Transport characteristics of fragmental polyethylene glycol terephthalate (PET) microplastics in porous media under various chemical conditions

Current research status on the distribution and transport of micro(nano)plastics in hyporheic zones and groundwater

Micro(nano)plastics, as an emerging environmental pollutant, are gradually discovered in hyporheic zones and groundwater worldwide. Recent studies have focused on the origin and spatial/temporal distribution of micro(nano)plastics in regional groundwater, together with the influence of their properties and effects of environmental factors on their transport. However, the transport of micro(nano)plastics in the whole hyporheic zone-groundwater system and the behavior of co-existing substances still lack a complete theoretical interpretation. To provide systematic theoretical support for that, this review summarizes the current pollution status of micro(nano)plastics in the hyporheic zone-groundwater system, provides a comprehensive introduction of their sources and fate, and classifies the transport mechanisms into mechanical transport, physicochemical transport and biological processes assisted transport from the perspectives of mechanical stress, physicochemical reactions, and bioturbation, respectively. Ultimately, this review proposes to advance the understanding of the multi-dimensional hydrosphere transport of micro(nano)plastics centered on groundwater, the microorganisms-mediated synergistic transformation and co-transport involving the intertidal circulation. Overall, this review systematically dissects the presence and transport cycles of micro(nano)plastics within the hyporheic zone-groundwater system and proposes prospects for future studies based on the limitations of current studies.

Effect of shape on the transport and retention of nanoplastics in saturated quartz sand

Nanoplastics (NPs) pose great challenges to soil-groundwater systems. This study investigated the transport and retention of self-synthesized 0.5-μm polystyrene NPs with different shapes using column experiments. The regular NPs were with spherical shapes, while the irregular NPs were with toroid-like shapes. The toroid-like shapes were the irregular shapes (with low aspect ratio) which have not been studied yet. The explorations were carried out in both 5-25 mM NaNO3 and 1-10 mM Ca(NO3)2 solutions. Both breakthrough curves (BTCs) and retained profiles (RPs) were monitored. Our findings uncovered a clear disparity in the transport of irregular and regular NPs, with irregular particles exhibiting lower transport ability compared to the regular ones. For example, the average breakthrough plateaus of the regular and irregular NPs were ∼0.9 and ∼0.5, respectively, in 10 mM NaNO3. In-depth theoretical analysis indicated that the lower XDLVO interaction energy barrier between the irregular NPs and quartz sand was one factor, and the greater margination of irregular NPs on quartz sand, as verified by the numerical simulation, was another factor leading to the decreased transport and increased retention of the irregular NPs. The obtained results highlighted the significance of considering particle shape in future modelling and predicting the fate of NPs in real environmental circumstances.

Impact of diatomit on the transport behavior of unmodified and carboxyl-modified nanoplastics in saturated porous media

Due to the extensive use of plastic products and unreasonable disposal, nanoplastics contamination has become one of the important environmental problems that mankind must face. The composition and structure of porous media can determine the complexity and diversity of the transport behavior of nanoplastics. In this study, the influence of diatomite (DIA) on the nanoplastics transport in porous media is investigated by column experiments combined with XDLVO interaction energy and transport model. Results suggest that the recovery rates of unmodified polystyrene nanoparticles (PSNPs) and carboxyl-modified polystyrene nanoparticles (PSNPs-COOH) in the porous media containing DIA decreases compared with that in the pure quartz sand (QS), and the BTCs showed a "blocking" pattern. The presence of DIA inhibits the transport of both PSNPs and PSNPs-COOH, but the inhibition is not significant. This may be because the presence of DIA provides more favorable deposition sites for PSNPs and PSNPs-COOH to some extent. However, since DIA itself carries a certain negative charge, this can only play a role in compressing the double electric layer for PSNPs and PSNPs-COOH with the same negative charge, and cannot destabilize them. The migration capacity of PSNPs and PSNPs-COOH is strongest in the DIA-QS porous media at pH = 7, and is weak at pH = 9 and pH = 5. The inhibition of migration at pH = 9 can be attributed to the dissolution of the DIA surface under alkaline conditions and the formation of pore and defect structures, which provide more deposition sites for PSNPs and PSNPs-COOH. The presence of humic acid (HA) leads to an increase in the mobility of PSNPs and PSNPs-COOH, and the mobility is enhanced with HA concentration. The mobility of PSNPs and PSNPs-COOH in DIA-QS decreases with ionic valence and ionic strength, and PSNPs-COOH is more significantly inhibited compared to PSNPs.

Interfacial interactions between colloidal polystyrene microplastics and Cu in aqueous solution and saturated porous media: Model fitting and mechanism analysis

Microplastic (MP) and heavy metal pollution have received much attention. Few researches have been carried out on the influence of the interaction between MPs and heavy metals on their transport in saturated porous media, which concerns their fate. Therefore, the interaction mechanisms between colloidal polystyrene microplastics (PSMPs) and Cu were first carried out by applying batch adsorption experiments. Subsequently, the transport and retention of PSMPs and Cu in saturated porous media was explored through column experiments. The interaction process between PSMPs and Cu was further investigated using density functional theory (DFT) calculations. Findings demonstrated that PSMPs had strong adsorption capacity for Cu ((60.07 ± 2.57) mg g-1 at pH 7 and ionic strength 0 M) and the adsorption process was chemically dominated, non-uniform, and endothermic. The O-containing functional groups on PSMP surfaces showed essential roles in Cu adsorption, and the adsorption process mainly contained electrostatic and complexation interactions. In column experiments, Cu could inhibit PSMP transport by the cation bridging effect and changing the electrical properties of glass beads, while PSMPs may facilitate Cu transport through the carrying effect. These findings confirmed that interfacial interactions between MPs and Cu could influence their transport in saturated porous media directly, providing great environmental significance.

Evaluation of the migration behaviour of microplastics as emerging pollutants in freshwater environments

Microplastics, as an emerging pollutant, are widely distributed in freshwater environments such as rivers and lakes, posing immeasurable potential risks to aquatic ecosystems and human health. The migration behaviour of microplastics can exacerbate the degree or scope of risk. A complete understanding of the migration behaviour of microplastics in freshwater environments, such as rivers and lakes, can help assess the state of occurrence and environmental risk of microplastics and provide a theoretical basis for microplastic pollution control. Firstly, this review presents the hazards of microplastics in freshwater environments and the current research focus. Then, this review systematically describes the migration behaviours of microplastics, such as aggregation, horizontal transport, sedimentation, infiltration, stranding, resuspension, bed load, and the affecting factors. These migration behaviours are influenced by the nature of the microplastics themselves (shape, size, density, surface modifications, ageing), environmental conditions (ionic strength, cation type, pH, co-existing pollutants, rainfall, flow regime), biology (vegetation, microbes, fish), etc. They can occur cyclically or can end spontaneously. Finally, an outlook for future research is given.

A state-of-the-art review of environmental behavior and potential risks of biodegradable microplastics in soil ecosystems: Comparison with conventional microplastics

As the use of biodegradable plastics becomes increasingly widespread, their environmental behaviors and impacts warrant attention. Unlike conventional plastics, their degradability predisposes them to fragment into microplastics (MPs) more readily. These MPs subsequently enter the terrestrial environment. The abundant functional groups of biodegradable MPs significantly affect their transport and interactions with other contaminants (e.g., organic contaminants and heavy metals). The intermediates and additives released from depolymerization of biodegradable MPs, as well as coexisting contaminants, induce alterations in soil ecosystems. These processes indicate that the impacts of biodegradable MPs on soil ecosystems might significantly diverge from conventional MPs. However, an exhaustive and timely comparison of the environmental behaviors and effects of biodegradable and conventional MPs within soil ecosystems remains scarce. To address this gap, the Web of Science database and bibliometric software were utilized to identify publications with keywords containing biodegradable MPs and soil. Moreover, this review comprehensively summarizes the transport behavior of biodegradable MPs, their role as contaminant carriers, and the potential risks they pose to soil physicochemical properties, nutrient cycling, biota, and CO2 emissions as compared with conventional MPs. Biodegradable MPs, due to their great transport and adsorption capacity, facilitate the mobility of coexisting contaminants, potentially inducing widespread soil and groundwater contamination. Additionally, these MPs and their depolymerization products can disrupt soil ecosystems by altering physicochemical properties, increasing microbial biomass, decreasing microbial diversity, inhibiting the development of plants and animals, and increasing CO2 emissions. Finally, some perspectives are proposed to outline future research directions. Overall, this study emphasizes the pronounced effects of biodegradable MPs on soil ecosystems relative to their conventional counterparts and contributes to the understanding and management of biodegradable plastic contamination within the terrestrial ecosystem.

