Predictors of Outcomes of COVID-19 in Patients With Chronic Liver Disease: US Multi-center Study

Efficacy and prognostic factors of COVID-19 vaccine in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma: Analysis of data from a prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

The efficacy of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccines in preventing SARS-CoV-2 infection in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is not clear.

METHODS

From January 2022 to October 2022, patients diagnosed with HCC in a prospective, multicenter, observational cohort were analyzed.

RESULTS

One hundred and forty-one patients with (n = 107) or without COVID-19 vaccination (n = 34) were included. The number of patients with severe or very severe infection was relatively lower in the vaccinated group (3.7% vs. 11.8%, p = 0.096). Median infection-free survival in the vaccinated group (14.0 vs. 8.3 months, p = 0.010) was significantly longer than that in the unvaccinated group. COVID-19 vaccination (hazard ratio (HR) HR = 0.47), European Cooperative Oncology Group performance score = 0 (HR = 2.06), and extrahepatic spread (HR = 0.28) were found to be the independent predictive factors for infection-free survival.

CONCLUSION

COVID-19 vaccines could effectively reduce the SARS-Cov-2 infection in patients with HCC.

Current epidemiology of chronic liver disease

Chronic liver disease presents a significant global health burden, characterized by several etiologies, including metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), alcohol-related liver disease (ALD), chronic hepatitis B virus infection, and chronic hepatitis C virus infection. This review explored current epidemiological trends and projections for each etiology, looking into their respective burdens and challenges. MASLD, formerly known as nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, is the most prevalent cause of chronic liver disease, and its global incidence and prevalence are steadily rising. ALD, fueled by increased alcohol consumption, is also on the rise, with concerning implications for future mortality rates. Chronic hepatitis B and C infections remain major public health concerns, particularly in specific regions of the world, necessitating concerted efforts for screening and treatment. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has impacted the epidemiology of chronic liver disease, exacerbating mortality rates and disrupting healthcare services. Mental health issues arising from the pandemic further complicate the treatment of chronic liver disease, making comprehensive healthcare strategies essential. Despite advancements in treatment, chronic liver disease continues to impose a substantial economic burden, emphasizing the importance of preventive measures and early intervention. In conclusion, ongoing surveillance and research efforts are crucial for understanding and addressing the evolving landscape of chronic liver disease. Comprehensive strategies that encompass prevention, screening, and treatment of its different etiologies are essential for mitigating its impact and improving patient outcomes.

Determinants of COVID-19 severity in Ethiopia: a multicentre case-control study

OBJECTIVE

It was necessary to understand the determinants of severe COVID-19 in order to deliver targeted healthcare services to prevent further complications and mortality. Identifying the factors associated with severe COVID-19 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, is the aim of this study.

DESIGN

A case-control study was conducted from October 2021 to March 2022.

SETTING

The study was conducted at three public COVID-19 treatment centres including Ekka Kotebe General, St. Peter Hospital and St. Paul's Hospital.

PARTICIPANTS

The study participants were COVID-19 patients admitted to three COVID-19 treatment centres. Cases were patients admitted with severe COVID-19, and controls were patients with mild or moderate COVID-19. A total of 306 patients (153 cases and 153 controls) selected by simple random sampling technique participated in this study.

OUTCOME MEASURES AND ANALYSIS

Data were collected by a face-to-face or telephone interviewer using a structured questionnaire. COVID-19 admission category, clinical and biomedical characteristics and comorbidity-related data were extracted from the participant's medical record. Multivariable binary logistic regression analysis was used to identify predictors of COVID-19 severity.

RESULTS

The odds of being old were 4.54 times higher among severe COVID-19 cases (adjusted odds ratio (AOR)=4.54, 95% CI=2.499 to 8.24), the odds of being male were 2.72 times higher among severe COVID-19 cases (AOR=2.72, 95% CI=1.46 to 5.057), being vaccinated for COVID-19 decreases the severity by 55.1% (AOR=0.449, 95% CI=0.251 to 0.801), having good knowledge about COVID-19 decreases by 65% (AOR=0.35%, 95% CI=0.195 to 0.63) among patients with severe COVID-19, the odds of being diabetic were 10.2 times higher among severe COVID-19 cases (AOR=10.2, 95% CI=4.596 to 22.61) and the odds of being hypertensive were 2.3 times higher among severe COVID-19 cases (AOR=2.26, 95% CI=1.092 to 4.685).

CONCLUSION

Male, older age, diabetes or hypertension comorbidity, COVID-19 vaccination and having inadequate knowledge about COVID-19 were determinant factors of severe COVID-19.

Spectrum of COVID-19 induced liver injury: A review report

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has caused changes in the global health system, causing significant setbacks in healthcare systems worldwide. This pandemic has also shown resilience, flexibility, and creativity in reacting to the tragedy. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection targets most of the respiratory tract, resulting in a severe sickness called acute respiratory distress syndrome that may be fatal in some individuals. Although the lung is the primary organ targeted by COVID-19 viruses, the clinical aspect of the disease is varied and ranges from asymptomatic to respiratory failure. However, due to an unorganized immune response and several affected mechanisms, the liver may also experience liver cell injury, ischemic liver dysfunction, and drug-induced liver injury, which can result in respiratory failure because of the immune system's disordered response and other compromised processes that can end in multisystem organ failure. Patients with liver cirrhosis or those who have impaired immune systems may be more likely than other groups to experience worse results from the SARS-CoV-2 infection. We thus intend to examine the pathogenesis, current therapy, and consequences of liver damage concerning COVID-19.

Impact of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease on COVID-19 hospitalizations: A propensity-matched analysis of the United States

BACKGROUND

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), formally known as nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, is the most common chronic liver disease in the United States. Patients with MASLD have been reported to be at a higher risk of developing severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and death. However, most studies are single-center studies, and nationwide data in the United States is lacking.

AIM

To study the influence of MASLD on COVID-19 hospitalizations during the initial phase of the pandemic.

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed the 2020 National Inpatient Sample (NIS) database to identify primary COVID-19 hospitalizations based on an underlying diagnosis of MASLD. A matched comparison cohort of COVID-19 hospitalizations without MASLD was identified from NIS after 1: N propensity score matching based on gender, race, and comorbidities, including hypertension, heart failure, diabetes, and cirrhosis. The primary outcomes included inpatient mortality, length of stay, and hospitalization costs. Secondary outcomes included the prevalence of systemic complications.

RESULTS

A total of 2210 hospitalizations with MASLD were matched to 2210 hospitalizations without MASLD, with a good comorbidity balance. Overall, there was a higher prevalence of severe disease with more intensive care unit admissions (9.5% vs 7.2%, P = 0.007), mechanical ventilation (7.2% vs 5.7%, P = 0.03), and septic shock (5.2% vs 2.7%, P <0.001) in the MASLD cohort than in the non-MASLD cohort. However, there was no difference in mortality (8.6% vs 10%, P = 0.49), length of stay (5 d vs 5 d, P = 0.25), and hospitalization costs (42081.5 $ vs 38614$, P = 0.15) between the MASLD and non-MASLD cohorts.

CONCLUSION

The presence of MAFLD with or without liver cirrhosis was not associated with increased mortality in COVID-19 hospitalizations; however, there was an increased incidence of severe COVID-19 infection. This data (2020) predates the availability of COVID-19 vaccines, and many MASLD patients have since been vaccinated. It will be interesting to see if these trends are present in the subsequent years of the pandemic.

Characterization and trajectories of hematological parameters prior to severe COVID-19 based on a large-scale prospective health checkup cohort in western China: a longitudinal study of 13-year follow-up

BACKGROUND

The relaxation of the "zero-COVID" policy on Dec. 7, 2022, in China posed a major public health threat recently. Complete blood count test was discovered to have complicated relationships with COVID-19 after the infection, while very few studies could track long-term monitoring of the health status and identify the characterization of hematological parameters prior to COVID-19.

