission electron microscopy to elucidate the structures associated with the basal region of the "connecting cilia" of rod outer segments in mouse retina. The longitudinal variations in microtubule (MT) structures and the lumenal scaffold complexes connecting them have been determined, as well as membrane-associated transition zone structures: Y-shaped links connecting MT to the membrane, and ciliary beads connected to them that protrude from the cell surface and form a necklace-like structure. These results represent a clearer structural scaffold onto which molecules identified by genetics, proteomics, and superresolution fluorescence can be placed in our emerging model of photoreceptor sensory cilia.

MAP9/MAPH-9 supports axonemal microtubule doublets and modulates motor movement

Microtubule doublets (MTDs) comprise an incomplete microtubule (B-tubule) attached to the side of a complete cylindrical microtubule. These compound microtubules are conserved in cilia across the tree of life; however, the mechanisms by which MTDs form and are maintained in vivo remain poorly understood. Here, we identify microtubule-associated protein 9 (MAP9) as an MTD-associated protein. We demonstrate that C. elegans MAPH-9, a MAP9 homolog, is present during MTD assembly and localizes exclusively to MTDs, a preference that is in part mediated by tubulin polyglutamylation. We find that loss of MAPH-9 causes ultrastructural MTD defects, including shortened and/or squashed B-tubules with reduced numbers of protofilaments, dysregulated axonemal motor velocity, and perturbed cilia function. Because we find that the mammalian ortholog MAP9 localizes to axonemes in cultured mammalian cells and mouse tissues, we propose that MAP9/MAPH-9 plays a conserved role in regulating ciliary motors and supporting the structure of axonemal MTDs.

Super-resolution mapping in rod photoreceptors identifies rhodopsin trafficking through the inner segment plasma membrane as an essential subcellular pathway

Photoreceptor cells in the vertebrate retina have a highly compartmentalized morphology for efficient phototransduction and vision. Rhodopsin, the visual pigment in rod photoreceptors, is densely packaged into the rod outer segment sensory cilium and continuously renewed through essential synthesis and trafficking pathways housed in the rod inner segment. Despite the importance of this region for rod health and maintenance, the subcellular organization of rhodopsin and its trafficking regulators in the mammalian rod inner segment remain undefined. We used super-resolution fluorescence microscopy with optimized retinal immunolabeling techniques to perform a single molecule localization analysis of rhodopsin in the inner segments of mouse rods. We found that a significant fraction of rhodopsin molecules was localized at the plasma membrane, at the surface, in an even distribution along the entire length of the inner segment, where markers of transport vesicles also colocalized. Thus, our results collectively establish a model of rhodopsin trafficking through the inner segment plasma membrane as an essential subcellular pathway in mouse rod photoreceptors.

Photoreceptor disc incisures form as an adaptive mechanism ensuring the completion of disc enclosure

The first steps of vision take place within a stack of tightly packed disc-shaped membranes, or 'discs', located in the outer segment compartment of photoreceptor cells. In rod photoreceptors, discs are enclosed inside the outer segment and contain deep indentations in their rims called 'incisures'. The presence of incisures has been documented in a variety of species, yet their role remains elusive. In this study, we combined traditional electron microscopy with three-dimensional electron tomography to demonstrate that incisures are formed only after discs become completely enclosed. We also observed that, at the earliest stage of their formation, discs are not round as typically depicted but rather are highly irregular in shape and resemble expanding lamellipodia. Using genetically manipulated mice and frogs and measuring outer segment protein abundances by quantitative mass spectrometry, we further found that incisure size is determined by the molar ratio between peripherin-2, a disc rim protein critical for the process of disc enclosure, and rhodopsin, the major structural component of disc membranes. While a high perpherin-2 to rhodopsin ratio causes an increase in incisure size and structural complexity, a low ratio precludes incisure formation. Based on these data, we propose a model whereby normal rods express a modest excess of peripherin-2 over the amount required for complete disc enclosure in order to ensure that this important step of disc formation is accomplished. Once the disc is enclosed, the excess peripherin-2 incorporates into the rim to form an incisure.

Zebrafish crocc2 mutants exhibit divergent craniofacial shape, misregulated variability, and aberrant cartilage morphogenesis

BACKGROUND

Phenotypic variation is of paramount importance in development, evolution, and human health; however, the molecular mechanisms that influence organ shape and shape variability are not well understood. During craniofacial development, the behavior of skeletal precursors is regulated by both biochemical and environmental inputs, and the primary cilia play critical roles in transducing both types of signals. Here, we examine a gene that encodes a key constituent of the ciliary rootlets, crocc2, and its role in cartilage morphogenesis in larval zebrafish.

RESULTS

Geometric morphometric analysis of crocc2 mutants revealed altered craniofacial shapes and expanded variation. At the cellular level, we observed altered chondrocyte shapes and planar cell polarity across multiple stages in crocc2 mutants. Notably, cellular defects were specific to areas that experience direct mechanical input. Cartilage cell number, apoptosis, and bone patterning were not affected in crocc2 mutants.

CONCLUSIONS

Whereas "regulatory" genes are widely implicated in patterning the craniofacial skeleton, genes that encode "structural" aspects of the cell are increasingly implicated in shaping the face. Our results add crocc2 to this list, and demonstrate that it affects craniofacial geometry and canalizes phenotypic variation. We propose that it does so via mechanosensing, possibly through the ciliary rootlet. If true, this would implicate a new organelle in skeletal development and evolution.