Global distribution, drivers, and potential hazards of microplastics in groundwater: A review

Since microplastics (MPs) were first detected in groundwater, an increasing number of studies have focused on groundwater pollution by MPs. However, knowledge of the global properties of groundwater MPs: distribution, concentration, composition, and morphology remains limited, while potential factors regulating their transport and distribution in groundwater, especially the hydrogeological background and climate warming conditions, have been omitted from most analyses. Furthermore, previous field investigations did not assess the risks posed by groundwater MPs to the environment and to human health, a necessary preliminary to remediation. In this work, to promote future MP pollution studies and remediation policies, we assimilated and synthesized the current knowledge on this topic. We reviewed current data on global groundwater pollution by MPs, analyzed the driving factors of their transport and distribution, and summarized the ecological and health hazards posed by MPs, before discussing current knowledge limits and suggesting perspectives for future work.

Fate and transport of fragmented and spherical microplastics in saturated gravel and quartz sand

Microplastics in urban runoff undergo rapid fragmentation and accumulate in the soil, potentially endangering shallow groundwater. To improve the understanding of microplastic transport in groundwater, column experiments were performed to compare the transport behavior of fragmented microplastics (FMPs ∼1-µm diameter) and spherical microplastics (SMPs ∼1-, 10-, and 20-µm diameter) in natural gravel (medium and fine) and quartz sand (coarse and medium). Polystyrene microspheres were physically abraded with glass beads to mimic the rapid fragmentation process. The experiments were conducted at a constant flow rate of 1.50 m day-1 by injecting two pore volumes of SMPs and FMPs. Key findings indicate that SMPs showed higher breakthrough, compared to FMPs in natural gravel, possibly due to size exclusion of the larger SMPs. Interestingly, FMPs exhibited higher breakthrough in quartz sand, likely due to tumbling and their tendency to align with flow paths, while both sizes (larger and smaller relative to FMPs) of SMPs exhibited higher removal in quartz sand. Therefore, an effect due to shape and size was observed.

Migration characteristics of microplastics in riparian soils and groundwater

Investigations have revealed the presence of microplastics in both soil and groundwater, but the migration characteristics from soil to groundwater remain incompletely understood. In this study, two sampling sections consisting of soil-groundwater-river water were established near Lianxi Bridge and Xilin Bridge along the Jiuxi River in Xiamen. A total of 22 soil samples, 36 groundwater samples, and 18 river water samples were collected. Microplastics were detected in all samples with an abundance range of 392-836 n/kg in soil (mean, 655 ± 177 n/kg), 0.58-2.48 n/L groundwater (mean, 1.23 ± 0.42 n/L), and 0.38-1.80 n/L in river water (mean, 0.86 ± 0.41 n/L). Flakes predominantly constituted the shape of microplastics found in soil, while fibers dominated those present in water. Black, yellow, and red were the dominant color types. Polyamide (PA) and polyethylene (PE) were the main components of microplastics within soils, whereas polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), and PA prevailed within water. Microplastic particle sizes ranged from 39 to 2498 μm in soils, mainly from 29 to 3394 μm in water. The upstream section displayed higher abundances of microplastic compared to the downstream, revealing the soil particles having an intercepting effect on microplastics. The distribution and migration of microplastics in soil and groundwater are affected by many factors, including natural and anthropogenic factors, such as soil depth, soil properties, pore structure, hydrodynamics, hydraulic connections between groundwater and surface water, the extensive utilization and disposal of plastics, irrational exploitation of groundwater, and morphology and types of microplastics. These research findings contribute to a better understanding of the pathways, migration capacity, and influencing factors associated with microplastic entry into groundwater, thereby providing valuable technical support for the development of strategies aimed at controlling microplastic pollution.

Modeling of Microplastics Migration in Soil and Groundwater: Insights into Dispersion and Particle Property Effects

Migration of microplastics (MPs) in soil-groundwater systems plays a pivotal role in determining its concentration in aquifers and future threats to the terrestrial environment, including human health. However, existing models employing an advection-dispersion equation are insufficient to incorporate the holistic mechanism of MP migration. Therefore, to bridge the gap associated with MP migration in soil-groundwater systems, a dispersion-drag force coupled model incorporating a drag force on MPs along with dispersion is developed and validated through existing laboratory and field-scale experiments. The inclusion of the MP dispersion notably increased the global maximum particle velocity (vmaxp) of MPs, resulting in a higher concentration of MPs in the aquifer, which is also established by sensitivity analysis of MP dispersion. Additionally, increasing irrigation flux and irrigation areas significantly accelerates MP migration downward from soil to deep saturated aquifers. Intriguingly, vmaxp of MPs exhibited a nonlinear relationship with MPs' sizes smaller than 20 μm reaching the highest value (=1.64 × 10-5 m/s) at a particle size of 8 μm, while a decreasing trend was identified for particle sizes ranging from 20 to 100 μm because of the hindered effect by porous media and the weaker effect of the drag force. Moreover, distinct behaviors were observed among different plastic types, with poly(vinyl chloride), characterized by the highest density, displaying the lowest vmaxp and minimal flux entering groundwater. Furthermore, the presence of a heterogeneous structure with lower hydraulic conductivity facilitated MP dispersion and promoted their migration in saturated aquifers. The findings shed light on effective strategies to mitigate the impact of MPs in aquifers, contributing valuable insights to the broader scientific fraternity.

Effect of biochar on microplastics penetration treatment within soil porous medium under the wetting-drying cycles and optimisation of soil-biochar mixing format

Plant-based biochar was demonstrated promising capability in adsorbing microplastic particles (MPs) within soil porous mediums. However, biochar's function in mitigating MPs' vertical penetration during wetting-drying cycles, typical of seasonal precipitation and evaporation, remains uncertain. Furthermore, few studies have investigated the structures of how biochar combines with soil. This study conducted column tests to assess the MPs retention capabilities of soil-biochar porous media under saturated and wetting-drying conditions. The water retention and hydrophilic properties were investigated to elucidate the impact of wetting-drying cycles. Additionally, different biochar-soil structures were compared to optimise the structural design. Without biochar, wetting-drying cycles resulted in 8.74 % more MPs escaping from samples. However, incorporating 15 % biochar led to only around 2 % more MPs in effluent. Biochar significantly enhanced soil's MP absorption capacity and mitigated the negative effects of wetting-drying cycles. Biochar's alveolate morphology provides ample adsorption sites and creates complex flow paths. The hydrophilic groups of biochar and capillarity by micropores facilitated slower water release during drying, preventing crack propagation and flush on MP particles. This effect was more pronounced with higher biochar content and lower porosity. Moreover, layer structure was found to improve MPs removal, benefiting the long-term performance and management of the biochar functional layer.

A novel and simple method for measuring nano/microplastic concentrations in soil using UV-Vis spectroscopy with optimal wavelength selection

A simple method for measuring the concentration of nano/microplastics (N/MPs) in soil, which is difficult owing to the size of the filter mesh and the resolution of the measuring instrument, was investigated. A spectrophotometer was used for the measurements and polystyrene particles were used as the N/MP samples. When measuring N/MP concentrations in soil suspensions, absorbance was measured at two wavelengths, and the best combination of wavelengths for measurement was extracted because soil particles and leached components interfere with N/MP absorbance. A wavelength combination of 220-260 nm and 280-340 nm was found to be suitable for a variety of soils. As N/MPs are adsorbed on the surface of soil particles and precipitate with soil particles in suspension, a calibration curve was created between the concentration of N/MPs in the soil suspension and the N/MP content in the soil. The calibration curve showed a linear relationship, allowing for the estimation of the concentration of N/MPs in the soil. Although other N/MP materials, such as polyethylene and polyethylene terephthalate, must also still be considered and tested, this simple method has the potential to measure N/MPs in various types of soil.