METHODS

Based on a 13-year longitudinal prospective health checkup cohort of ~ 480,000 participants in West China Hospital, the largest medical center in western China, we documented 998 participants with a laboratory-confirmed diagnosis of COVID-19 during the 1 month after the policy. We performed a time-to-event analysis to explore the associations of severe COVID-19 patients diagnosed, with 34 different hematological parameters at the baseline level prior to COVID-19, including the whole and the subtypes of white and red blood cells.

RESULTS

A total of 998 participants with a positive SARS-CoV-2 test were documented in the cohort, 42 of which were severe cases. For white blood cell-related parameters, a higher level of basophil percentage (HR = 6.164, 95% CI = 2.066-18.393, P = 0.001) and monocyte percentage (HR = 1.283, 95% CI = 1.046-1.573, P = 0.017) were found associated with the severe COVID-19. For lymphocyte-related parameters, a lower level of lymphocyte count (HR = 0.571, 95% CI = 0.341-0.955, P = 0.033), and a higher CD4/CD8 ratio (HR = 2.473, 95% CI = 1.009-6.059, P = 0.048) were found related to the risk of severe COVID-19. We also observed that abnormality of red cell distribution width (RDW), mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), and hemoglobin might also be involved in the development of severe COVID-19. The different trajectory patterns of RDW-SD and white blood cell count, including lymphocyte and neutrophil, prior to the infection were also discovered to have significant associations with the risk of severe COVID-19 (all P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings might help decision-makers and clinicians to classify different risk groups of population due to outbreaks including COVID-19. They could not only optimize the allocation of medical resources, but also help them be more proactive instead of reactive to long COVID-19 or even other outbreaks in the future.

A Comparative Analysis of Liver Injury Markers in Post-COVID Syndrome among Elderly Patients: A Prospective Study

BACKGROUND

In the wake of the global COVID-19 pandemic, understanding its prolonged impact on vulnerable populations has become a critical area of investigation. This study aimed to elucidate the distinctive post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC) and liver injury in Romania's elderly population, hypothesizing unique demographic, clinical, and healthcare factors influencing the manifestation.

METHODS

A longitudinal design was employed, enrolling COVID-19 patients from the Victor Babes Hospital for Infectious Diseases and Pulmonology in Timisoara, Romania. Participants were stratified into three groups based on age and Long COVID status. The study focused on a variety of demographic, clinical, and biological parameters, including liver function tests, to assess the trajectory and severity of liver injury over six months post discharge.

RESULTS

Involving 238 participants, the study revealed a significant increase in the duration of hospitalization for those over 65 (15.8 ± 8.2 days) compared to younger groups (p < 0.001). Notably, elderly Long COVID patients exhibited a marked elevation in liver enzymes post discharge, with median ΔALT and ΔAST of 24.1 U/L and 30.2 U/L, respectively, suggesting ongoing liver injury (p < 0.001). Significant metabolic disruptions were observed, with the ΔFasting glucose showing a substantial median decrease of 21.1 mmol/L in the elderly group (p < 0.001). A pronounced reduction in ΔGGT (16.7 U/L) and ΔLDH (48.7 U/L) was noted, indicating a recovery in liver function and reduced tissue damage (p < 0.001). Coagulation profiles and liver fibrosis risk scores, particularly ΔFIB-4 and ΔAPRI, also significantly improved post discharge, indicating a reduced risk of ongoing liver complications.

CONCLUSION

This study confirms the hypothesis of more severe PASC and liver injury among the elderly Romanian population. Significant improvements post discharge suggest a degree of recovery, yet the persistent alterations in liver enzymes, glucose metabolism, and fibrosis risk scores call for continued monitoring and tailored management strategies.

COVID-19, Possible Hepatic Pathways and Alcohol Abuse-What Do We Know up to 2023?

The pandemic period due to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) revolutionized all possible areas of global health. Significant consequences were also related to diverse extrapulmonary manifestations of this pathology. The liver was found to be a relatively common organ, beyond the respiratory tract, affected by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). Multiple studies revealed the essential role of chronic liver disease (CLD) in the general outcome of coronavirus infection. Present concerns in this field are related to the direct hepatic consequences caused by COVID-19 and pre-existing liver disorders as risk factors for the severe course of the infection. Which mechanism has a key role in this phenomenon-previously existing hepatic disorder or acute liver failure due to SARS-CoV-2-is still not fully clarified. Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) constitutes another not fully elucidated context of coronavirus infection. Should the toxic effects of ethanol or already developed liver cirrhosis and its consequences be perceived as a causative or triggering factor of hepatic impairment in COVID-19 patients? In the face of these discrepancies, we decided to summarize the role of the liver in the whole picture of coronavirus infection, paying special attention to ALD and focusing on the pathological pathways related to COVID-19, ethanol toxicity and liver cirrhosis.

Deaths induced by compassionate use of hydroxychloroquine during the first COVID-19 wave: an estimate

BACKGROUND

During the first wave of COVID-19, hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) was used off-label despite the absence of evidence documenting its clinical benefits. Since then, a meta-analysis of randomised trials showed that HCQ use was associated with an 11% increase in the mortality rate. We aimed to estimate the number of HCQ-related deaths worldwide.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

We estimated the worldwide in-hospital mortality attributable to HCQ use by combining the mortality rate, HCQ exposure, number of hospitalised patients, and the increased relative risk of death with HCQ. The mortality rate in hospitalised patients for each country was calculated using pooled prevalence estimated by a meta-analysis of published cohorts. The HCQ exposure was estimated using median and extreme estimates from the same systematic review. The number of hospitalised patients during the first wave was extracted from dedicated databases. The systematic review included 44 cohort studies (Belgium: k = 1, France: k = 2, Italy: k = 12, Spain: k = 6, Turkey: k = 3, USA: k = 20). HCQ prescription rates varied greatly from one country to another (range 16-84%). Overall, using median estimates of HCQ use in each country, we estimated that 16,990 HCQ-related in-hospital deaths (range 6267-19256) occurred in the countries with available data. The median number of HCQ-related deaths in Belgium, Turkey, France, Italy, Spain, and the USA was 240 (range not estimable), 95 (range 92-128), 199 (range not estimable), 1822 (range 1170-2063), 1895 (range 1475-2094) and 12739 (3244- 15570), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Although our estimates are limited by their imprecision, these findings illustrate the hazard of drug repurposing with low-level evidence.

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on hospitalizations with hepatocellular carcinoma in the United States

BACKGROUND

We studied the temporal trends of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)-related hospitalizations and potential predictors of in-hospital mortality around the COVID-19 pandemic.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Using the International Classification of Diseases code, we used the National Inpatient Sample 2019-2020 and defined HCC and its underlying etiology. To assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on hospitalization and in-hospital mortality, the study period was divided into the pre-COVID-19 era (2019 Q1-2020 Q1) and the COVID-19 era (2020 Q2-2020 Q4). Quarterly trends in etiology-based hospitalizations with HCC and predictors of in-hospital mortality among hospitalizations with HCC were determined.

RESULTS

Hospitalization rates for HCC, as well as viral hepatitis-related HCC hospitalization rates, remained stable, while hospitalizations with alcohol-related liver disease (ALD, quarterly percentage change [QPC]: 2.1%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.1%-4.2%) increased steadily. Hospitalization related to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)-related HCC increased significantly steeper in the COVID-19 era (QPC: 6.6%; 95% CI: 4.0%-9.3%) than in the pre-COVID-19 era (QPC: 0.7%; 95% CI: 0.2%-1.3%). COVID-19 infection was independently associated with in-hospital mortality among hospitalizations with HCC (odds ratio: 1.94, 95% CI: 1.30-2.88).