Primary cilia as dynamic and diverse signalling hubs in development and disease

Primary cilia, antenna-like sensory organelles protruding from the surface of most vertebrate cell types, are essential for regulating signalling pathways during development and adult homeostasis. Mutations in genes affecting cilia cause an overlapping spectrum of >30 human diseases and syndromes, the ciliopathies. Given the immense structural and functional diversity of the mammalian cilia repertoire, there is a growing disconnect between patient genotype and associated phenotypes, with variable severity and expressivity characteristic of the ciliopathies as a group. Recent technological developments are rapidly advancing our understanding of the complex mechanisms that control biogenesis and function of primary cilia across a range of cell types and are starting to tackle this diversity. Here, we examine the structural and functional diversity of primary cilia, their dynamic regulation in different cellular and developmental contexts and their disruption in disease.

Mapping rhodopsin trafficking in rod photoreceptors with quantitative super-resolution microscopy

Photoreceptor cells in the vertebrate retina have a highly compartmentalized morphology for efficient long-term phototransduction. Rhodopsin, the visual pigment in rod photoreceptors, is densely packaged into the rod outer segment sensory cilium and continuously renewed through essential synthesis and trafficking pathways housed in the rod inner segment. Despite the importance of this region for rod health and maintenance, the subcellular organization of rhodopsin and its trafficking regulators in the mammalian rod inner segment remain undefined. We used super-resolution fluorescence microscopy with optimized retinal immunolabeling techniques to perform a single molecule localization analysis of rhodopsin in the inner segments of mouse rods. We found that a significant fraction of rhodopsin molecules was localized at the plasma membrane in an even distribution along the entire length of the inner segment, where markers of transport vesicles also colocalized. Thus, our results collectively establish a model of rhodopsin trafficking through the inner segment plasma membrane as an essential subcellular pathway in mouse rod photoreceptors.

Photoreceptor disc incisures form as an adaptive mechanism ensuring the completion of disc enclosure

The first steps of vision take place within a stack of tightly packed disc-shaped membranes, or "discs", located in the outer segment compartment of photoreceptor cells. In rod photoreceptors, discs are enclosed inside the outer segment and contain deep indentations in their rims called "incisures". The presence of incisures has been documented in a variety of species, yet their role remains elusive. In this study, we combined traditional electron microscopy with three-dimensional electron tomography to demonstrate that incisures are formed only after discs become completely enclosed. We also observed that, at the earliest stage of their formation, discs are not round as typically depicted but rather are highly irregular in shape and resemble expanding lamellipodia. Using genetically manipulated mice and frogs and measuring outer segment protein abundances by quantitative mass spectrometry, we further found that incisure size is determined by the molar ratio between peripherin-2, a disc rim protein critical for the process of disc enclosure, and rhodopsin, the major structural component of disc membranes. While a high perpherin-2 to rhodopsin ratio causes an increase in incisure size and structural complexity, a low ratio precludes incisure formation. Based on these data, we propose a model whereby normal rods express a modest excess of peripherin-2 over the amount required for complete disc enclosure in order to ensure that this important step of disc formation is accomplished. Once the disc is enclosed, the excess peripherin-2 incorporates into the rim to form an incisure.

MAP9/MAPH-9 supports axonemal microtubule doublets and modulates motor movement

Microtubule doublets (MTDs) are a well conserved compound microtubule structure found primarily in cilia. However, the mechanisms by which MTDs form and are maintained in vivo remain poorly understood. Here, we characterize microtubule-associated protein 9 (MAP9) as a novel MTD-associated protein. We demonstrate that C. elegans MAPH-9, a MAP9 homolog, is present during MTD assembly and localizes exclusively to MTDs, a preference that is in part mediated by tubulin polyglutamylation. Loss of MAPH-9 caused ultrastructural MTD defects, dysregulated axonemal motor velocity, and perturbed cilia function. As we found that the mammalian ortholog MAP9 localized to axonemes in cultured mammalian cells and mouse tissues, we propose that MAP9/MAPH-9 plays a conserved role in supporting the structure of axonemal MTDs and regulating ciliary motors.

Structural view of G protein-coupled receptor signaling in the retinal rod outer segment

Visual phototransduction is the most extensively studied G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling pathway because of its quantifiable stimulus, non-redundancy of genes, and immense importance in vision. We summarize recent discoveries that have advanced our understanding of rod outer segment (ROS) morphology and the pathological basis of retinal diseases. We have combined recently published cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) data on the ROS with structural knowledge on individual proteins to define the precise spatial limitations under which phototransduction occurs. Although hypothetical, the reconstruction of the rod phototransduction system highlights the potential roles of phosphodiesterase 6 (PDE6) and guanylate cyclases (GCs) in maintaining the spacing between ROS discs, suggesting a plausible mechanism by which intrinsic optical signals are generated in the retina.

Effects of cell size and bicarbonate on single photon response variability in retinal rods

Accurate photon counting requires that rods generate highly amplified, reproducible single photon responses (SPRs). The SPR is generated within the rod outer segment (ROS), a multilayered structure built from membranous disks that house rhodopsin. Photoisomerization of rhodopsin at the disk rim causes a local depletion of cGMP that closes ion channels in the plasmalemma located nearby with relative rapidity. In contrast, a photoisomerization at the disk center, distant from the plasmalemma, has a delayed impact on the ion channels due to the time required for cGMP redistribution. Radial differences should be greatest in large diameter rods. By affecting membrane guanylate cyclase activity, bicarbonate could impact spatial inhomogeneity in cGMP content. It was previously known that in the absence of bicarbonate, SPRs are larger and faster at the base of a toad ROS (where the ROS attaches to the rest of the cell) than at the distal tip. Given that bicarbonate enters the ROS at the base and diffuses to the tip and that it expedites flash response recovery, there should be an axial concentration gradient for bicarbonate that would accentuate the base-to-tip SPR differences. Seeking to understand how ROS geometry and bicarbonate affect SPR variability, we used mathematical modeling and made electrophysiological recordings of single rods. Modeling predicted and our experiments confirmed minor radial SPR variability in large diameter, salamander rods that was essentially unchanged by bicarbonate. SPRs elicited at the base and tip of salamander rods were similar in the absence of bicarbonate, but when treated with 30 mM bicarbonate, SPRs at the base became slightly faster than those at the tip, verifying the existence of an axial gradient for bicarbonate. The differences were small and unlikely to undermine visual signaling. However, in toad rods with longer ROSs, bicarbonate somehow suppressed the substantial, axial SPR variability that is naturally present in the absence of bicarbonate. Modeling suggested that the axial gradient of bicarbonate might dampen the primary phototransduction cascade at the base of the ROS. This novel effect of bicarbonate solves a mystery as to how toad vision is able to function effectively in extremely dim light.