Natural mineral colloids facilitated transport of EE2 in saturated porous media: Effects of humic acid and conjugate form

Steroid estrogens have posed significant ecological risks to aquatic organisms due to their potent endocrine-disrupting effects. The role of natural mineral colloids in facilitating the transport of hydrophobic organic pollutants in the environment has been confirmed, but the control mechanisms of colloids on 17α-Ethinylestradiol (EE2) migration in the subsurface environment are often still not well understood. This study combined the batch sorption equilibrium experiments and dynamic transport simulations to reveal the interface interactions and co-transport characteristics between illite colloids and EE2 at both macroscopic and microscopic levels. The existing form changes of EE2 and the influence of coexisting humic acid (HA) during transport in porous media were also specifically investigated. The batch experiments demonstrated that the primary mechanisms governing EE2 sorption onto illite colloids involved surface sorption and hydrogen bonding. The coexistence of HA could load onto the surface of illite colloids, thereby enhancing the colloidal sorption capacity for EE2. Transport experiments demonstrated that the migratory ability of EE2 in silty clay was limited, but illite colloids could significantly promote its penetration, with the peak penetration content (Ct/C0) increasing from 0.64 to 0.77. In the absence of HA, EE2 primarily transported in a dissolved form, accounting for 62.86% of the total concentrations. When HA concentrations were increased to 10 mg/L and 20 mg/L, the proportion of colloidal conjugate EE2 in the effluents reached 52.13% and 54.49%, respectively. The enhanced transport of EE2 by HA was primarily attributed to the improved migration ability of illite colloids and the increased proportion of illite-EE2 conjugate, resulting in a maximum Ct/C0 value of 0.94. The validity of these results was further confirmed by employing calculations based on the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek and Colloidal Filtration Theory. This study provides new insights of understanding the transport of EE2 in subsurface environment.

Comparative study of polystyrene microplastic transport behavior in three different filter media: Quartz sand, zeolite, and anthracite

Microplastics (MPs) are emerging contaminants that are attracting increasing interest from researchers, and the safety of drinking water is greatly affected by their transportation during filtration. Polystyrene (PS) was selected as a representative MPs, and three filter media (quartz sand, zeolite, and anthracite) commonly found in water plants were used. The retention patterns of PS-MPs by various filter media under various background water quality conditions were methodically investigated with the aid of DLVO theory and colloidal filtration theory. The results show that the different structures and elemental compositions of the three filter media cause them to exhibit different surface roughnesses and surface potentials. A greater surface roughness of the filter media can provide more deposition sites for PS-MPs, and the greater surface roughness of zeolite and anthracite significantly enhances their ability to inhibit the migration of PS-MPs compared with that of quartz sand. However, surface roughness is not the only factor affecting the migration of MPs. The lower absolute value of the surface potential of anthracite causes the DLVO energy between it and PS-MPs to be significantly lower than that between zeolite and PS-MPs, which results in stronger retention of PS-MPs by anthracite, which has a lower surface roughness, than zeolite, which has a higher surface roughness. The transport of PS-MPs in the medium is affected by the combination of the surface roughness of the filter media and the DLVO energy. Under the same operating conditions, the retention efficiencies of the three filter materials for PS-MPs followed the order of quartz sand < zeolite < anthracite. Additionally, the conditions of the solution markedly influenced the transport ability of PS-MPs within the simulated filter column. The transport PS-MPs in the simulated filter column decreased with increasing solution ionic strength and cation valence. Naturally, dissolved organic matter promoted the transfer of PS-MPs in the filter layer, and humic acid had a much stronger facilitating impact than fulvic acid. The study findings might offer helpful insight for improving the ability of filter units ability to retain MPs.

Microplastics pollution in the Asian water tower: Source, environmental distribution and proposed mitigation strategy

Microplastics generated from fragmentation of leftover plastics and industrial waste has reached in the remotely located Asian water tower (AWT) region, the 3rd pole of earth and origin site of several freshwater rivers. The accumulation of microplastics in AWT ecosystem has potential to alter the climatic condition contributing in global warming and disturbing the biodiversity structural dynamics. The present paper provides a comprehensive critical discussion over quantitative assessment of microplastics in different ecosystems (i.e. river, lakes, sediment and snow or glacier) of AWT. The hydrodynamic fate and transport of microplastics and their ecological impact on hydromorphology and biodiversity of AWT has been exemplified. Furthermore, key challenges, perspectives and research directions are identified to mitigate microplastics associated problems. During survey, the coloured polyethylene and polyurethane fibers are the predominant microplastics found in most areas of AWT. These bio-accumulated MPs alter the rhizospheric community structure and deteriorate nitrogen fixation process in plants. Significance in climate change, MPs pollution is enhancing the emissions of greenhouse gases (NH3 by ∼34% and CH4 by ∼9%), contributing in global warming. Considering the seriousness of MPs pollution, this review study can enlighten the pathways to investigate the effect of MPs and to develop monitoring tools and sustainable remediation technologies with feasible regulatory strategies maintaining the natural significance of AWT region.

Microplastics/nanoplastics in porous media: Key factors controlling their transport and retention behaviors

Till now, microplastics/nano-plastics(M/NPs) have received a lot of attention as emerging contaminant. As a typical but complex porous medium, soil is not only a large reservoir of M/NPs but also a gateway for M/NPs to enter groundwater. Therefore, the review of the factors controlling the transport behavior of M/NPs in porous media can provide important guidance for the risk assessment of M/NPs in soil and groundwater. In this study, the key factors controlling the transport behavior of M/NPs in porous media are systematically divided into three groups: (1) nature of M/NPs affecting M/NPs transport in porous media, (2) nature of flow affecting M/NPs transport in porous media, (3) nature of porous media affecting M/NPs transport. In each group, the specific control factors for M/NPs transport in porous media are discussed in detail. In addition to the above factors, some substances (colloids or pollutants) present in natural porous media (such as soil or sediments) will co-transport with M/NPs and affect its mobility. According to the different properties of co-transported substances, the mechanism of promoting or inhibiting the migration behavior of M/NPs in porous media was discussed. Finally, the limitations and future research directions of M/NPs transport in porous media are pointed out. This review can provide a useful reference for predicting the transport of M/NPs in natural porous media.

The long-term release and particle fracture behaviors of nanoplastics retained in porous media: Effects of surfactants, natural organic matters, antibiotics, and bacteria

The transport of nanoplastics (NPs) in porous media has received a lot of attention, but the studies on the long-term release of NPs retained in porous media and the particle fracture during this process are seriously lacking. For filling this deficiency, we examined the individual or synergistic effects of surfactants, natural organic matters (NOMs), antibiotics, and bacteria on the desorption, long-term release, and particle fracture behaviors of polystyrene NPs (PS-NPs) retained in porous media. It was found that the change in hydrophilicity of PS-NPs dominated the long-term release of PS-NPs retained in porous media when surfactants were present. In the single system of surfactants and the dual system of surfactants and NOMs, the release of PS-NPs were improved owing to the increasing hydrophilicity of PS-NPs, although cationic surfactants also reduced the electrostatic repulsion between PS-NPs and porous media. Increasing antibiotic concentration reduced the electrostatic repulsion between PS-NPs and porous media to inhibit the release of PS-NPs. When bacteria were present whether containing antibiotics or not, the effects on roughness of PS-NPs dominated the release of PS-NPs. The effects of surfactants and NOMs on the PS-NP desorption were similar with the long-term release, with changes in hydrophilicity dominating the process. Whereas the effects of antibiotics and bacteria on the PS-NP desorption were different with the long-term release. Surfactants and NOMs in the presence of surfactants inhibited the fracture of PS-NPs by increasing the hydrophilicity of PS-NPs brought about the coating of water molecules on PS-NPs for protection. Antibiotics had no significant effects on the fracture of PS-NPs due to unaltered vertical forces on PS-NPs and no protective effect. Bacteria in the presence or absence of antibiotics inhibited the fracture of PS-NPs by coating PS-NPs retained in porous media to protect PS-NPs from fracture.

Attachment of various-shaped polystyrene microplastics to silica surfaces: Experimental validation of the equivalent Cassini oval extended DLVO model

Microplastics (MPs) vary in shape and surface characteristics in the environment. The attachment of MPs to surfaces can be studied using the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory. However, this theory does not account for the shape MPs. Therefore, we investigated the attachment of spherical, pear-shaped, and peanut-shaped polystyrene MPs to quartz sand in NaCl and CaCl2 solutions using batch tests. The attachment of MPs to quartz sand was quantified using the attachment efficiency (alpha). Subsequently, alpha behaviors were interpreted using energy barriers (EBs) and interaction minima obtained from extended DLVO calculations, which were performed using an equivalent sphere model (ESM) and a newly developed equivalent Cassini model (ECM) to account for the shape of the MPs. The ESM failed to interpret the alpha behavior of the three MP shapes because it predicted high EBs and shallow minima. The alpha values for spherical MPs (0.62-1.00 in NaCl and 0.48-0.96 in CaCl2) were higher than those for pear- and peanut-shaped MPs (0.01-0.63 in NaCl and 0.02-0.46 in CaCl2, and 0.01-0.59 in NaCl and 0.02-0.40 in CaCl2, respectively). Conversely, the ECM could interpret the alpha behavior of pear- and peanut-shaped MPs either by changes in EBs or interaction minima as a function of orientation angles and electrolyte ionic strength. Therefore, the particle shape must be considered to improve the attachment analyses.