CONCLUSION

Hospitalization rates for viral hepatitis-related HCC remained stable, while those for HCC due to ALD and NAFLD increased during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The mortality of hospitalized patients with COVID-19 and non-cirrhotic chronic liver disease: a retrospective multi-center study

Background

Patients with chronic liver disease (CLD) have a higher risk of mortality when infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Although the fibrosis-4 (FIB-4) index, aspartate aminotransferase-to-platelet ratio index (APRI), and albumin-bilirubin grade (ALBI) score can predict mortality in CLD, their correlation with the clinical outcomes of CLD patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is unclear. This study aimed to investigate the association between the liver severity and the mortality in hospitalized patients with non-cirrhotic CLD and COVID-19.

Methods

This retrospective study analyzed 231 patients with non-cirrhotic CLD and COVID-19. Clinical characteristics, laboratory data, including liver status indices, and clinical outcomes were assessed to determine the correlation between liver status indices and the mortality among patients with non-cirrhotic CLD and COVID-19.

Results

Non-survivors had higher levels of prothrombin time-international normalized ratio (PT-INR), alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) and lower albumin levels. Multivariable analysis showed that ALBI grade 3 (odds ratio (OR): 22.80, 95% confidence interval (CI) [1.70-305.38], p = 0.018), FIB-4 index ≥ 3.25 (OR: 10.62, 95% CI [1.12-100.31], p = 0.039), PT-INR (OR: 19.81, 95% CI [1.31-299.49], p = 0.031), hs-CRP (OR: 1.02, 95% CI [1.01-1.02], p = 0.001), albumin level (OR: 0.08, 95% CI [0.02-0.39], p = 0.002), and use of vasopressors (OR: 4.98, 95% CI [1.27-19.46], p = 0.021) were associated with the mortality.

Conclusion

The ALBI grade 3 and FIB-4 index ≥ 3.25, higher PT-INR, hsCRP levels and lower albumin levels could be associated with mortality in non-cirrhotic CLD patients with COVID-19. Clinicians could assess the ALBI grade, FIB-4 index, PT-INR, hs-CRP, and albumin levels of patients with non-cirrhotic CLD upon admission.

Intersection of Coronavirus Disease 2019 and Alcohol-associated Liver Disease: A Review of Emerging Trends and Implications

PURPOSE

This review will provide an overview of alcohol use and alcohol associated liver disease (ALD) prior to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and the impact of the pandemic on alcohol use and ALD. Furthermore, this review will explore strategies to mitigate the growing disease burden of AUD and ALD.

METHODS

A search using PubMed was performed for articles on topics related to alcohol use, ALD, and COVID-19. The literature was reviewed and pertinent sources were used for this narrative review.

FINDINGS

In the United States (US), excessive alcohol use is the third leading cause of preventable death. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the increasing prevalence of alcohol use disorder (AUD) and ALD in the US had already constituted a public health crisis given the association between alcohol misuse, AUD, and ALD with significant medical, economic, and societal burdens. The COVID-19 pandemic led to increased alcohol consumption and downstream consequences, including increased prevalence of AUD, ALD, ALD-related hospitalization and death, and liver transplantation for ALD.

IMPLICATIONS

There is a critical need for additional, multi-pronged interventions to mitigate the mortality and morbidity linked to ALD.

Mortality Increased Among Hospitalized Patients with Cirrhosis Before and Following Different Waves of the COVID-19 Pandemic

BACKGROUND

The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic disrupted patient care and worsened the morbidity and mortality of some chronic diseases. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on hospitalizations and outcomes in patients with cirrhosis both before and during different time periods of the pandemic has not been evaluated.

AIMS

Describe characteristics of hospitalized patients with cirrhosis and evaluate inpatient mortality and 30-day readmission before and after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

Retrospective single-center cohort study of all hospitalized patients with cirrhosis from 2018 to 2022. Time periods within the COVID-19 pandemic were defined using reference data from the World Health Organization and Centers for Disease Control. Adjusted odds ratios from logistic regression were used to assess differences between periods.

RESULTS

33,926 unique hospitalizations were identified. Most patients were over age 60 years across all time periods of the pandemic. More Hispanic patients were hospitalized during COVID-19 than before COVID-19. Medicare and Medicaid are utilized less frequently during COVID-19 than before COVID-19. After controlling for age and gender, inpatient mortality was significantly higher during all COVID-19 periods except Omicron compared to before COVID-19. The odds of experiencing a 30-day readmission were 1.2 times higher in the pre-vaccination period compared to the pre-COVID-19 period.

CONCLUSION

Inpatient mortality among patients with cirrhosis has increased during the COVID-19 pandemic compared to before COVID-19. Although COVID-19 infection may have had a small direct pathologic effect on the natural history of cirrhotic liver disease, it is more likely that other factors are impacting this population.

COVID-19 and the Liver: A Complex and Evolving Picture

Although the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) primarily attacks the respiratory system, other organs, such as the liver, are also affected. In this overview, the effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection on the liver in both healthy people and in those with pre-existing liver disease are documented; the relationship between coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) vaccination and liver injury is examined; the mechanism of SARS-CoV-2-associated liver injury is explored; and the long-term consequences of COVID-19 are delineated, both in people with and without pre-existing liver disease.

Outcomes in Patients with Liver Dysfunction Post SARS-CoV-2 Infection: What Should We Measure?

Aim

Since 2019, the COVID-19 pandemic wreaked havoc all over the world. Early in the course of the pandemic, multiple hepatic manifestations of COVID-19 were noted. We aim to categorize hepatic dysfunction and its outcome in COVID-19 infection.

Methods

This is a review article based on a literature search in PubMed and Medline databases for articles detailing short-term and long-term outcomes of COVID-19 related liver dysfunction.

Results

The most common hepatic manifestation of COVID-19 was aspartate amino transferase (AST) predominant transaminase elevation. Transaminases improve once the COVID-19 infection resolves. In addition, COVID-19 cholangiopathy, autoimmune hepatitis associated COVID-19, and splanchnic venous thrombosis triggered by COVID-19 are other manifestations. Patients with preexisting liver disease, especially those with cirrhosis, have poor prognosis with COVID-19 infections compared to the general population. Elevations in liver tests were associated with severe COVID-19 infections. Patients with chronic liver disease have a higher risk of morbidity and mortality from COVID-19 infection. Among patients with chronic liver disease, decompensated liver cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma and alcohol-associated liver disease were associated with an increased risk of severity and mortality from COVID-19 infection. Interactions between antiviral therapy for COVID-19 and hepatitis B/hepatitis C medications must be considered in patients with chronic viral hepatitis and COVID-19 infection. COVID-19 vaccination-related hepatic dysfunction has been reported.

Conclusion

COVID-19 is here to stay. Hepatic dysfunction in COVID-19 signals severe COVID-19 infections. Patients with chronic liver disease have higher mortality from COVID-19 than general population. It is important to remember the lessons learned throughout the covid pandemic to take care of patients with COVID-19 now and in the future. Further studies are needed to document long-term outcomes in patients with COVID-19 who developed hepatic dysfunction.

Clinical and Histopathological Discoveries in Patients with Hepatic Injury and Cholangiopathy Who Have Died of COVID-19: Insights and Opportunities for Intervention

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on global health, necessitating a comprehensive understanding of its diverse manifestations. Cholangiopathy, a condition characterized by biliary dysfunction, has emerged as a significant complication in COVID-19 patients. In this review, we report the epidemiology of COVID-19, describe the hepatotropism of SARS-CoV-2, and present the histopathology of acute liver injury (ALI) in COVID-19. Additionally, we explore the relationship between pre-existing chronic liver disease and COVID-19, shedding light on the increased susceptibility of these individuals to develop cholangiopathy. Through an in-depth analysis of cholangiopathy in COVID-19 patients, we elucidate its clinical manifestations, diagnostic criteria, and underlying pathogenesis involving inflammation, immune dysregulation, and vascular changes. Furthermore, we provide a summary of studies investigating post-COVID-19 cholangiopathy, highlighting the long-term effects and potential management strategies for this condition, and discussing opportunities for intervention, including therapeutic targets, diagnostic advancements, supportive care, and future research needs.