Maximizing the Rod Outer Segment Yield in Retinas Extracted from Cattle Eyes

The retina is a thin neuronal multilayer responsible for the detection of visual information. The first step in visual transduction occurs in the photoreceptor outer segment. The studies on photoreception and visual biochemistry have often utilized rod outer segments (OS) or OS disks purified from mammalian eyes. Literature reports several OS and disk purification procedures that rarely specify the procedure utilized to collect the retina from the eye. Some reports suggest the use of scissors, while others do not mention the issue as they declare to utilize frozen retinas. Because the OS are deeply embedded in the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE), the detachment of the retina by a harsh pull-out can cause the fracture of the photoreceptor cilium. Here, we present a protocol maximizing OS yield. Eye semi-cups, obtained by hemisecting the eyeball and discarding the anterior chamber structures and the vitreous, are filled with Mammalian Ringer. After 10-15 min of incubation, the retinas spontaneously detach with their wealth of OS almost intact. The impressive ability of the present protocol to minimize the number of OS stuck inside the RPE, and therefore lost, compared with the classic procedure, is shown by confocal laser scanning microscopy analysis of samples stained ex vivo with a dye (MitoTracker deep red) that stains both retinal mitochondria and OS. Total protein assay of OS disks purified by either procedure also shows a 300% total protein yield improvement. The advantage of the protocol presented is its higher yield of photoreceptor OS for subsequent purification procedures, while maintaining the physiological features of the retina.

Retinal Ciliopathy in the Patient with Transplanted Kidney: Case Report

A review of a rare case of a proven mutation in the RP1 gene (RP1c.2029C>T, p. (ARG677*) in a kidney transplant patient was presented herein. According to his medical history, he had tonsillectomy performed at the age of 20 due to erythrocyturia, and at the age of 32 he was treated for malignant hypertension. The patient had been diagnosed with chronic renal failure at age 56 years. During an eye examination in 2016, retinitis pigmentosa was suspected and the patient was advised to run further tests. After an ophthalmological examination and tests, genetic testing was performed and a mutation in the RP1 gene encoding a family of proteins which are components of microtubules in photoreceptor primary cilia was proven. The literature search found that mutations in the RP1 gene have so far been exclusively associated with a non-syndromic form of retinal degeneration. However, the RP1 protein is expressed in the kidneys, and it remains unclear why the mutation of this gene so far was only specifically related to retinal photoreceptor function and not to arterial hypertension and renal disease. Primary cilia are thought to act as potential mechanosensory fluid-flow receptors in the vascular endothelium and kidney and their dysfunction results in atherosclerotic changes, hypertension, and chronic renal failure.

Dynamic lipid turnover in photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelium throughout life

The retinal pigment epithelium-photoreceptor interphase is renewed each day in a stunning display of cellular interdependence. While photoreceptors use photosensitive pigments to convert light into electrical signals, the RPE supports photoreceptors in their function by phagocytizing shed photoreceptor tips, regulating the blood retina barrier, and modulating inflammatory responses, as well as regenerating the 11-cis-retinal chromophore via the classical visual cycle. These processes involve multiple protein complexes, tightly regulated ligand-receptors interactions, and a plethora of lipids and protein-lipids interactions. The role of lipids in maintaining a healthy interplay between the RPE and photoreceptors has not been fully delineated. In recent years, novel technologies have resulted in major advancements in understanding several facets of this interplay, including the involvement of lipids in phagocytosis and phagolysosome function, nutrient recycling, and the metabolic dependence between the two cell types. In this review, we aim to integrate the complex role of lipids in photoreceptor and RPE function, emphasizing the dynamic exchange between the cells as well as discuss how these processes are affected in aging and retinal diseases.

Targeting the HDAC6-Cilium Axis Ameliorates the Pathological Changes Associated with Retinopathy of Prematurity

Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is one of the leading causes of childhood visual impairment and blindness. However, there are still very few effective pharmacological interventions for ROP. Histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6)-mediated disassembly of photoreceptor cilia has recently been implicated as an early event in the pathogenesis of ROP. Herein it is shown that enhanced expression of HDAC6 by intravitreal injection of adenoviruses encoding HDAC6 induces the typical pathological changes associated with ROP in mice, including disruption of the membranous disks of photoreceptor outer segments and a decrease in electroretinographic amplitudes. Hdac6 transgenic mice exhibit similar ROP-related defects in retinal structures and functions and disassembly of photoreceptor cilia, whereas Hdac6 knockout mice are resistant to oxygen change-induced retinal defects. It is further shown that blocking HDAC6-mediated cilium disassembly by intravitreal injection of small-molecule compounds protect mice from ROP-associated retinal defects. The findings indicate that pharmacological targeting of the HDAC6-cilium axis may represent a promising strategy for the prevention of ROP.

Structure of Motile Cilia

Cilia are tail-like organelles responsible for motility, transportation, and sensory functions in eukaryotic cells. Cilia research has been providing multifaceted questions, attracting biologists of various areas and inducing interdisciplinary studies. In this chapter, we mainly focus on efforts to elucidate the molecular mechanism of ciliary beating motion, a field of research that has a long history and is still ongoing. We also overview topics closely related to the motility mechanism, such as ciliogenesis, cilia-related diseases, and sensory cilia. Subnanometer-scale to submillimeter-scale 3D imaging of the axoneme and the basal body resulted in a wide variety of insights into these questions.