Co-impacts of cation type and humic acid on migration of polystyrene microplastics in saturated porous media

The aging process of microplastics (MPs) could significantly change their physical and chemical characteristics and impact their migration behavior in soil. However, the complex effects of different cations and humic acids (HA) on the migration of aged MPs through saturated media are not clear. In this research, the migration and retention of pristine/aged PSMPs (polystyrene microplastics) under combined effects of cations (Na+, Ca2+) (ionic strength = 10 mM) and HA (0, 5, 15 mg/L) were investigated and analyzed in conjunction with the two-site kinetic retention model and DLVO theory. The findings showed that the aging process accelerated PSMPs migration under all tested conditions. Aged PSMPs were less susceptible to Ca2+ than pristine PSMPs. Under Ca2+ conditions, pristine/aged PSMPs showed higher retention than under Na+ conditions in the absence of HA. Furthermore, under Na+ conditions, the migration of aged PSMPs significantly increased at higher concentrations of HA. However, under Ca2+ conditions, the migration of aged PSMPs decreased significantly at higher concentrations of HA. In higher HA conditions, HA, Ca2+, and PSMPs interact to cause larger aggregations, resulting in the sedimentation of aged PSMPs. The DLVO calculations and two-site kinetic retention models' results showed the detention of PSMPs was irreversible under higher HA conditions (15 mg/L) with Ca2+, and aged PSMPs were more susceptible to clogging. These findings may help to understand the potential risk of migration behavior of PSMPs in the soil-groundwater environment.

Decreased transport of nano- and micro-plastics in the presence of low-molecular-weight organic acids in saturated quartz sand

Low-molecular-weight organic acids (LMWOAs) and nano- and micro-plastics (NPs and MPs) are both widely distributed in terrestrial systems. To better understand the influence of LMWOAs on the transport of NPs and MPs, the effects of 0.5 mM citric- (CA), malic- (MA), and tartaric- (TA) acid on the transport of nano- (0.51 μm, PS NPs) and micro- (1.1 μm, PS MPs) polystyrene particles (2 mg L-1) in saturated quartz sand were investigated. All three LMWOAs decreased the transport of PS NPs and MPs, regardless of ionic composition or strength (0.1-10 mM NaCl and 0.1-1 mM CaCl2). Further investigation revealed that the interfacial interactions between PS-quartz sand surfaces and PS-PS were altered by LMWOAs. LMWOAs adsorbed to quartz sand surfaces could serve as new deposition sites, as evidenced by the decreased transport of PS NPs and MPs in quartz sand that was subjected to pre-equilibration with selected MA, the low inhibition of PS transport with low concentrations of LMWOAs (0.1 mM), and also the adsorption of LMWOAs onto quartz sand surfaces by batch experiments. Meanwhile, the adsorption of LMWOAs on PS, hydrodynamic measurement and visual TEM observation together clarified the slight aggregation of PS NPs and MPs in suspensions, inducing the subsequent decrease in transport. Among them, the adsorption of LMWOAs onto quartz sand surfaces was found to be the main factor dominating the decreased transport of both PS NPs and MPs in saturated quartz sand.

Experimental and simulated microplastics transport in saturated natural sediments: Impact of grain size and particle size

Microplastics (MPs) present in terrestrial environments show potential leaching risk to deeper soil layers and aquifer systems, which threaten soil health and drinking water supply. However, little is known about the environmental fate of MPs in natural sediments. To examine the MPs transport mechanisms in natural sediments, column experiments were conducted using different natural sediments and MPs (10-150 µm) with conservative tracer. Particle breakthrough curves (BTCs) and retention profiles (RPs) were numerically interpreted in HYDRUS-1D using three different models to identify the most plausible deposition mechanism of MPs. Results show that the retention efficiency for a given particle size increased with decreasing grain size, and RPs exacerbated their hyper-exponential shape in finer sediments. Furthermore, the amounts of MPs present in the effluent increased to over 85 % as MPs size decreased to 10-20 µm in both gravel and coarse sand columns, while all larger MPs (125-150 µm) were retained in the coarse sand column. The modeling results suggested that the blocking mechanism becomes more important with increasing particle sizes. In particular, the attachment-detachment without blocking was the most suited parameterization to interpret the movement of small MPs, while a depth-dependent blocking approach was necessary to adequately describe the fate of larger particles.

Filtration of polystyrene nanoplastics with different functional groups by natural mineral materials: Performance and mechanisms

Optimizing nanoplastics (NPs) removal performance of rapid sand filter (RSF) in water treatment plants is significant for NP pollution prevention and remediation. This study investigated the application prospect of natural granular manganese sand, zeolite and limestone in RSF for NP removal through column experiments. Pristine, amino-modified, and carboxyl-modified polystyrene NPs (100 nm) were selected as experimental subjects. Quartz sand filter showed negligible NP removal, zeolite and manganese sand showed no obvious optimization on NP filtration. Limestone amended RSF significantly enhanced the removal of three NPs, the removal efficiency increased with decreasing size and increasing limestone grains dosage. The excellent performance of limestone was attributed to its special physicochemical properties in terms of synthetical action of electrostatic interaction, cationic bridging and especially the surface roughness morphology, and the mechanisms overcame the influence of functional groups of NPs. The results indicate the prospective applications of granular limestone in RSF for NP filtration.

Antibiotics soil-solution chemistry: A review of environmental behavior and uptake and transformation by plants

The increased use of antibiotics by humans for various purposes has left the environment polluted. Antibiotic pollution remediation is challenging because antibiotics exist in trace amounts and only highly sensitive detection techniques could be used to quantify them. Nevertheless, their trace quantity is not a hindrance to their transfer along the food chain, causing sensitization and the development of antibiotic resistance. Despite an increase in the literature on antibiotic pollution and the development and transfer of antibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs), little attention has been given to the behavior of antibiotics at the soil-solution interface and how this affects antibiotic adsorption-desorption interactions and subsequent uptake and transformation by plants. Thus, this review critically examines the interactions and possible degradation mechanisms of antibiotics in soil and the link between antibiotic soil-solution chemistry and uptake by plants. Also, different factors influencing antibiotic mobility in soil and the transfer of ARGs from one organism to another were considered. The mechanistic and critical analyses revealed that: (a) the charge characteristics of antibiotics at the soil-root interface determine whether they are adsorbed to soil or taken up by plants; (b) antibiotics that avoid soil colloids and reach soil pore water can be absorbed by plant roots, but their translocation to the stem and leaves depends on the ionic state of the molecule; (c) few studies have explored how plants adapt to antibiotic pollution and the transformation of antibiotics in plants; and (d) the persistence of antibiotics in cropland soils can be influenced by the content of soil organic matter, coexisting ions, and fertilization practices. Future research should focus on the soil/solution-antibiotic-plant interactions to reveal detailed mechanisms of antibiotic transformation by plants and whether plant-transformed antibiotics could be of environmental risk.

Conversion of PET Bottle Waste into a Terephthalic Acid-Based Metal-Organic Framework for Removing Plastic Nanoparticles from Water

Micro- and nanoparticles of plastic waste are considered emerging pollutants with significant environmental and health impacts at high concentrations or prolonged exposure time. Here we report the synthesis and characterization of a known metal-organic framework (MOF) using terephthalic acid (TPA) recovered from the hydrolysis of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle waste. This approach adds value to the existing large amounts of bottle waste in the environment. Fully characterized zinc-TPA MOF (MOF-5) was used for the extraction and removal of engineered polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) nanoparticles from water with a high efficiency of 97% and 95%, respectively. Kinetic and isotherm models for the adsorption of polymer nanoparticles (PNPs) on the MOF surface were investigated to understand the mechanism. The Qmax for PVC and PMMA NPs were recorded as 56.65 mg/g and 33.32 mg/g, respectively. MOF-5 was characterized before and after adsorption of PNPs on the surface of MOF-5 using a range of techniques. After adsorption, the MOF-5 was successfully regenerated and reused for the adsorption and removal of PNPs, showing consistent results for five adsorption cycles with a removal rate of 83-85%. MOF-5 was characterized before and after adsorption of PNPs on the surface using a range of techniques. The MOF-5 with PNPs on the surface was successfully regenerated and reused for the adsorption and removal of polymer nanoparticles, showing consistent results for five extraction cycles. As a proof of concept, MOF-5 was also used to remove plastic particles from commercially available body scrub gel solutions. Such methods and materials are needed to mitigate the health hazards caused by emerging micro- and nanoplastic pollutants in the environment.