The Impact of Alcohol Consumption and Addiction on Liver Transplantation Programs in the COVID-19 Era

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has caused significant shifts in alcohol consumption patterns in the United States, with potential long-term implications for liver transplantation (LT) programs. Alcohol consumption has increased, particularly in women, leading to a rise in alcohol-related liver disease (ALD) and alcohol use disorder. Psychological distress associated with the pandemic may further exacerbate alcohol addiction. ALD is now the most common indication for LT, with higher disease severity and complex clinical presentations, demanding a fundamental transformation in LT programs. Multidisciplinary cooperation among medical specialists, telemedicine, and remote healthcare are essential strategies to address these challenges. However, barriers to telemedicine and costs must be overcome. Curbing alcohol consumption at the societal level and bolstering mental health programs to mitigate healthcare workforce moral injury are recommended to optimize patient care in the post-COVID-19 era. Adequate planning and compassionate management of finite resources will be crucial for the successful continuation of LT programs amidst the concerning trends in alcohol consumption and addiction.

Association between alcohol-associated cirrhosis and inpatient complications among COVID-19 patients: A propensity-matched analysis from the United States

BACKGROUND

Alcohol-associated cirrhosis (AC) contributes to significant liver-related mortality in the United States. It is known to cause immune dysfunction and coagulation abnormalities. Patients with comorbid conditions like AC are at risk of worse clinical outcomes from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The specific association between AC and COVID-19 mortality remains inconclusive, given the lack of robust clinical evidence from prior studies.

AIM

To study the predictors of mortality and the outcomes of AC in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 in the United States.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study using the National Inpatient Sample (NIS) database 2020. Patients were identified with primary COVID-19 hospitalizations based on an underlying diagnosis of AC. A matched comparison cohort of COVID-19 patients without AC was identified after 1:N propensity score matching based on baseline sociodemographic characteristics and Elixhauser comorbidities. Primary outcomes included median length of stay, median inpatient charges, and in-hospital mortality. Secondary outcomes included a prevalence of systemic complications.

RESULTS

A total of 1325 COVID-19 patients with AC were matched to 1135 patients without AC. There was no difference in median length of stay and hospital charges in COVID-19 patients with AC compared to non-AC (P > 0.05). There was an increased prevalence of septic shock (5.7% vs 4.1%), ventricular fibrillation/ventricular flutter (0.4% vs 0%), atrial fibrillation (13.2% vs 8.8%), atrial flutter (8.7% vs 4.4%), first-degree atrioventricular nodal block (0.8% vs 0%), upper extremity venous thromboembolism (1.5% vs 0%), and variceal bleeding (3.8% vs 0%) in the AC cohort compared to the non-AC cohort (P < 0.05). There was no difference in inpatient mortality in COVID-19 patients with non-AC compared to AC, with an odds ratio of 0.97 (95% confidence interval: 0.78-1.22, P = 0.85). Predictors of mortality included advanced age, cardiac arrhythmias, coagulopathy, protein-calorie malnutrition, fluid and electrolyte disorders, septic shock, and upper extremity venous thromboembolism.

CONCLUSION

AC does not increase mortality in patients hospitalized with COVID-19. There is an increased association between inpatient complications among COVID-19 patients with AC compared to non-AC.

Impact and management of COVID-19 in liver transplant candidates and recipients

The COVID-19 outbreak has had severe consequences for global public health, medical communities, and the socioeconomic status of a considerable number of countries. The emergence of COVID-19 has also significantly impacted the world of liver transplantation (LT). Studies from transplantation centers around the world have shown that LTs during the COVID-19 pandemic have been restricted because of the high risk of serious COVID-19 infection in this population. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, patients with liver disease are considered at higher risk for severe COVID-19 infection. In March 2020, the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases recommended that LT should be limited to emergency cases. The COVID-19 treatment guidelines published by the National Institutes of Health are being constantly updated according to new epidemiology trends and treatment regimens. Immunocompromised patients have a higher risk of developing severe disease or death from COVID-19 compared with the general population. In this review, we summarize the available evidence regarding treatment guidelines and considerations for the evaluation and management of LT candidates and recipients in the era of COVID-19. In addition, we present data regarding COVID-19 among LT patients in our local transplantation center.

Viral Hepatitis and Acute-on-Chronic Liver Failure

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a potentially reversible syndrome that develops in patients with cirrhosis or with underlying chronic liver disease (CLD) and is characterized by acute decompensation, organ failure, and high short-term mortality. Hepatitis A and hepatitis E are major causes of ACLF. Hepatitis B may also cause ACLF through a flare of hepatitis B, acute infection, or reactivation. Besides supportive care, nucleoside/nucleotide analog therapy should also be initiated in this setting. Nonhepatotropic viruses may rarely also cause ACLF with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 virus recently being identified with poorer outcomes in those with underlying CLD.

COVID-19 in patients with liver disease and liver transplant: clinical implications, prevention, and management

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had enormous implications for the care of patients with chronic liver disease (CLD), cirrhosis, and liver transplant (LT). Clinical outcomes of COVID-19 vary in patients with CLD and cirrhosis compared to healthy controls, and in patients with LT compared to patients without LT. Several special considerations apply to the approach to vaccination and treatment in patients with CLD and LT. The practice of liver transplantation has also been heavily impacted by the pandemic, including persistent reductions in living donor LT and increases in LT for an indication of alcohol-related liver disease. Recent medical society guidelines strive to standardize severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 testing in donors and recipients and the approach to transplantation after recovered from COVID-19 infection, but certain controversies remain.

Impact of COVID-19 in individuals with and without pre-existent digestive disorders with a particular focus on elderly patients

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has several extrapulmonary symptoms. Gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms are among the most frequent clinical manifestations of COVID-19, with severe consequences reported in elderly patients. Furthermore, the impact of COVID-19 on patients with pre-existing digestive diseases still needs to be fully elucidated, particularly in the older population. This review aimed to investigate the impact of COVID-19 on the GI tract, liver, and pancreas in individuals with and without previous digestive diseases, with a particular focus on the elderly, highlighting the distinctive characteristics observed in this population. Finally, the effectiveness and adverse events of the anti-COVID-19 vaccination in patients with digestive disorders and the peculiarities found in the elderly are discussed.

Association of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Metabolic-Associated Fatty Liver Disease with COVID-19-Related Intensive Care Unit Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background and Objective: The association of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) with intensive care unit (ICU) admissions and the need for mechanical ventilation and disease severity in COVID-19 patients. Material and Methods: A systematic literature review was conducted on the databases: Cochrane, Embase, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and the Web of Science from January 2019 to June 2022. Studies evaluating MAFLD using laboratory methods, non-invasive imaging, or liver biopsy were included. The study protocol was registered in PROSPERO (ID CRD42022313259), and PRISMA guidelines were followed. The NIH quality assessment tool was used for quality assessment. RevMan version 5.3 software was used for pooled analysis. A sensitivity analysis was performed to assess the result's stability. Results: A total of 37,974 patients from 17 studies were assessed for the association between MAFLD and ICU admission. A total of 3396 COVID-19 patients required ICU admission: 1236 (20.41%) in the MAFLD group and 2160 (6.77%) in the non-MAFLD group. The odds ratio was 1.86 for ICU admission, p = 0.007, and a (95% CI) of [1.18-2.91]. A total of 37,166 patients from 13 studies were included in the need for invasive mechanical ventilation analysis. A total of 1676 patients required mechanical ventilation: 805 in the MAFLD group (14.20% of all MAFLD patients) and 871 patients in the non-MAFLD group (2.76% of all non-MAFLD patients). The odds ratio was 2.05, p = 0.02, and a (95% CI) of [1.12-3.74]. A total of 5286 patients from 14 studies were included in the COVID-19 disease severity analysis. Severe COVID-19 was seen in 1623 patients, with 33.17% (901/2716) of MAFLD patients and 28.09% (722/2570) of non-MAFLD patients having severe disease. The odds ratio was 1.59 for disease severity, p = 0.010, and a (95% CI) of [1.12-2.26]. Conclusions: Our meta-analysis suggests that there are significantly increased odds of ICU admissions, a need for invasive mechanical ventilation, and disease severity in MAFLD patients who acquire COVID-19.