Determinants shaping the nanoscale architecture of the mouse rod outer segment

The unique membrane organization of the rod outer segment (ROS), the specialized sensory cilium of rod photoreceptor cells, provides the foundation for phototransduction, the initial step in vision. ROS architecture is characterized by a stack of identically shaped and tightly packed membrane disks loaded with the visual receptor rhodopsin. A wide range of genetic aberrations have been reported to compromise ROS ultrastructure, impairing photoreceptor viability and function. Yet, the structural basis giving rise to the remarkably precise arrangement of ROS membrane stacks and the molecular mechanisms underlying genetically inherited diseases remain elusive. Here, cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) performed on native ROS at molecular resolution provides insights into key structural determinants of ROS membrane architecture. Our data confirm the existence of two previously observed molecular connectors/spacers which likely contribute to the nanometer-scale precise stacking of the ROS disks. We further provide evidence that the extreme radius of curvature at the disk rims is enforced by a continuous supramolecular assembly composed of peripherin-2 (PRPH2) and rod outer segment membrane protein 1 (ROM1) oligomers. We suggest that together these molecular assemblies constitute the structural basis of the highly specialized ROS functional architecture. Our Cryo-ET data provide novel quantitative and structural information on the molecular architecture in ROS and substantiate previous results on proposed mechanisms underlying pathologies of certain PRPH2 mutations leading to blindness.

Protein Kinase A in Human Retina: Differential Localization of Cβ, Cα, RIIα, and RIIβ in Photoreceptors Highlights Non-redundancy of Protein Kinase A Subunits

Protein kinase A (PKA) signaling is essential for numerous processes but the subcellular localization of specific PKA regulatory (R) and catalytic (C) subunits has yet to be explored comprehensively. Additionally, the localization of the Cβ subunit has never been spatially mapped in any tissue even though ∼50% of PKA signaling in neuronal tissues is thought to be mediated by Cβ. Here we used human retina with its highly specialized neurons as a window into PKA signaling in the brain and characterized localization of PKA Cα, Cβ, RIIα, and RIIβ subunits. We found that each subunit presented a distinct localization pattern. Cα and Cβ were localized in all cell layers (photoreceptors, interneurons, retinal ganglion cells), while RIIα and RIIβ were selectively enriched in photoreceptor cells where both showed distinct patterns of co-localization with Cα but not Cβ. Only Cα was observed in photoreceptor outer segments and at the base of the connecting cilium. Cβ in turn, was highly enriched in mitochondria and was especially prominent in the ellipsoid of cone cells. Further investigation of Cβ using RNA BaseScope technology showed that two Cβ splice variants (Cβ4 and Cβ4ab) likely code for the mitochondrial Cβ proteins. Overall, our data indicates that PKA Cα, Cβ, RIIα, and RIIβ subunits are differentially localized and are likely functionally non-redundant in the human retina. Furthermore, Cβ is potentially important for mitochondrial-associated neurodegenerative diseases previously linked to PKA dysfunction.

A novel CEP290 disease-causing variant identified in a patient with leber congenital amaurosis using a medical diagnostic panel sequencing

BACKGROUND

This study aims to identify the underlying genetic cause of a Chinese patient with Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA).

METHODS

Detailed clinical data and family history were collected. A medical diagnostic panel sequencing covering 4450 genes was conducted. Two candidate disease-causing mutations detected in CEP290 were then validated with Sanger sequencing and bioinformatic analysis. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and cDNA sequencing were performed to understand the effect of the novel CEP290 mutation on CEP290 mRNA splicing.

RESULTS

A five-month-old LCA patient with both parents was enrolled. Medical diagnostic panel sequencing revealed that the patient is a compound heterozygote for two potentially pathogenic CEP290 mutations. Among them, c.1666dupA (p.I556NfsX20) was previously reported and has a significant association with LCA phenotype. A novel CEP290 mutation (c.3310-1_3313delGCTTA) was confirmed in both the patient and her father. RT-PCR and cDNA sequencing confirmed that the novel mutation affects the CEP290 mRNA splicing and results in a complete skipping of exon 29. The frameshift resulted in an early stop codon and truncation of the mutant protein by 1371 amino acid residues (p.L1104fsX6).

CONCLUSIONS

Our report provided a new mutation to the spectrum of CEP290-related diseases. The data suggested that the c.3310-1_3313delGCTTA mutation affects the CEP290 mRNA splicing and the CEP290 protein function. This valuable information is important for future studies on the mRNA splicing of CEP290 and the pathogenesis of CEP290-related diseases.

Super-resolution microscopy reveals photoreceptor-specific subciliary location and function of ciliopathy-associated protein CEP290

Mutations in the cilium-associated protein CEP290 cause retinal degeneration as part of multiorgan ciliopathies or as retina-specific diseases. The precise location and the functional roles of CEP290 within cilia and, specifically, the connecting cilia (CC) of photoreceptors, remain unclear. We used super-resolution fluorescence microscopy and electron microscopy to localize CEP290 in the CC and in the primary cilia of cultured cells with subdiffraction resolution and to determine effects of CEP290 deficiency in 3 mutant models. Radially, CEP290 localizes in close proximity to the microtubule doublets in the region between the doublets and the ciliary membrane. Longitudinally, it is distributed throughout the length of the CC whereas it is confined to the very base of primary cilia in human retinal pigment epithelium-1 cells. We found Y-shaped links, ciliary substructures between microtubules and membrane, throughout the length of the CC. Severe CEP290 deficiencies in mouse models did not prevent assembly of cilia or cause obvious mislocalization of ciliary components in early stages of degeneration. There were fewer cilia and no normal outer segments in the mutants, but the Y-shaped links were clearly present. These results point to photoreceptor-specific functions of CEP290 essential for CC maturation and stability following the earliest stages of ciliogenesis.