Effect of NaNO3, NH4Cl and urea on the fate and transformation of various typical microplastics in porous media

Understanding the transport behaviors of microplastics (MPs) in porous media is crucial in controlling MPs pollution. Given nitrogen is one of the most important nutrients in soil and groundwater systems, unclearness of the transport behaviors of microplastics (MPs) under various nitrogen conditions may inhibit the acknowledgment of MPs fate. For this reason, this study innovatively investigates the transport characteristics of four kinds of typical MPs (PVC MPs, PMMA MPs, PET MPs, and PP MPs) under various NaNO3, NH4Cl and urea conditions via column experiments numerical models. The FTIR and XPS analysis were conducted to excavate the transform of MPs. The MPs mobility was generally reduced with the increasing nitrogen concentrations. The polarity and density properties of different MPs played combined roles in transport under similar conditions. Compared to NO3-, NH4+ may neutralize the negative charge of MPs and then restrain their transport in porous media. Urea may coat the surface of MPs and promote the mobility, however, increasing concentrations of urea may result in the interattraction between MPs and porous media via hydrogen-bond and π-π interaction. PET MPs and PP MPs showed barely transform during transport under the tested conditions. Particularly, the chlorines on PVC MPs could react with the amide on urea and produce amidogen, which may improve PVC MPs transport. The N-H and C-N bond also generated on PMMA MPs in presence of urea also may enhance the mobility.

Transport of polystyrene nanoplastics with different functional groups in goethite-coated saturated porous media: Effects of low molecular weight organic acids and physicochemical properties

The influence of low molecular weight organic acids (LMWOAs) and goethite on the migration of nanoplastics in the soil environment remains poorly understood. To elucidate the mechanism of influence, the study investigated the impact of LMWOAs on the migration ability of functionalized polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs-NH2/COOH) in quartz sand (QS) and goethite (α-FeOOH)-coated quartz sand (FOS). We investigated the effect of changes in iron valence induced by LMWOAs on the migration of PSNPs. The results revealed that the migration ability of polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs) declined as the ionic strength (IS) increased and the pH decreased, primarily due to the compression of the double layer and protonation reactions. The migration of PSNPs is facilitated by LMWOAs through distinct mechanisms in the two media. Specifically, LMWOAs were adsorbed on the FOS and QS surfaces through complexation and hydrogen bonding, respectively. At pH 4.0, LMWOAs exhibit redox activity, resulting in the generation of additional Fe(III). This redox process enhances the electrostatic attraction between the media and PSNPs, thereby reducing the competition at specific points and spatial resistance associated with LMWOAs. In contrast to FOS, LMWOAs at pH 4.0 reduced the migration ability of PSNPs in QS, following the trend of MA > TA > CA. This difference was attributed to the pKa of LMWOAs and the weak hydrogen bonding on the QS surface. The relevant mathematical models effectively validate the migration results. The above conclusions suggest that LMWOAs can alter the valence state of iron on the surface of goethite, thereby influencing the migration of plastic particles in environmental media.

Nano- and micro-plastic transport in soil and groundwater environments: Sources, behaviors, theories, and models

With the increasing use of plastics, nano- and micro-plastic (NMP) pollution has become a hot topic in the scientific community. Ubiquitous NMPs, as emerging contaminants, are becoming a global issue owing to their persistence and potential toxicity. Compared with studies of marine and freshwater environments, investigations into the sources, transport properties, and fate of NMPs in soil and groundwater environments remain at a primary stage. Hence, the promotion of such research is critically important. Here, we integrate existing information and recent advancements to compile a comprehensive evaluation of the sources and transport properties of NMPs in soil and groundwater environments. We first provide a systematic description of the various sources and transport behaviors of NMPs. We then discuss the theories (e.g., clean-bed filtration and Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek theories) and models (e.g., single-site and dual-site kinetic retention and transport models) of NMP transport through saturated porous media. Finally, we outline the potential limitations of current research and suggest directions for future research. Overall, this review intends to assimilate and outline current knowledge and provide a useful reference frame to determine the sources and transport properties of NMPs in soil and groundwater environments.

Microplastic pollution in the groundwater under a bedrock island in the South China sea

Groundwater is the only freshwater resource on islands. Research on microplastic pollution in groundwater on islands is scarce. This study is the first to explore microplastic pollution in the groundwater under a bedrock island (Dawanshan Island) located in the South China Sea. The influence of hydrogeological factors on the distribution, source, and ageing features of microplastics in the groundwater were investigated. Despite the small scale of industrial and agricultural activities on the island, the amount of microplastics in the groundwater ranged from 34 to 64 particles/L, with over 80% of the microplastics being polyester fibres with diameters smaller than 2 mm, which is comparable to those in coastal cities. These microplastics were originated from inland plastic usage, rather than from the surrounding sea, which was confirmed by the lack of seawater intrusion on the island. Owing to the low permeability of granite, microplastics were mainly distributed in the water of the loose layer of porous sediment, and their quantity decreased with depth. In addition, the abundance of microplastics in pore groundwater increased with an increase in the velocity of groundwater flow. The severity of microplastic pollution in the groundwater increased with an increase and decrease in the content of total dissolved solids and dissolved oxygen, respectively. The microplastics originated from plastic waste disposed of on the island, rather than from seawater intrusion. Also, through groundwater infiltration into exposed soil at recharge areas, artificial wells at residential areas, and water exchange with surface water at valley areas. Microplastics buried in the groundwater aged faster along the migration path of the groundwater. These microplastics threaten the safety of people and plants on the island through exposure resulting from the extraction of groundwater for irrigation, while they endanger marine life through submarine groundwater discharge.

Transport and retention of n-hexadecane in cadmium-/naphthalene-contaminated calcareous soil sampled in a karst area

Studying the transport of petroleum hydrocarbons in cadmium-/naphthalene-contaminated calcareous soils is crucial to comprehensive assessment of environmental risks and developing appropriate strategies to remediate petroleum hydrocarbons pollution in karst areas. In this study, n-hexadecane was selected as a model petroleum hydrocarbon. Batch experiments were conducted to explore the adsorption behavior of n-hexadecane on cadmium-/naphthalene-contaminated calcareous soils at various pH, and column experiments were performed to investigate the transport and retention of n-hexadecane under various flow velocity. The results showed that Freundlich model better described the adsorption behavior of n-hexadecane in all cases (R2 > 0.9). Under the condition of pH = 5, it was advantageous for soil samples to adsorb more n-hexadecane, and the maximum adsorption content followed the order of: cadmium/naphthalene-contaminated > uncontaminated soils. The transport of n-hexadecane in cadmium/naphthalene-contaminated soils at various flow velocity was well described by two kinetic sites model of Hydrus-1D with R2 > 0.9. Due to the increased electrostatic repulsion between n-hexadecane and soil particles, n-hexadecane was more easily able to breakthrough cadmium/naphthalene-contaminated soils. Compared to low flow velocity (1 mL/min), a higher concentration of n-hexadecane was determined at high flow velocity, with 67, 63, and 45% n-hexadecane in effluent from cadmium-contaminated soils, naphthalene-contaminated soils, and uncontaminated soils, respectively. These findings have important implications for the government of groundwater in calcareous soils from karst areas.

How effective is the retention of microplastics in horizontal flow sand filters treating stormwater?

Microplastics accumulate in stormwater and can ultimately enter freshwater recipients, and pose a serious risk to aquatic life. This study investigated the effectiveness of lab-scale horizontal flow sand filters of differing lengths (25, 50 and 100 cm) in retaining four types of thermoplastic microplastics commonly occurring in stormwater runoff (polyamide, polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyethylene terephthalate). Despite the differences in particle shape, size and density, the study revealed that more than 98% of the spiked microplastics were retained in all filters, with a slightly increased removal with increased filter length. At a flow rate of 1 mL/min and after one week of operation, 62-84% of the added microplastics agglomerated in the first 2 cm of the filters. The agglomerated microplastics included 96% of high-density fibers. Larger-sized particles were retained in the sand media, while microplastics smaller than 50 μm were more often detected in the effluent. Microplastics were quantified and identified using imaging based micro Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. The efficient retention of microplastics in low-flow horizontal sand filters, demonstrated by the results, highlights their potential importance for stormwater management. This retention is facilitated by various factors, including microplastic agglomeration, particle sedimentation of heavy fibers and favorable particle-to-media size ratios.