Comprehensive DNA methylation profiling of COVID-19 and hepatocellular carcinoma to identify common pathogenesis and potential therapeutic targets

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection can be more complex and severe in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) as compared to other cancers. This is due to several factors, including pre-existing conditions such as viral hepatitis and cirrhosis, which are commonly associated with HCC.

METHODS

We conducted an analysis of epigenomics in SARS-CoV-2 infection and HCC patients, and identified common pathogenic mechanisms using weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) and other analyses. Hub genes were identified and analyzed using LASSO regression. Additionally, drug candidates and their binding modes to key macromolecular targets of COVID-19 were identified using molecular docking.

RESULTS

The epigenomic analysis of the relationship between SARS-CoV-2 infection and HCC patients revealed that the co-pathogenesis was closely linked to immune response, particularly T cell differentiation, regulation of T cell activation and monocyte differentiation. Further analysis indicated that CD4⁺ T cells and monocytes play essential roles in the immunoreaction triggered by both conditions. The expression levels of hub genes MYLK2, FAM83D, STC2, CCDC112, EPHX4 and MMP1 were strongly correlated with SARS-CoV-2 infection and the prognosis of HCC patients. In our study, mefloquine and thioridazine were identified as potential therapeutic agents for COVID-19 in combined with HCC.

CONCLUSIONS

In this research, we conducted an epigenomics analysis to identify common pathogenetic processes between SARS-CoV-2 infection and HCC patients, providing new insights into the pathogenesis and treatment of HCC patients infected with SARS-CoV-2.

Association of non-alcoholic fatty liver and metabolic-associated fatty liver with COVID-19 outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) are on the rise like any other liver disease, and tend to affect 25% of the United States population. The impact of NAFLD and MAFLD on patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) remains unclear.

AIM

To identify the association of NAFLD and MAFLD with mortality, hospitalization, hospital length of stay, and supplemental oxygen utilization in COVID-19 patients.

METHODS

A systematic review of literature on Cochrane, Embase, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Web of Science databases was conducted from January 2019 to July 2022. Studies that evaluated NAFLD/MAFLD using laboratory methods, noninvasive imaging, or liver biopsy were included. The study protocol was registered in PROSPERO (ID CRD42022313259) and PRISMA guidelines were followed. The National Institutes of Health quality assessment tool was used to assess the quality of the studies. Pooled analysis was conducted using software Rev Man version 5.3. The stability of the results was assessed using sensitivity analysis.

RESULTS

Thirty-two studies with 43388 patients were included in the meta-analysis of whom 8538 (20%) patients were observed to have NAFLD. There were 42254 patients from 28 studies included in the mortality analysis. A total of 2008 patients died from COVID-19; 837 (10.52%) in the NAFLD group and 1171 (3.41%) in the non-NAFLD group. The odds ratio (OR) was 1.38 for mortality with a 95% confidence interval (95%CI) = 0.97-1.95 and P = 0.07. A total of 5043 patients from eight studies were included in the hospital length of stay analysis. There were 1318 patients in the NAFLD group and 3725 patients in the non-NAFLD group. A qualitative synthesis showed that the mean difference in hospital length of stay was about 2 d between the NAFLD and non-NAFLD groups with a 95%CI = 0.71-3.27 and P = 0.002. For hospitalization rates, the OR was 3.25 with a 95%CI of 1.73-6.10 and P = 0.0002. For supplemental oxygen utilization, the OR was 2.04 with a 95%CI of 1.17-3.53 and P = 0.01.

CONCLUSION

Our meta-analysis suggests that there are increased odds of hospitalization, longer hospital length of stay, and increased use of supplemental oxygen in NAFLD/MAFLD patients.

Unraveling the Molecular and Cellular Pathogenesis of COVID-19-Associated Liver Injury

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) continues to cause substantial morbidity and mortality. Most infections are mild; however, some patients experience severe and potentially fatal systemic inflammation, tissue damage, cytokine storm, and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Patients with chronic liver disease have been frequently affected, experiencing high morbidity and mortality. In addition, elevated liver enzymes may be a risk factor for disease progression, even in the absence of underlying liver disease. While the respiratory tract is a primary target of SARS-CoV-2, it has become evident that COVID-19 is a multisystemic infectious disease. The hepatobiliary system might be influenced during COVID-19 infection, ranging from a mild elevation of aminotransferases to the development of autoimmune hepatitis and secondary sclerosing cholangitis. Furthermore, the virus can promote existing chronic liver diseases to liver failure and activate the autoimmune liver disease. Whether the direct cytopathic effects of the virus, host reaction, hypoxia, drugs, vaccination, or all these risk factors cause liver injury has not been clarified to a large extent in COVID-19. This review article discussed the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 virus-associated liver injury and highlighted the emerging role of liver sinusoidal epithelial cells (LSECs) in virus-related liver damage.

Hypocalcemia on Admission Is a Predictor of Disease Progression in COVID-19 Patients with Cirrhosis: A Multicenter Study in Hungary

Hypocalcemia is a common condition in liver cirrhosis and is associated with the severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, there is a lack of data demonstrating the prognostic value of hypocalcemia in COVID-19 patients with cirrhosis. This study aimed to evaluate the prognostic value of hypocalcemia for COVID-19 severity, mortality and its associations with abnormal liver function parameters. We selected 451 COVID-19 patients in this retrospective study and compared the laboratory findings of 52 COVID-19 patients with cirrhosis to those of 399 COVID-19 patients without cirrhosis. Laboratory tests measuring albumin-corrected total serum calcium were performed on admission, and the levels were monitored during hospitalization. The total serum calcium levels were significantly lower in cirrhosis cases (2.16 mmol/L) compared to those without cirrhosis (2.32 mmol/L). Multivariate analysis showed that hypocalcemia in COVID-19 patients with cirrhosis was a significant predictor of in-hospital mortality, with an OR of 4.871 (p < 0.05; 95% CI 1.566-15.146). ROC analysis showed the AUC value of total serum calcium was 0.818 (95% CI 0.683-0.953, p < 0.05), with a sensitivity of 88.3% and a specificity of 75%. The total serum calcium levels showed a significant negative correlation with the Child-Turcette-Pugh score (r = -0.400, p < 0.05). Hypocalcemia on admission was a significant prognostic factor of disease progression in COVID-19 patients with cirrhosis.

Trends in aetiology-based hospitalisation for cirrhosis before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Patients with pre-existing cirrhosis and exposure to coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) may portend a poor prognosis. We evaluated the temporal trends in aetiology-based hospitalisations and potential predictors of in-hospital mortality in hospitalisation with cirrhosis before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

Based on the US National Inpatient Sample 2019-2020, we determined quarterly trends in aetiology-based hospitalisations with cirrhosis and decompensated cirrhosis and identified predictors of in-hospital mortality in hospitalisation with cirrhosis.