Structure and dynamics of photoreceptor sensory cilia

The rod and cone photoreceptor cells of the vertebrate retina have highly specialized structures that enable them to carry out their function of light detection over a broad range of illumination intensities with optimized spatial and temporal resolution. Most prominent are their unusually large sensory cilia, consisting of outer segments packed with photosensitive disc membranes, a connecting cilium with many features reminiscent of the primary cilium transition zone, and a pair of centrioles forming a basal body which serves as the platform upon which the ciliary axoneme is assembled. These structures form a highway through which an enormous flux of material moves on a daily basis to sustain the continual turnover of outer segment discs and the energetic demands of phototransduction. After decades of study, the details of the fine structure and distribution of molecular components of these structures are still incompletely understood, but recent advances in cellular imaging techniques and animal models of inherited ciliary defects are yielding important new insights. This knowledge informs our understanding both of the mechanisms of trafficking and assembly and of the pathophysiological mechanisms of human blinding ciliopathies.

The structure and function of centriolar rootlets

To gain a holistic understanding of cellular function, we must understand not just the role of individual organelles, but also how multiple macromolecular assemblies function collectively. Centrioles produce fundamental cellular processes through their ability to organise cytoskeletal fibres. In addition to nucleating microtubules, centrioles form lesser-known polymers, termed rootlets. Rootlets were identified over a 100 years ago and have been documented morphologically since by electron microscopy in different eukaryotic organisms. Rootlet-knockout animals have been created in various systems, providing insight into their physiological functions. However, the precise structure and function of rootlets is still enigmatic. Here, I consider common themes of rootlet function and assembly across diverse cellular systems. I suggest that the capability of rootlets to form physical links from centrioles to other cellular structures is a general principle unifying their functions in diverse cells and serves as an example of how cellular function arises from collective organellar activity.

Functional compartmentalization of photoreceptor neurons

Retinal photoreceptors are neurons that convert dynamically changing patterns of light into electrical signals that are processed by retinal interneurons and ultimately transmitted to vision centers in the brain. They represent the essential first step in seeing without which the remainder of the visual system is rendered moot. To support this role, the major functions of photoreceptors are segregated into three main specialized compartments-the outer segment, the inner segment, and the pre-synaptic terminal. This compartmentalization is crucial for photoreceptor function-disruption leads to devastating blinding diseases for which therapies remain elusive. In this review, we examine the current understanding of the molecular and physical mechanisms underlying photoreceptor functional compartmentalization and highlight areas where significant knowledge gaps remain.

Transduction and Adaptation Mechanisms in the Cilium or Microvilli of Photoreceptors and Olfactory Receptors From Insects to Humans

Sensing changes in the environment is crucial for survival. Animals from invertebrates to vertebrates use both visual and olfactory stimuli to direct survival behaviors including identification of food sources, finding mates, and predator avoidance. In primary sensory neurons there are signal transduction mechanisms that convert chemical or light signals into an electrical response through ligand binding or photoactivation of a receptor, that can be propagated to the olfactory and visual centers of the brain to create a perception of the odor and visual landscapes surrounding us. The fundamental principles of olfactory and phototransduction pathways within vertebrates are somewhat analogous. Signal transduction in both systems takes place in the ciliary sub-compartments of the sensory cells and relies upon the activation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) to close cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) cation channels in photoreceptors to produce a hyperpolarization of the cell, or in olfactory sensory neurons open CNG channels to produce a depolarization. However, while invertebrate phototransduction also involves GPCRs, invertebrate photoreceptors can be either ciliary and/or microvillar with hyperpolarizing and depolarizing responses to light, respectively. Moreover, olfactory transduction in invertebrates may be a mixture of metabotropic G protein and ionotropic signaling pathways. This review will highlight differences of the visual and olfactory transduction mechanisms between vertebrates and invertebrates, focusing on the implications to the gain of the transduction processes, and how they are modulated to allow detection of small changes in odor concentration and light intensity over a wide range of background stimulus levels.

Compartmentalization of Photoreceptor Sensory Cilia

Functional compartmentalization of cells is a universal strategy for segregating processes that require specific components, undergo regulation by modulating concentrations of those components, or that would be detrimental to other processes. Primary cilia are hair-like organelles that project from the apical plasma membranes of epithelial cells where they serve as exclusive compartments for sensing physical and chemical signals in the environment. As such, molecules involved in signal transduction are enriched within cilia and regulating their ciliary concentrations allows adaptation to the environmental stimuli. The highly efficient organization of primary cilia has been co-opted by major sensory neurons, olfactory cells and the photoreceptor neurons that underlie vision. The mechanisms underlying compartmentalization of cilia are an area of intense current research. Recent findings have revealed similarities and differences in molecular mechanisms of ciliary protein enrichment and its regulation among primary cilia and sensory cilia. Here we discuss the physiological demands on photoreceptors that have driven their evolution into neurons that rely on a highly specialized cilium for signaling changes in light intensity. We explore what is known and what is not known about how that specialization appears to have driven unique mechanisms for photoreceptor protein and membrane compartmentalization.

Targeting the photoreceptor cilium for the treatment of retinal diseases

Photoreceptors, as polarised sensory neurons, are essential for light sensation and phototransduction, which are highly dependent on the photoreceptor cilium. Structural defects and/or dysfunction of the photoreceptor cilium caused by mutations in photoreceptor-specific genes or common ciliary genes can lead to retinal diseases, including syndromic and nonsyndromic diseases. In this review, we describe the structure and function of the photoreceptor cilium. We also discuss recent findings that underscore the dysregulation of the photoreceptor cilium in various retinal diseases and the therapeutic potential of targeting ciliary genes in these diseases.