Co-transport behavior and Trojan-horse effect of colloidal microplastics with different functional groups and heavy metals in porous media

The emerging global problems of microplastics pollution and their co-occurrence with other pollutants have presented major new challenges for environmental health and protection. This study used column experiments to investigate the co-transport behavior and Trojan-horse effect of colloidal microplastics (non-functional polystyrene microspheres (MS), carboxyl-modified polystyrene microspheres (CMS) and sulfonate-modified polystyrene microspheres (SMS)) and lead (Pb) in porous media. Results showed that a Trojan-horse effect occurred during the co-transport of colloidal microplastics and Pb. In the process of co-transport, colloidal microplastics and Pb mutually inhibited each other's transport at an ionic strength of 1 mM, which may be due to Pb absorption by microplastics, resulting in the destabilization of agglomerates and a reduction in the electronegativity of microplastics. At an ionic strength of 100 mM, colloidal microplastics and Pb promoted each other's transport, potentially due to their competition for adsorption in porous media. The functional groups present on colloidal microplastics inhibited the transport of Pb at low ionic strengths, while at high ionic strengths Pb transport was promoted. Furthermore, deposition experiments verified that quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D) monitoring could effectively account for and predict the transport and deposition behavior of microplastics in the presence or absence of Pb.

Quantification of two-site kinetic transport parameters of polystyrene nanoplastics in porous media

In this study, a combination of column experiments, interface chemistry theory and transport model with two-site kinetics was used to systematically investigate the effect of pH on the transport of polystyrene nanoparticles (PSNPs) in porous media. The porous media containing quartz sand (QS) and three kinds of clay minerals (CMs)-kaolinite (KL), illite (IL) and montmorillonite (MT), was used in column experiments to simulate the porous media in the soil-groundwater systems. Experimental results showed that the inhibitory effect of CMs on the transport of PSNPs is weakened as pH increases. The two-dimensional (2D) surface of the DLVO interaction energy (2D-pH-DLVO) was built to calculate the interactions between PSNPs and CMs under different conditions of pH. Results suggested the inflection point of PSNP-QS, PSNP-KL, PSNP-IL and PSNP-MT are 2.42, 3.30, 2.84 and 3.69, respectively. Most importantly, there was a significant correlation between the two-site kinetic parameters related to PSNPs transport and the DLVO energy barrier (DB). The contributions of the interactions of PSNPs-PSNPs and PSNPs-minerals were determined for PSNPs transport in porous media. The critical values of pH related to the migration ability of PSNPs in porous media could be determined by a combination of column experiments, 2D-pH-DLVO and PSNPs transport model. The critical values of pH were 2.95-3.01, 3.22-3.51, 2.98-3.02, 3.31-3.33 for the migration ability of PSNPs in QS, QS + KL, QS + IL and QS + MT porous media, respectively. The stronger migration ability of PSNPs under high pH conditions is attributed to the enhanced deprotonation of the media surface and increased negative surface charge, which increases the electrostatic repulsion between PSNPs and porous media (QS, CMs). Moreover, the agglomeration of PSNPs usually is weaker and the average particle size of agglomerates is smaller under the condition of high pH, thus leading to the stronger migration ability of PSNPs under high pH conditions.

Will the aging products of soil-reinforcement fibers stress plant growth and soil health?

Soil-reinforcement fibers are widely used for soil remediation and erosion prevention in ecologically vulnerable regions with sparse vegetation coverage and are incorporated into the soil for prolonged periods. However, the potential risks posed by aging fiber materials to soil health and plant growth have been largely neglected. This study explored the effects of aging solutions for polyethylene terephthalate (PET), coir, and carbon fibers on the physiological characteristics and vegetation coverage of ryegrass, as well as soil properties. Results indicated that PET and carbon fibers decreased ryegrass density and inhibited chlorophyll synthesis. All three fiber aging solutions aggravated leaf peroxidation, as represented by a sharp increase in the malondialdehyde (MDA) content. Leaf peroxidase activities improved, whereas the ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities under the carbon fiber treatment were significantly lower than those under the PET and coir fiber treatments. The three fiber aging solutions significantly reduced soil H2O2 activity, improved soil leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) activity. Besides, coir fiber aging solution improved soil hemicellulose (CB) activity significantly. Aging solutions of PET and coir fibers increased the number of soil bacterial colonies, while the carbon fiber aging solution increased the number of soil actinomyces colonies. Overall, our findings demonstrate that fiber aging solutions decrease plant density, cause leaf damage, and alter soil characteristics in the short term. However, these solutions have minimal impact on soil health. The coir fiber aging solution has minimal effects on plant growth and soil properties, and is still a viable alternative to traditional non-degradable soil-reinforcing fibers.

Occurrence and spatial distribution of microplastics in the intertidal sediments along the Oman Sea

Microplastics (MPs) have been found in marine systems more frequently. We aim to analyze the MPs abundances, distribution, and characteristics in the intertidal sediments along the Oman Sea. Samples were collected from 7 locations with three replicates. Density separation was used to extract MPs, which were then visually counted and categorized based on their size, shape, and color. MPs abundance ranged between 219.6 ± 38.3 particles.kg-1dw and 617.3 ± 99.9 particles.kg-1dw with a mean abundance of 315.4 ± 24.4 particles.kg-1 dw. Fragments and fibers were the dominant shapes. Red and blue colors were observed in 61.6 % of the collected MPs. In addition, 100-500 μm size range of MPs were more abundant. Micro-Raman spectroscopy analysis revealed polypropylene was the major polymer constituent. The present study revealed the widespread occurrence of MPs as anthropogenic pollutants throughout the Oman Sea and highlighted the urgent need for regulations and policies to reduce the entry of this material into marine environments.

Abundance and characteristics of microplastics in a freshwater river in northwestern Himalayas, India - Scenario of riverbank solid waste disposal sites

Microplastics (MPs) are one of the challenging and established contaminants that have adverse implications on human health. The focus of this study was to quantify and analyze the contribution of unscientific municipal solid waste (MSW) disposal sites to the MPs in the Jhelum River and the risk associated with it. Quantitative analysis of our study showed a mean MP concentration of 1474 ± 1026 particles/m3 for the entire stretch of the river. All the sites confirmed the presence of MPs with the concentration ranging from 600 particles/m3 to 2500 particles/m3. The size distribution of MPs suggested that 34 % of the microplastics ranged between 300 μm to 75 μm while 66 % of the particles varied between 300 μm to 5 mm. The concentrations of MPs downstream of unscientific disposal sites were found to increase threefold to that of upstream. The Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) confirmed the presence of polyethylene (PE) in the majority followed by polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polypropylene (PP). The flakes were dominant throughout the river followed by filaments, fragments, and spherules. Count based Pollution level indexing (PLI) estimated 3-14 times MP contamination in the river with respect to contamination in glacial runoffs. The risk assessment study of the MPs indicated an increase of around 10.2 % in ingestion rates of MPs due to the unscientific disposal of MSW on the banks of the freshwater body. The values of polymer hazard index (PHI) and potential ecological risk index (PERI) were in the extreme case of pollution (PHI>1000 and PERI>1200). This study manifests the adversities of unscientific municipal solid waste disposal for timely waste management.

Characterizing the interaction between micro(nano)plastics and simulated body fluids and their impact on human lung epithelial cells

Micro(nano)plastics are considered an emerging threat to human health because they can interact with biological systems. In fact, these materials have already been found in the human body, such as in the lungs. However, limited data are available on the behavior of these materials under biological conditions and their impact on human cells, specifically on alveolar epithelial cells. In this study, micro(nano)plastics were exposed to various simulated biological fluids (artificial lysosomal fluids and Gamble's solution) for 2-80 h. Pristine and treated plastic particles were characterized based on their surface chemistry, zeta potentials, and elemental composition. Various toxicological endpoints (mitochondrial membrane potential, lactate dehydrogenase, protein, and antioxidant levels) were examined using A549 lung carcinoma cells. The surface characteristics of the treated micro(nano)plastics and the toxicological endpoints of A549 cells were found to be influenced by the simulated biological media, specifically with high concentrations of the treated micro(nano)plastics and increasing exposure under biological conditions. Moreover, the toxicological endpoints were strongly linked to the chemistry of plastics and included multiple processes in response to the plastics; different biological pathways were obtained in artificial lysosomal fluid and Gamble's solution.