RESULTS

We analysed 316,418 hospitalisations, representing 1,582,090 hospitalisations with cirrhosis. Hospitalisations for cirrhosis increased at a relatively higher rate during the COVID-19 era. Hospitalisation rates for alcohol-related liver disease (ALD)-related cirrhosis increased significantly (quarterly percentage change [QPC]: 3.6%, 95% CI: 2.2%-5.1%), with a notably higher rate during the COVID-19 era. In contrast, hospitalisation rates for hepatitis C virus (HCV)-related cirrhosis decreased steadily with a trend of -1.4% of QPC (95% CI: -2.5% to -0.1%). Quarterly trends in the proportion of ALD- (QPC: 1.7%, 95% CI: 0.9%-2.6%) and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease-related (QPC: 0.7%, 95% CI: 0.1%-1.2%) hospitalisations with cirrhosis increased significantly but declined steadily for viral hepatitis. The COVID-19 era and COVID-19 infection were independent predictors of in-hospital mortality during hospitalisation with cirrhosis and decompensated cirrhosis. Compared with HCV-related cirrhosis, ALD-related cirrhosis was associated with a 40% higher risk of in-hospital mortality.

CONCLUSION

In-hospital mortality in cirrhosis was higher in the COVID-19 era than in the pre-COVID-19 era. ALD is the leading aetiology-specific cause of in-hospital mortality in cirrhosis with an independent detrimental impact of the COVID-19 infection.

Ursodeoxycholic acid is associated with a reduction in SARS-CoV-2 infection and reduced severity of COVID-19 in patients with cirrhosis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Studies have demonstrated that reducing farnesoid X receptor activity with ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) downregulates angiotensin-converting enzyme in human lung, intestinal and cholangiocytes organoids in vitro, in human lungs and livers perfused ex situ, reducing internalization of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) into the host cell. This offers a potential novel target against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The objective of our study was to compare the association between UDCA exposure and SARS-CoV-2 infection, as well as varying severities of COVID-19, in a large national cohort of participants with cirrhosis.

METHODS

In this retrospective cohort study among participants with cirrhosis in the Veterans Outcomes and Costs Associated with Liver cohort, we compared participants with exposure to UDCA, with a propensity score (PS) matched group of participants without UDCA exposure, matched for clinical characteristics, and vaccination status. The outcomes included SARS-CoV-2 infection, symptomatic, at least moderate, severe, or critical COVID-19, and COVID-19-related death.

RESULTS

We compared 1607 participants with cirrhosis who were on UDCA, with 1607 PS-matched controls. On multivariable logistic regression, UDCA exposure was associated with reduced odds of developing SARS-CoV-2 infection (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0.54, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.41-0.71, p < 0.0001). Among patients who developed COVID-19, UDCA use was associated with reduced disease severity, including symptomatic COVID-19 (aOR 0.54, 95% CI 0.39-0.73, p < 0.0001), at least moderate COVID-19 (aOR 0.51, 95% CI 0.32-0.81, p = 0.005), and severe or critical COVID-19 (aOR 0.48, 95% CI 0.25-0.94, p = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

In participants with cirrhosis, UDCA exposure was associated with both a decrease in SARS-CoV-2 infection, and reduction in symptomatic, at least moderate, and severe/critical COVID-19.

SARS-CoV-2 induced liver injury: Incidence, risk factors, impact on COVID-19 severity and prognosis in different population groups

Liver is unlikely the key organ driving mortality in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) however, liver function tests (LFTs) abnormalities are widely observed mostly in moderate and severe cases. According to this review, the overall prevalence of abnormal LFTs in COVID-19 patients ranges from 2.5% to 96.8% worldwide. The geographical variability in the prevalence of underlying diseases is the determinant for the observed discrepancies between East and West. Multifactorial mechanisms are implicated in COVID-19-induced liver injury. Among them, hypercytokinemia with "bystander hepatitis", cytokine storm syndrome with subsequent oxidative stress and endotheliopathy, hypercoagulable state and immuno-thromboinflammation are the most determinant mechanisms leading to tissue injury. Liver hypoxia may also contribute under specific conditions, while direct hepatocyte injury is an emerging mechanism. Except for initially observed severe acute respiratory distress syndrome corona virus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) tropism for cholangiocytes, more recent cumulative data show SARS-CoV-2 virions within hepatocytes and sinusoidal endothelial cells using electron microscopy (EM). The best evidence for hepatocellular invasion by the virus is the identification of replicating SARS-CoV-2 RNA, S protein RNA and viral nucleocapsid protein within hepatocytes using in-situ hybridization and immunostaining with observed intrahepatic presence of SARS-CoV-2 by EM and by in-situ hybridization. New data mostly derived from imaging findings indicate possible long-term sequelae for the liver months after recovery, suggesting a post-COVID-19 persistent live injury.

The Intersection of COVID-19 and Metabolic-Associated Fatty Liver Disease: An Overview of the Current Evidence

The global population is currently experiencing the impact of the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus, which has caused the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. With our profound comprehension of COVID-19, encompassing the involvement sequence of the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal system, and cardiovascular apparatus, the multiorgan symptoms of this infectious disease have been discerned. Metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD), formerly known as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), is a pervasive public health concern intricately linked with metabolic dysregulation and estimated to afflict one-fourth of the global adult population. The burgeoning focus on the association between COVID-19 and MAFLD is justified by the potential role of the latter as a risk factor for both SARS-CoV-2 infection and the subsequent emergence of severe COVID-19 symptoms. Investigations have suggested that changes in both innate and adaptive immune responses among MAFLD patients may play a role in determining the severity of COVID-19. The remarkable similarities observed in the cytokine pathways implicated in both diseases imply the existence of shared mechanisms governing the chronic inflammatory responses characterizing these conditions. The effect of MAFLD on the severity of COVID-19 illness remains uncertain, as indicated by conflicting results in cohort investigations.

Vaccination in liver diseases and liver Transplantation: Recommendations, implications and opportunities in the post-covid era

The interest in vaccination efficacy and toxicity has surged following the Covid-19 pandemic. Immune responses to several vaccines have been shown to be suboptimal in patients with chronic liver disease (CLD) or post-liver transplant (LT), as a consequence of cirrhosis-associated immune dysfunction (CAID) or post-LT immunosuppression respectively. Accordingly, vaccine-preventable infections may be more common or severe than in the general population. The Covid-19 pandemic has greatly accelerated research and development into vaccination technology and platforms, which will have spillover benefits for liver patients. The aims of this review are: (i) to discuss the impact of vaccine-preventable infections on CLD and post-LT patients, (ii) to appraise current evidence supporting vaccination strategies, and (iii) to provide some insight into recent developments relevant for liver patients.

Liver manifestations in COVID-19 patients: A review article

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) initially presented as a disease that affected the lungs. Then, studies revealed that it intricately affected disparate organs in the human body, with the liver being one of the most affected organs. This review aimed to assess the association between COVID-19 and liver function, shedding light on its clinical implication. However, its exact pathophysiology remains unclear, involving many factors, such as active viral replication in the liver cells, direct cytotoxic effects of the virus on the liver or adverse reactions to viral antigens. Liver symptoms are mild-to-moderate transaminase elevation. In some patients, with underlying liver disease, more serious outcomes are observed. Thus, liver function should be meticulously considered in patients with COVID-19.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and COVID-19 outcomes: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression

It is important to identify risk factors for poor outcomes of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients. Currently, the correlation between non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and COVID-19 outcomes has not been established. This study was conducted to determine the association between NAFLD and in-hospital outcomes of COVID-19 patients. The systematic searches were conducted by using PubMed and the Europe PMC databases and particular keywords were used as of December 10, 2020. Further searches were conducted up to 2022. All articles that include data about COVID-19 and fatty liver disease were collected. Statistical analysis was performed by using Review Manager 5.4 and Comprehensive Meta-Analysis version 3 software. A total of 7,210 COVID-19 patients from 18 studies were included in the final analysis. Meta-analysis revealed that NAFLD increased the risk of developing poor in-hospital outcome (pooled both severe disease and death) in COVID-19 patients (RR 1.42; 95%CI: 1.17-1.73, p<0.001, I2=84%, random-effect modeling). Subgroup analysis however found that having NAFLD only increased the chance of getting severe COVID-19 (RR 1.67; 95%CI: 1.32-2.13, p<0.001, I2=86%, random-effect modeling) and not mortality (RR 1.00; 95%CI: 0.68-1.47, p=0.98, I2=80%, random-effect modeling). Meta-regression suggested that age (p=0.001) and diabetes (p=0.029) were significantly influenced the relationship between NAFLD and in-hospital outcomes of COVID-19 (pooled both severe disease and mortality). The weaker association of NAFLD and in-hospital outcomes of COVID-19 was found for studies with median age ≥45 years old (RR 1.29) when compared to studies with median age <45 years old (RR 2.96). In addition, studies with the prevalence of diabetes ≥25% (RR 1.29) had a weaker association with in-hospital outcomes when compared to studies with diabetes prevalence <25% (RR 1.85). In conclusion, NAFLD increased the risk of chance of getting severe COVID-19 and therefore it should be evaluated closely to reduce the chance of getting severe COVID-19.

The Spectrum of COVID-19-Induced Liver Injury in Various Age and Risk Groups

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has inflicted significant mortality and morbidity worldwide since the virus was first detected towards the end of 2019. Though it primarily affects the respiratory system, COVID-19 has been shown to have a multisystem effect. There have been literature on liver injury associated with COVID-19 in general but liver injury specific to certain risk and age groups needs to be looked into. Thus, we aim to discuss the liver injury associated with COVID-19 in various age and risk groups and revisit pathophysiology, biochemical markers and their correlation with outcomes, and current management recommendations.

2022 KLCA-NCC Korea practice guidelines for the management of hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fifth most common cancer worldwide and the fourth most common cancer among men in South Korea, where the prevalence of chronic hepatitis B infection is high in middle and old age. The current practice guidelines will provide useful and sensible advice for the clinical management of patients with HCC. A total of 49 experts in the fields of hepatology, oncology, surgery, radiology, and radiation oncology from the Korean Liver Cancer Association-National Cancer Center Korea Practice Guideline Revision Committee revised the 2018 Korean guidelines and developed new recommendations that integrate the most up-to-date research findings and expert opinions. These guidelines provide useful information and direction for all clinicians, trainees, and researchers in the diagnosis and treatment of HCC.

Liver and Biliary Tract Disease in Patients with Coronavirus disease-2019 Infection

Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) had become a global pandemic since March 2020. Although, the most common presentation is of pulmonary involvement, hepatic abnormalities can be encountered in up to 50% of infected individuals, which may be associated with disease severity, and the mechanism of liver injury is thought to be multifactorial. Guidelines for management in patients with chronic liver disease during COVID-19 era are being regularly updated. Patients with chronic liver disease and cirrhosis, including liver transplant candidates and liver transplant recipients are strongly recommended to receive SARS-CoV-2 vaccination because it can reduce rate of COVID-19 infection, COVID-19-related hospitalization, and mortality.

COVID-19-induced transaminitis and hyperbilirubinemia: Presentation and outcomes

The risk of liver injury in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection is quite evident. Furthermore, liver function test abnormalities are still detected in COVID-19 patients despite the development of antivirals and the availability of several types of vaccines. This editorial describes liver involvement during COVID-19 infection in patients with or without preexisting liver injury, such as chronic liver disease, to elucidate COVID-19-induced liver function abnormalities and their severity, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and clinical and laboratory outcomes. We also discuss the effect of vaccination against COVID-19 to better understand host factors, such as age, gender, and race, on the incidence and severity of liver dysfunction at initial presentation and during the illness. Finally, we summarize the results of relevant meta-analyses published to date and highlight the importance of adequate liver function monitoring in the current climate of the overwhelming COVID-19 pandemic.

Outcomes of COVID-19 among patients with liver disease

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is primarily a respiratory disease with multi-organ involvement, including impaired liver function. It has been noticed that a significant proportion of COVID-19 patients have liver dysfunction, especially those with a more severe disease course. The coronavirus causes direct damage to the liver using the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, a cell-surface receptor for cellular entry, that is expressed in the liver. According to previous research, liver enzyme abnormalities were observed in a considerable proportion of COVID-19 patients, and elevated liver transaminases were found in about 20% of these patients, alkaline phosphatase in 6.1%, and gamma-glutamyl transferase in 21.1%. COVID-19 might trigger a deterioration of liver function in patients with pre-existing chronic liver diseases (CLDs) and also in those without previous liver disorders. The majority of COVID-19 patients who develop liver injury are men, the elderly, and those with a higher body mass index. Compared to the general population, COVID-19 is associated with significant morbidity and mortality in patients with liver disease (cirrhosis and liver transplantation recipients). However, some studies indicate that CLDs have a lesser role in determining patient progression towards higher disease severity.

Impact of chronic liver disease on SARS-CoV-2 infection outcomes: Roles of stage, etiology and vaccination

Since the first identification in December of 2019 and the fast spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, it has represented a dramatic global public health concern. Though affecting mainly the respiratory system, SARS-CoV-2 disease, defined as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), may have a systemic involvement leading to multiple organ dysfunction. Experimental evidence about the SARS-CoV-2 tropism for the liver and the increasing of hepatic cytolysis enzymes during infection support the presence of a pathophysiological relationship between liver and SARS-CoV-2. On the other side, patients with chronic liver disease have been demonstrated to have a poor prognosis with COVID-19. In particular, patients with liver cirrhosis appear extremely vulnerable to infection. Moreover, the etiology of liver disease and the vaccination status could affect the COVID-19 outcomes. This review analyzes the impact of the disease stage and the related causes on morbidity and mortality, clinical outcomes during SARS-CoV-2 infection, as well as the efficacy of vaccination in patients with chronic liver disease.

The impact of COVID-19 disease on the natural course of cirrhosis: Before and after starting vaccination

Background

Cirrhosis has been reported as an important risk factor for death in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) disease. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of COVID-19 on the natural course of cirrhosis before and after starting vaccination.

Methods

The cirrhosis patients in our cohort (n: 140; median age:56; 71 female) were included in this study. The median MELD (Model For End-stage Liver Disease) score was 11 (6-25) and CCI (Charlson Comorbidity Index) score was 4 (1-11). In total, 85 had CTP (Child-Turcotte-Pugh)-A, 44 had CTP-B and 11 had CTP-C cirrhosis. The course of COVID-19 in this patient group was evaluated before and after COVID-19 vaccination.

Results

Between March 2020 and January 2021, 36 of the 140 cirrhosis patients had developed COVID-19. Cirrhosis (+)/COVID-19 (+) and Cirrhosis (+)/COVID-19 (-) groups did not differ in terms of age, CCI and MELD-Na scores, or gender. There were six deaths in the Cirrhosis (+)/COVID-19 (+) group and five in the Cirrhosis (+)/COVID-19 (-) group [6/36 (16.6%) vs. 5/104 (4.8%); p: 0.03]. Patients who died were older, had higher CCI and MELD-Na scores, and lower albumin levels. Having had COVID-19 [6.45 (1.43-29.4); p: 0.015], higher MELD-Na score [1.35 (1.18-1.60); p: 0.001] and higher CCI score [1.65 (1.14-2.39); p: 0.008] were found to be independent predictors of mortality. After effective vaccination started in Turkey, only 11 of the remaining 129 patients developed COVID-19, and only one patient died, who was unvaccinated.

Discussion

In our cirrhotic cohort, COVID-19 disease was associated with 16% mortality in the pre-vaccination period. COVID-19 vaccination prevents serious illness and death due to COVID-19 in cirrhotic patients.