Limitations and Promise of Retinal Tissue From Human Pluripotent Stem Cells for Developing Therapies of Blindness

The self-formation of retinal tissue from pluripotent stem cells generated a tremendous promise for developing new therapies of retinal degenerative diseases, which previously seemed unattainable. Together with use of induced pluripotent stem cells or/and CRISPR-based recombineering the retinal organoid technology provided an avenue for developing models of human retinal degenerative diseases "in a dish" for studying the pathology, delineating the mechanisms and also establishing a platform for large-scale drug screening. At the same time, retinal organoids, highly resembling developing human fetal retinal tissue, are viewed as source of multipotential retinal progenitors, young photoreceptors and just the whole retinal tissue, which may be transplanted into the subretinal space with a goal of replacing patient's degenerated retina with a new retinal "patch." Both approaches (transplantation and modeling/drug screening) were projected when Yoshiki Sasai demonstrated the feasibility of deriving mammalian retinal tissue from pluripotent stem cells, and generated a lot of excitement. With further work and testing of both approaches in vitro and in vivo, a major implicit limitation has become apparent pretty quickly: the absence of the uniform layer of Retinal Pigment Epithelium (RPE) cells, which is normally present in mammalian retina, surrounds photoreceptor layer and develops and matures first. The RPE layer polarize into apical and basal sides during development and establish microvilli on the apical side, interacting with photoreceptors, nurturing photoreceptor outer segments and participating in the visual cycle by recycling 11-trans retinal (bleached pigment) back to 11-cis retinal. Retinal organoids, however, either do not have RPE layer or carry patches of RPE mostly on one side, thus directly exposing most photoreceptors in the developing organoids to neural medium. Recreation of the critical retinal niche between the apical RPE and photoreceptors, where many retinal disease mechanisms originate, is so far unattainable, imposes clear limitations on both modeling/drug screening and transplantation approaches and is a focus of investigation in many labs. Here we dissect different retinal degenerative diseases and analyze how and where retinal organoid technology can contribute the most to developing therapies even with a current limitation and absence of long and functional outer segments, supported by RPE.

Photoreceptor Discs: Built Like Ectosomes

The light-sensitive outer segment organelle of the vertebrate photoreceptor cell is a modified cilium filled with hundreds of flattened 'disc' membranes that provide vast light-absorbing surfaces. The outer segment is constantly renewed with new discs added at its base every day. This continuous process is essential for photoreceptor viability. In this review, we describe recent breakthroughs in the understanding of disc morphogenesis, with a focus on the molecular mechanisms responsible for initiating disc formation from the ciliary membrane. We highlight the discoveries that this mechanism evolved from an innate ciliary process of releasing small extracellular vesicles, or ectosomes, and that both disc formation and ectosome release rely on the actin cytoskeleton.

Calcium flares and compartmentalization in rod photoreceptors

Rod photoreceptors are composed of a soma and an inner segment (IS) connected to an outer segment (OS) by a thin cilium. OSs are composed of a stack of ∼800 lipid discs surrounded by the plasma membrane where phototransduction takes place. Intracellular calcium plays a major role in phototransduction and is more concentrated in the discs, where it can be incorporated and released. To study calcium dynamics in rods, we used the fluorescent calcium dye CaSiR-1 AM working in the near-infrared (NIR) (excitation at 650 and emission at 664 nm), an advantage over previously used dyes. In this way, we investigated calcium dynamics with an unprecedented accuracy and most importantly in semidark-adapted conditions. We observed light-induced drops in [Ca²⁺]_i with kinetics similar to that of photoresponses recorded electrophysiologically. We show three properties of the rods. First, intracellular calcium and key proteins have concentrations that vary from the OS base to tip. At the OS base, [Ca²⁺]_i is ∼80 nM and increases up to ∼200 nM at the OS tip. Second, there are spontaneous calcium flares in healthy and functional rod OSs; these flares are highly localized and are more pronounced at the OS tip. Third, a bright flash of light at 488 nm induces a drop in [Ca²⁺]_i at the OS base but often a flare at the OS tip. Therefore, rod OSs are not homogenous structures but have a structural and functional gradient, which is a fundamental aspect of transduction in vertebrate photoreceptors.

BBSome Component BBS5 Is Required for Cone Photoreceptor Protein Trafficking and Outer Segment Maintenance

Purpose

To identify the role of the BBSome protein Bardet-Biedl syndrome 5 (BBS5) in photoreceptor function, protein trafficking, and structure using a congenital mutant mouse model.

Methods

Bbs5-/- mice (2 and 9 months old) were used to assess retinal function and morphology. Hematoxylin and eosin staining of retinal sections was performed to visualize histology. Electroretinography was used to analyze rod and cone photoreceptor function. Retinal protein localization was visualized using immunofluorescence (IF) within retinal cryosections. TUNEL staining was used to quantify cell death. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to examine retinal ultrastructure.

Results

In the Bbs5-/- retina, there was a significant loss of nuclei in the outer nuclear layer accompanied by an increase in cell death. Through electroretinography, Bbs5-/- mice showed complete loss of cone photoreceptor function. IF revealed mislocalization of the cone-specific proteins M- and S-opsins, arrestin-4, CNGA3, and GNAT2, as well as a light-dependent arrestin-1 mislocalization, although perpherin-2 was properly localized. TEM revealed abnormal outer segment disk orientation in Bbs5-/-.

Conclusions

Collectively, these data suggest that, although BBS5 is a core BBSome component expressed in all ciliated cells, its role within the retina mediates specific photoreceptor protein cargo transport. In the absence of BBS5, cone-specific protein mislocalization and a loss of cone photoreceptor function occur.