Co-transport of polystyrene microplastics and kaolinite colloids in goethite-coated quartz sand: Joint effects of heteropolymerization and surface charge modification

This study investigated the transport behavior of polystyrene microplastics (MPs) in saturated quartz sand and goethite-coated sand in the presence of coexisting kaolinite colloids. Column experiments were conducted under a wide range of solution chemistry conditions, including pH levels of 6.0, 7.0, and 9.0, as well as background Na⁺ concentrations of 5 mM and 25 mM. We found that: (1) The individual transport of MPs in porous media diminished both with increasing background ion strength and decreasing pH, and its transport ability was significantly dominated by the interactions between MPs and porous media rather than the interplay between MPs, which has been further corroborated by the aggregation stability experiments of MPs particles. (2) MPs had a much lower ability to move through goethite-coated sand columns than quartz sand columns. This is because goethite coating reduces the repulsion energy barriers between porous media and MPs. The increased specific surface area and surface complexity of sand columns after goethite coating should also account for this difference. (3) MPs transport would be subjected to the differentiated impact of co-transported kaolinite colloids in the two types of porous media. The promotion effect of kaolinite colloid on MPs' transport capacity is not significantly affected by background ionic strength changes when quartz sand is served as the porous medium; however, the promotion effect is highly correlated with the background ionic strength when goethite-coated sand is served as the porous medium. In comparison with low background ionic strength conditions, kaolinite colloids under high background ionic strength conditions significantly facilitated MPs transport. This is mainly because under high background ionic conditions, kaolinite colloids are more likely to be deposited on the surface of goethite-covered sand, competing with MPs for the limited deposition sites. The extended Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (XDLVO) theory is applicable to describe the transport behavior of MPs.

Understanding the underestimated: Occurrence, distribution, and interactions of microplastics in the sediment and soil of China, India, and Japan

Microplastics (MPs) are non-biodegradable substances that can sustain our environment for up to a century. What is more worrying is the incapability of modern technologies to annihilate MPs from om environment. One ramification of MPs is their impact on every kind of life form on this planet, which has been discussed ahead; that is why these substances are surfacing in everyday discussions of scholars and researchers. This paper discusses the overview of the global occurrence, abundance, analysis, and remediation techniques of MPs in the environment. This paper primarily reviews the event and abundance of MPs in coastal sediments and agricultural soil of three major Asian countries, India, China, and Japan. A significant concentration of MPs has been recorded from these countries, which affirms its strong presence and subsequent environmental impacts. Concentrations such as 73,100 MPs/kg in Indian coastal sediments and 42,960 particles/kg in the agricultural soil of China is a solid testimony to prove their massive outbreak in our environment and require urgent attention towards this issue. Conclusions show that human activities, rivers, and plastic mulching on agricultural fields have majorly acted as carriers of MPs towards coastal and terrestrial soil and sediments. Later, based on recorded concentrations and gaps, future research studies are recommended in the concerned domain; a dearth of studies on MPs influencing Indian agricultural soil make a whole sector and its consumer vulnerable to the adverse effects of this emerging contaminant.

Recent developments in microplastic contaminated water treatment: Progress and prospects of carbon-based two-dimensional materials for membranes separation

Micro (nano)plastics pollution is a noxious menace not only for mankind but also for marine life, as removing microplastics (MPs) is challenging due to their physiochemical properties, composition, and response toward salinity and pH. This review provides a detailed assessment of the MPs pollution in different water types, environmental implications, and corresponding treatment strategies. With the advancement in nanotechnology, mitigation strategies for aqueous pollution are seen, especially due to the fabrication of nanosheets/membranes mostly utilized as a filtration process. Two-dimensional (2D) materials are increasingly used for membranes due to their diverse structure, affinity, cost-effectiveness, and, most importantly, removal efficiency. The popular 2D materials used for membrane-based organic and inorganic pollutants from water mainly include graphene and MXenes however their effectiveness for MPs removal is still in its infancy. Albeit, the available literature asserts a 70- 99% success rate in micro/nano plastics removal achieved through membranes fabricated via graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and MXene membranes. This review examined existing membrane separation strategies for MPs removal, focusing on the structural properties of 2D materials, composite, and how they adsorb pollutants and underlying physicochemical mechanisms. Since MPs and other contaminants commonly coexist in the natural environment, a brief examination of the response of 2D membranes to MPs removal was also conducted. In addition, the influencing factors regulate MPs removal performance of membranes by impacting their two main operating routes (filtration and adsorption). Finally, significant limitations, research gaps, and future prospects of 2D material-based membranes for effectively removing MPs are also proposed. The conclusion is that the success of 2D material is strongly linked to the types, size of MPs, and characteristics of aqueous media. Future perspectives talk about the problems that need to be solved to get 2D material-based membranes out of the lab and onto the market.

A multi-scale framework for modeling transport of microplastics during sand filtration: Bridging from pore to continuum

The fate and transport of microplastics (MPs) during deep bed filtration were investigated using combined laboratory experiments and numerical modeling. A series of column experiments were conducted within the designated ranges of six operating parameters (i.e., size of the MP and collector, seepage velocity, porosity, temperature, and ionic strength). A variance-based sensitivity analysis, the Fourier amplitude sensitivity test, was conducted to determine the priority in affecting both the attachment coefficient at the pore scale, and the subsequent stabilized height of the breakthrough curve at the continuum scale, which follows non-monotonic trends with singularity in the size of MP (i.e., 1 µm). Finally, Damkohler numbers were introduced to analyze the dominant mechanisms (e.g., attachment, detachment, or straining) in the coupled hydro-chemical process. The robustness of conceptual frameworks bridges the gap between pore-scale interactions and the explicit MPs removal in the continuum scale, which could support decision-making in determining the priority of parameters to retain MPs during deep bed filtration.

Granular limestone amended sand filters for enhanced removal of nanoplastics from water: Performance and mechanisms

Effluent from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) has been regarded as one of the major contributors of nanoplastics (NPs) in the environment. Improving the performance of rapid sand filter (RSF) systems in WWTPs is thus in urgent need. In this study, granular limestone, a low-cost and abundant natural material, was integrated into RSF systems to enhance NP removal from water. Laboratory filtration columns packed with pure sand and limestone-amended sand were applied to remove polystyrene nanospheres (100 nm) from deionized water (DIW) and artificial wastewater (AWW) under different grain size and flow velocity conditions. Pure sand filter showed neglectable NP removal from DIW but much higher NP removal from AWW, especially when fine sand was employed. Limestone amended RSF had a significant improvement in the removal of NPs for all the tested conditions and the removal efficiency of NPs became greater with increasing amount of limestone in columns. The sensitivity of NP immobilization to flow velocity changed significantly with different combinations of filter and background solutions. Coupled effects of physical straining, electrostatic interaction, cation screening and bridging, and surface roughness controlled the retention behaviors of NPs in the columns. The higher removal efficiency of NPs by limestone can be mainly attributed to its chemical composition as well as its surface heterogeneity and roughness. Results of this study demonstrate that limestone can offer extensive application potential for enhancing the performance of RSF systems in WWTPs to remove NPs from wastewater.

Transport of plastic particles in natural porous media under freeze-thaw treatment: Effects of porous media property

Freeze-thaw (FT) cycles would alter physical and chemical properties of soil and thus influence the transport of plastic particles (one type of emerging contaminant with great concerns). This study was designed to investigate the effects of FT treatment on the mobility of plastic particles (nanoplastics as representative) in columns packed with natural soils (i.e. loamy sand and sandy soil, quartz sand employed as comparison). We found that FT treatment of different types of porous media would induce different transport behaviors of plastic particles. Specifically, FT treatment of quartz sand did not affect plastic particles mobility. While FT treatment of loamy sand and sandy soil increased plastic particles transport. The increased pore sizes and disintegration of small soil particles from soils (the detached soil would serve as mobile vehicle for the transport of plastic particle) led to the facilitated mobility of plastic particles in two types of soils after FT treatment. The presence of preferential flow paths induced by FT treatment also drove to the enhanced mobility of plastic particles in sandy soil with FT treatment. This study clearly showed that the mobility of model plastic particles in two types of natural soils was greatly enhanced by FT treatment.

Transport of degradable/nondegradable and aged microplastics in porous media: Effects of physicochemical factors

The degradable properties of degradable plastics allow them to form microplastics (MPs) faster. Therefore, degradable MPs may easily be transported in the underground environment. Research on degradable MPs transport in porous media is necessary and urgent. In this study, polylactic acid (PLA) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) were selected to compare the transport differences between degradable and nondegradable MPs under different factors (flow rates, ionic strengths (ISs), pH, and coexisting cations) through column experiments, and UV irradiation was used to further simulate the effect of aging on different types of MPs. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) were used to characterize functional groups and to determine the surface elements of MPs, respectively. The results showed that MPs were more mobile at higher flow rate, lower IS, higher pH, and monovalent cations. The order of transport capacity of MPs was PVC < aged PVC < PLA < aged PLA. This result was mainly attributed to the more negative Zeta potential and higher dispersion stability of aged PLA and PLA, which were caused by abundant O-functional groups. Compared with PVC, the O/C ratio of PLA increased significantly after aging, indicating that PLA was more prone to aging. The advection-dispersion-equation (ADE) fitted the transport data of MPs well. The interaction energy of MPs and quartz sand was accurately predicted by the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory. This work contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the transport of degradable MPs in the environment.