Spike-specific humoral and cellular immune responses after COVID-19 mRNA vaccination in patients with cirrhosis: A prospective single center study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

COVID-19 mRNA vaccines were approved to prevent severe forms of the disease, but their immunogenicity and safety in cirrhosis is poorly known.

METHOD

In this prospective single-center study enrolling patients with cirrhosis undergoing COVID-19 vaccination (BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273), we assessed humoral and cellular responses vs healthy controls, the incidence of breakthrough infections and adverse events (AEs). Antibodies against spike- and nucleocapsid-protein (anti-S and anti-N) and Spike-specific T-cells responses were quantified at baseline, 21 days after the first and second doses and during follow-up.

RESULTS

182 cirrhotics (85% SARS-CoV-2-naïve) and 38 controls were enrolled. After 2 doses of vaccine, anti-S titres were significantly lower in cirrhotics vs controls [1,751 (0.4-25,000) U/mL vs 4,523 (259-25,000) U/mL, p=0.012] and in SARS-CoV-2-naïve vs previously infected cirrhotics [999 (0.4-17,329) U/mL vs 7,500 (12.5-25,000) U/mL, (p<0.001)]. T-cell responses in cirrhotics were similar to controls, although with different kinetics. In SARS-CoV-2-naïve cirrhotics, HCC, Child-Pugh B/C and BNT162b2 were independent predictors of low response. Neither unexpected nor severe AEs emerged. During follow-up, 2% turned SARS-CoV-2 positive, all asymptomatic.

CONCLUSION

Humoral response to COVID-19 vaccines appeared suboptimal in patients with cirrhosis, particularly in SARS-CoV-2-naïve decompensated cirrhotics, although cellular response appeared preserved, and low breakthrough infections rate was registered.

COVID-19 and the liver: Are footprints still there?

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) hit the entire world as a global pandemic and soon became the most important concern for all patients with chronic diseases. An early trend in higher mortality in patients with acute respiratory distress attracted all researchers to closely monitor patients for the involvement of other systems. It soon became apparent that patients with chronic liver diseases are at increased risk of mortality given their cirrhosis-associated immune dysfunction. Additionally, liver function abnormalities were noted in patients with severe COVID-19. Profound cytokine storm, direct viral infection, drugs and reactivation of viral infections were causes of deranged liver functions. Here, we discuss the relation between COVID-19 and chronic liver disease, specifically cirrhosis, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), as well as the liver manifestations of COVID-19. The metabolic syndrome, obesity, diabetes mellitus and NAFLD were found to worsen outcome in different studies reported worldwide. Decompensated cirrhosis should be considered a risk factor for death and severe COVID-19. Recently, COVID-19 related cholangiopathy has also been reported with changes of secondary sclerosing cholangitis. The long-term persistence of viral antigens in gut epithelia raises concern regarding the future risk of autoimmune liver diseases.

COVID-19 in patients with pre-existing chronic liver disease – predictors of outcomes

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has affected patients with pre-existing chronic liver disease (CLD) in various ways. The maximum impact was seen on patients with underlying cirrhosis who have shown to have poor clinical outcomes in the form of increased risk of hepatic decompensation, acute-on-chronic liver failure, and even mortality. It is of paramount importance to identify various factors which are associated with unfavorable outcomes for prognostication and making informed management strategy. Many factors have been evaluated in different studies in patients with underlying CLD. Some of these factors include the severity of underlying chronic liver disease, comorbid conditions, age, and severity of COVID-19. Overall, the outcomes are not fav-orable in patients with cirrhosis as evidenced by data from various studies. The main purpose of this review is to identify the predictors of adverse clinical outcomes including mortality in patients with CLD for risk stratification, prognostication, and appropriate clinical management.

COVID-19 and hepatic injury: cellular and molecular mechanisms in diverse liver cells

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) represents a global health and economic challenge. Hepatic injuries have been approved to be associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection. The viral tropism pattern of SARS-CoV-2 can induce hepatic injuries either by itself or by worsening the conditions of patients with hepatic diseases. Besides, other factors have been reported to play a crucial role in the pathological forms of hepatic injuries induced by SARS-CoV-2, including cytokine storm, hypoxia, endothelial cells, and even some treatments for COVID-19. On the other hand, several groups of people could be at risk of hepatic COVID-19 complications, such as pregnant women and neonates. The present review outlines and discusses the interplay between SARS-CoV-2 infection and hepatic injury, hepatic illness comorbidity, and risk factors. Besides, it is focused on the vaccination process and the role of developed vaccines in preventing hepatic injuries due to SARS-CoV-2 infection.

SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Liver Disease: A Review of Pathogenesis and Outcomes

The impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has been immense, and it continues to have lasting repercussions. While the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus primarily infects the respiratory system, other organ systems are affected, including the liver. Scientific knowledge on the role of SARS-CoV-2 infection and liver injury has evolved rapidly, with recent data suggesting specific hepatotropism of SARS-CoV-2. Moreover, additional concerns have been raised in regard to long-term liver damage, related to emerging cases of post-COVID-19 cholangiopathy and chronic cholestasis. Great effort has also been focused on studying how specific subpopulations with chronic medical conditions might be disproportionately impacted by COVID-19. One such population includes individuals with chronic liver disease (CLD) and cirrhosis, with an expanding body of research indicating these patients being particularly susceptible to adverse outcomes. In this review, we provide an updated summary on the current pathogenesis and mechanism of liver injury in the setting of SARS-CoV-2 infection, the association between health outcomes and SARS-CoV-2 infection in patients with CLD, and the unique consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on the routine care of patients with CLD.

COVID-19 and liver injury: An ongoing challenge

The new coronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was identified in December 2019, in Wuhan, China. The virus was rapidly spread worldwide, causing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Although COVID-19 is presented, usually, with typical respiratory symptoms (i.e., dyspnea, cough) and fever, extrapulmonary manifestations are also encountered. Liver injury is a common feature in patients with COVID-19 and ranges from mild and temporary elevation of liver enzymes to severe liver injury and, even, acute liver failure. The pathogenesis of liver damage is not clearly defined; multiple mechanisms contribute to liver disorder, including direct cytopathic viral effect, cytokine storm and immune-mediated hepatitis, hypoxic injury, and drug-induced liver toxicity. Patients with underlying chronic liver disease (i.e., cirrhosis, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, alcohol-related liver disease, hepatocellular carcinoma, etc.) may have greater risk to develop both severe COVID-19 and further liver deterioration, and, as a consequence, certain issues should be considered during disease management. The aim of this review is to present the prevalence, clinical manifestation and pathophysiological mechanisms of liver injury in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Moreover, we overview the association between chronic liver disease and SARS-CoV-2 infection and we briefly discuss the management of liver injury during COVID-19.

Liver injury in COVID-19: Clinical features, potential mechanisms, risk factors and clinical treatments

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has been a serious threat to global health for nearly 3 years. In addition to pulmonary complications, liver injury is not uncommon in patients with novel COVID-19. Although the prevalence of liver injury varies widely among COVID-19 patients, its incidence is significantly increased in severe cases. Hence, there is an urgent need to understand liver injury caused by COVID-19. Clinical features of liver injury include detectable liver function abnormalities and liver imaging changes. Liver function tests, computed tomography scans, and ultrasound can help evaluate liver injury. Risk factors for liver injury in patients with COVID-19 include male sex, preexisting liver disease including liver transplantation and chronic liver disease, diabetes, obesity, and hypertension. To date, the mechanism of COVID-19-related liver injury is not fully understood. Its pathophysiological basis can generally be explained by systemic inflammatory response, hypoxic damage, ischemia-reperfusion injury, and drug side effects. In this review, we systematically summarize the existing literature on liver injury caused by COVID-19, including clinical features, underlying mechanisms, and potential risk factors. Finally, we discuss clinical management and provide recommendations for the care of patients with liver injury.