MTOR-initiated metabolic switch and degeneration in the retinal pigment epithelium

The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a particularly vulnerable tissue to age-dependent degeneration. Over the life span, the RPE develops an expanded endo-lysosomal compartment to maintain the high efficiency of phagocytosis and degradation of photoreceptor outer segments (POS) necessary for photoreceptor survival. As the assembly and activation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) occur on the lysosome surface, increased lysosome mass with aging leads to higher mTORC1 activity. The functional consequences of hyperactive mTORC1 in the RPE are unclear. In the current study, we used integrated high-resolution metabolomic and genomic approaches to examine mice with RPE-specific deletion of the tuberous sclerosis 1 (Tsc1) gene which encodes an upstream suppressor of mTORC1. Our data show that RPE cells with constitutively high mTORC1 activity were reprogramed to be hyperactive in glucose and lipid metabolism. Lipolysis was suppressed, mitochondrial carnitine shuttle was inhibited, while genes involved in fatty acid (FA) biosynthesis were upregulated. The metabolic changes occurred prior to structural changes of RPE and retinal degeneration. These findings have revealed cellular events and intrinsic mechanisms that contribute to lipid accumulation in the RPE cells during aging and age-related degeneration.

Differential expression of the five redox complexes in the retinal mitochondria or rod outer segment disks is consistent with their different functionality

PURPOSE

The retinal rod outer segment (OS) disk membranes, devoid of mitochondria, conducts oxidative phosphorylation (OxPhos). This study aimed at identifying which proteins expressed in the retinal rod OS disks determined the considerable adenosine-5'-triphosphate production and oxygen consumption observed in comparison with retinal mitochondria.

PROCEDURES

Characterization was conducted by immunogold transmission electron microscopy on retinal sections. OxPhos was studied by oximetry and luminometry. The proteomes of OS disks and mitochondria purified from bovine retinas were studied by mass spectrometry. Statistical and bioinformatic analyses were conducted by univariate, multivariate, and machine learning methods.

RESULTS

Weighted gene coexpression network analysis identified two protein expression profile modules functionally associated with either retinal mitochondria or disk samples, in function of a strikingly different ability of each sample to utilized diverse substrate for F1Fo-ATP synthase. The OS disk proteins correlated better than mitochondria with the tricarboxylic acids cycle and OxPhos proteins.

CONCLUSIONS

The differential enrichment of the expression profile of the OxPhos proteins in the disks versus mitochondria suggests that these proteins may represent a true proteome component of the former, with different functionality. These findings may shed new light on the pathogenesis of rod-driven retinal degenerative diseases.

Mouse Models of Inherited Retinal Degeneration with Photoreceptor Cell Loss

Inherited retinal degeneration (RD) leads to the impairment or loss of vision in millions of individuals worldwide, most frequently due to the loss of photoreceptor (PR) cells. Animal models, particularly the laboratory mouse, have been used to understand the pathogenic mechanisms that underlie PR cell loss and to explore therapies that may prevent, delay, or reverse RD. Here, we reviewed entries in the Mouse Genome Informatics and PubMed databases to compile a comprehensive list of monogenic mouse models in which PR cell loss is demonstrated. The progression of PR cell loss with postnatal age was documented in mutant alleles of genes grouped by biological function. As anticipated, a wide range in the onset and rate of cell loss was observed among the reported models. The analysis underscored relationships between RD genes and ciliary function, transcription-coupled DNA damage repair, and cellular chloride homeostasis. Comparing the mouse gene list to human RD genes identified in the RetNet database revealed that mouse models are available for 40% of the known human diseases, suggesting opportunities for future research. This work may provide insight into the molecular players and pathways through which PR degenerative disease occurs and may be useful for planning translational studies.

ASK1-Mediated Phosphorylation Blocks HDAC6 Ubiquitination and Degradation to Drive the Disassembly of Photoreceptor Connecting Cilia

Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is a leading cause of childhood blindness. However, the pathogenesis and molecular mechanisms underlying ROP remain elusive. Herein, using the oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) mouse model of ROP, we demonstrate that disassembly of photoreceptor connecting cilia is an early event in response to oxygen changes. Histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) is upregulated in the retina of OIR mice and accumulates in the transition zone of connecting cilia. We also show that in response to oxygen changes, apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) is activated and phosphorylates HDAC6, blocking its ubiquitination by von Hippel-Lindau and subsequent degradation by the proteasome. Moreover, depletion of HDAC6 or inhibition of the ASK1/HDAC6 axis protects mice from oxygen-change-induced pathological changes of photoreceptors. These findings reveal a critical role for ASK1/HDAC6-mediated connecting cilium disassembly in the OIR mouse model of ROP and suggest a potential value of ASK1/HDAC6-targeted agents for prevention of this disease.

The Interplay between Peripherin 2 Complex Formation and Degenerative Retinal Diseases

Peripherin 2 (Prph2) is a photoreceptor-specific tetraspanin protein present in the outer segment (OS) rims of rod and cone photoreceptors. It shares many common features with other tetraspanins, including a large intradiscal loop which contains several cysteines. This loop enables Prph2 to associate with itself to form homo-oligomers or with its homologue, rod outer segment membrane protein 1 (Rom1) to form hetero-tetramers and hetero-octamers. Mutations in PRPH2 cause a multitude of retinal diseases including autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa (RP) or cone dominant macular dystrophies. The importance of Prph2 for photoreceptor development, maintenance and function is underscored by the fact that its absence results in a failure to initialize OS formation in rods and formation of severely disorganized OS membranous structures in cones. Although the exact role of Rom1 has not been well studied, it has been concluded that it is not necessary for disc morphogenesis but is required for fine tuning OS disc size and structure. Pathogenic mutations in PRPH2 often result in complex and multifactorial phenotypes, involving not just photoreceptors, as has historically been reasoned, but also secondary effects on the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and retinal/choroidal vasculature. The ability of Prph2 to form complexes was identified as a key requirement for the development and maintenance of OS structure and function. Studies using mouse models of pathogenic Prph2 mutations established a connection between changes in complex formation and disease phenotypes. Although progress has been made in the development of therapeutic approaches for retinal diseases in general, the highly complex interplay of functions mediated by Prph2 and the precise regulation of these complexes made it difficult, thus far, to develop a suitable Prph2-specific therapy. Here we describe the latest results obtained in Prph2-associated research and how mouse models provided new insights into the pathogenesis of its related diseases. Furthermore, we give an overview on the current status of the development of therapeutic solutions.

Multistep peripherin-2/rds self-assembly drives membrane curvature for outer segment disk architecture and photoreceptor viability

Rod and cone photoreceptor outer segment (OS) structural integrity is essential for normal vision; disruptions contribute to a broad variety of retinal ciliopathies. OSs possess many hundreds of stacked membranous disks, which capture photons and scaffold the phototransduction cascade. Although the molecular basis of OS structure remains unresolved, recent studies suggest that the photoreceptor-specific tetraspanin, peripherin-2/rds (P/rds), may contribute to the highly curved rim domains at disk edges. Here, we demonstrate that tetrameric P/rds self-assembly is required for generating high-curvature membranes in cellulo, implicating the noncovalent tetramer as a minimal unit of function. P/rds activity was promoted by disulfide-mediated tetramer polymerization, which transformed localized regions of curvature into high-curvature tubules of extended lengths. Transmission electron microscopy visualization of P/rds purified from OS membranes revealed disulfide-linked tetramer chains up to 100 nm long, suggesting that chains maintain membrane curvature continuity over extended distances. We tested this idea in Xenopus laevis photoreceptors, and found that transgenic expression of nonchain-forming P/rds generated abundant high-curvature OS membranes, which were improperly but specifically organized as ectopic incisures and disk rims. These striking phenotypes demonstrate the importance of P/rds tetramer chain formation for the continuity of rim formation during disk morphogenesis. Overall, this study advances understanding of the normal structure and function of P/rds for OS architecture and biogenesis, and clarifies how pathogenic loss-of-function mutations in P/rds cause photoreceptor structural defects to trigger progressive retinal degenerations. It also introduces the possibility that other tetraspanins may generate or sense membrane curvature in support of diverse biological functions.

A non-canonical rhodopsin-mediated insulin receptor signaling pathway in retinal photoreceptor neurons

We previously reported a ligand-independent and rhodopsin-dependent insulin receptor (IR) neuroprotective signaling pathway in both rod and cone photoreceptor cells, which is activated through protein-protein interaction. Our previous studies were performed with either retina or isolated rod or cone outer segment preparations and the expression of IR signaling proteins were examined. The isolation of outer segments with large portions of the attached inner segments is a technical challenge. Optiprep™ density gradient medium has been used to isolate the cells and subcellular organelles, Optiprep™ is a non-ionic iodixanol-based medium with a density of 1.320 g/mL. We employed this method to examine the expression of IR and its signaling proteins, and activation of one of the downstream effectors of the IR in isolated photoreceptor cells. Identification of the signaling complexes will be helpful for therapeutic targeting in disease conditions.

A quantitative account of mammalian rod phototransduction with PDE6 dimeric activation: responses to bright flashes

We develop an improved quantitative model of mammalian rod phototransduction, and we apply it to the prediction of responses to bright flashes of light. We take account of the recently characterized dimeric nature of PDE6 activation, where the configuration of primary importance has two transducin molecules bound. We simulate the stochastic nature of the activation and shut-off reactions to generate the predicted kinetics of the active molecular species on the disc membrane surfaces, and then we integrate the differential equations for the downstream cytoplasmic reactions to obtain the predicted electrical responses. The simulated responses recover the qualitative form of bright-flash response families recorded from mammalian rod photoreceptors. Furthermore, they provide an accurate description of the relationship between the time spent in saturation and flash intensity, predicting the transition between first and second ‘dominant time constants’ to occur at an intensity around 5000 isomerizations per flash, when the rate of transducin activation is taken to be 1250 transducins s⁻¹ per activated rhodopsin. This rate is consistent with estimates from light-scattering experiments, but is around fourfold higher than has typically been assumed in other studies. We conclude that our model and parameters provide a compelling description of rod photoreceptor bright-flash responses.

Defining the layers of a sensory cilium with STORM and cryoelectron nanoscopy

Primary cilia carry out numerous signaling and sensory functions, and defects in them, "ciliopathies," cause a range of symptoms, including blindness. Understanding of their nanometer-scale ciliary substructures and their disruptions in ciliopathies has been hindered by limitations of conventional microscopic techniques. We have combined cryoelectron tomography, enhanced by subtomogram averaging, with superresolution stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM) to define subdomains within the light-sensing rod sensory cilium of mouse retinas and reveal previously unknown substructures formed by resident proteins. Domains are demarcated by structural features such as the axoneme and its connections to the ciliary membrane, and are correlated with molecular markers of subcompartments, including the lumen and walls of the axoneme, the membrane glycocalyx, and the intervening cytoplasm. Within this framework, we report spatial distributions of key proteins in wild-type (WT) mice and the effects on them of genetic deficiencies in 3 models of Bardet-Biedl syndrome.

Rhodopsin Oligomerization and Aggregation

Rhodopsin is the light receptor in photoreceptor cells of the retina and a prototypical G protein-coupled receptor. Two types of quaternary structures can be adopted by rhodopsin. If rhodopsin folds and attains a proper tertiary structure, it can then form oligomers and nanodomains within the photoreceptor cell membrane. In contrast, if rhodopsin misfolds, it cannot progress through the biosynthetic pathway and instead will form aggregates that can cause retinal degenerative disease. In this review, emerging views are highlighted on the supramolecular organization of rhodopsin within the membrane of photoreceptor cells and the aggregation of rhodopsin that can lead to retinal degeneration.