Effects of solution chemistry and humic acid on transport and deposition of aged microplastics in unsaturated porous media

Microplastics (MPs) are susceptible to aging in the environment, and aged MPs are highly migratory in soil due to their smaller particle size and more negative surface charge, but the effects of soil environmental factors on the fate and transport of aged MPs are still unclear. In this study, the transport behavior of pristine/aged MPs in unsaturated sandy porous media was examined under different ionic strength (IS), cationic type (Na⁺, Ca²⁺) and humic acid (HA) conditions. The results indicated that the surface charge, surface oxygen-containing functional groups and surface morphology of MPs changed significantly after aging, and that the mobility of aged MPs was significantly enhanced than the pristine MPs under all test conditions. The retention amounts of pristine/aged MPs in unsaturated porous media increased with IS, and IS had a less inhibitory effect on the transport of aged MPs than pristine MPs. The mobility of pristine/aged MPs in Ca²⁺ solutions was significantly weaker than that in Na⁺ solutions due to enhanced straining and electrostatic adsorption. HA promoted the mobility of pristine/aged MPs in unsaturated porous media under all IS Na⁺ (1, 10, and 25 mM) solutions and lower IS (1 mM) Ca²⁺ solutions, and the ability of HA to promote the transport of aged MPs was significantly stronger than that of pristine MPs due to the higher adsorption of HA on the surface of aged MPs. However, at higher IS (10 mM) Ca²⁺ solution conditions, the bridging effect of Ca²⁺ led to the formation of HA-MPs complexes, which altered the hydrophobicity of the pristine/aged MPs surface and the pristine/aged MPs were mainly retained on the air-water interface (AWI). CFT theory and two-site kinetic retention models indicated that the retention of pristine/aged MPs in unsaturated media was dominated by monolayer adsorption, straining and clogging effects. The current research findings may provide insights into the fate and transport of aged MPs in soil and their potential risk of groundwater contamination.

Sediment organic carbon dominates the heteroaggregation of suspended sediment and nanoplastics in natural and surfactant-polluted aquatic environments

The aggregation of nanoplastics (NPs) and suspended sediment (SPS) is the key to the transport and environmental fate of NPs. However, the influence of SPS composition and environmental conditions on this process and its mechanisms are still unclear. In this study, the heteroaggregation of NPs and SPS of different compositions is systematically explored under natural and surfactant-polluted aquatic environments (NaCl, humic acid, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)). The results showed that sediment organic carbon (SOC) dominates the aggregation and that different kinds of SOC (comprised of both amorphous organic carbon (AOC) and black carbon (BC)) contribute vary under distinct conditions. In natural freshwater, AOC represents a larger contribution to aggregation because of its weaker electrostatic repulsion compared to that of BC. However, BC represents a larger contribution in natural seawater resulting from decreased electrostatic repulsion and more hydrogen bonding. Conversely, in surfactant-polluted aquatic environments, both AOC and BC have a high contribution owing to the bridge effect plus hydrogen bonding. Notably, minerals' contribution in aggregates remains low under all conditions. Furthermore, CTAB typically inhibits aggregation except under special conditions. The findings of this study contribute notably to a better understanding of the migration of nanoplastics in complex aquatic environments.

Impact of simulating real microplastics on toluene removal from contaminated soil using thermally enhanced air injection

This paper investigated the impacts of various real microplastics (MPs), i.e., polyethylene (PE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) with different sizes (1000-2000 and 100-200 μm) and different dosages (0.5 and 5% on a dry weight basis), on the toluene removal during the thermally enhanced air injection treatment. First, microscopic tests were carried out to determine the MPs' microstructure and behavior. The PE was mainly a small block, and PET appeared filamentous and sheeted with a larger slenderness ratio. Second, the interactions between MPs and toluene-contaminated soils were revealed by batch adsorption equilibrium experiments and low-field magnetic resonance. The morphological differences and dosage of the MPs impacted soils' total porosity (variation range: 39.2-42.7%) and proportion of the main pores (2-200 μm). Third, the toluene removal during the air injection consisted of compaction, rapid growth, rapid reduction, and tailing stages, and the MPs were regarded as an emerging solid state to affect these removal stages. The final cumulative toluene concentrations of soil-PET mixtures were influenced by total porosity, and those of soil-PE mixtures were controlled by total porosity (influence weight: 0.67) and adsorption capacity (influence weight: 0.33); meanwhile, a self-built comprehensive coefficient of MPs can reflect the relationship between them and cumulative concentrations (correlation coefficient: 0.783).

Attachment and detachment of large microplastics in saturated porous media and its influencing factors

Groundwater contamination by microplastics (MPs) has been gradually regarded as a potential human health risk, which calls for detailed investigation of MPs transport behavior in saturated zone. In this study, a series of sand column experiments were carried out to investigate the transport characteristics of large MPs with its diameter of 10-20 μm in porous media, in which the effects of different hydrological conditions and MPs characteristics were examined. Experimental results showed that the increase of water flow rate from 2.2 to 7.5 mL/min significantly increased the maximal outlet MPs concentration by two orders of magnitude, while a larger ratio of MPs diameter to soil particle diameter decreased its mobility. The increase of water salinity from 0 to 25 mmol/L (NaCl) decreased the maximal outlet MPs concentration by 50.5-68.4% for different sized MPs. Since chemical aging would lead to the formation of oxygen-containing functional groups and make MPs more negatively charged, it greatly increased the maximal outlet MPs concentration by 0.53-5.67 times. Compared with the traditional attachment model (AM), the attachment-detachment model (ADM) could better simulate the gradual desorption of large MPs from soil in the process of clean water flushing, indicating the nonnegligible detachment of large MPs from soil. In ADM, the desorption coefficient gradually decreased in the process of clean water flushing, which was only 31.6% of the initial value after flushing kept for 10 PV. Moreover, the equations to calculate the adsorption and desorption coefficients of MPs in the saturated zone were developed, which considered both MPs and aquifer characteristics. Results from this study described the desorption of large MPs in porous media under various conditions, which expands our knowledge about the fate and risk of MPs in underground environment.

Effect of fragmentation on the transport of polyvinyl chloride and low-density polyethylene in saturated quartz sand

Microplastics are an obstinate pollutant in terrestrial environments, posing a risk to the subsurface soil matrix and potentially to groundwater. In this study, the transport and retention behaviour of two major plastic polymers, 125-300 μm Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic fragments and 300 μm Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) spherical particles, were explored in saturated quartz sand (1.6-2.0 mm) columns. The PVC used in this study represented secondary microplastics, while the LDPE represented primary microplastics. Retention profiles at different ultrapure water flow rates (2.0-3.5 ml/min) were compared and analysed. At the beginning and end of each column test, the microplastic particles were scrutinized, identified, and quantified by light microscopy. The results showed that the transport distance of microplastic particles increased with their decreasing diameter. Small-sized PVC microplastic particles, whose morphology was more 1-dimensional, were more susceptible to fragmentation within the column, promoting migration. Spherical LDPE remained at their initial position without fragmenting. Microplastic degradation into fragments appeared to play an important role in improving the movement of particles. This study offers initial indications of infiltration depths and shape-dependent fragmentation of secondary microplastics in coarse sand based on the lab experiments.

Horizontal transport of macro- and microplastics on soil surface by rainfall induced surface runoff as affected by vegetations

Surface runoff is considered as an important pathway that transport of plastic waste from terrestrial environment into the aquatic environment but the process is still poorly understood. In this work, runoff plot experiment was carried out to study the horizontal transport of macro- and microplastics between 50 mm and 0.25 mm in size on the soil surface by rain induced runoff. The influences of vegetation cover, characteristics of plastics, and rainfall scenarios were investigated. Results showed that the presence of vegetation significantly enhance the retention of plastics by about 20% under the experimental conditions. Lower density and smaller (<1 mm) plastics were found to have higher mobility. The herb plant (Photinia×fraseri Dress) showed a better interception efficiency on plastics than the shrub plant (Ophiopogon japonicus (Linn. f.) Ker-Gawl.) at the same planting density, while increasing plant density contributed litter to the interception of microplastics. Increase rainfall amount from 20 mm to 60 mm enhanced the transport of plastics while repeating 20 mm rainfall every 3 days did not affect the transport of plastics significantly. The same processes may involve in the transport of plastics and soil particles by rainfall induced surface runoff. Strategies controlling soil erosion could also be used to prevent plastics in soil from entering the aquatic environment. However, effects and risks of plastics retained in the soil are still unclear, which need to be investigated in future.

Transport and retention of microplastics in saturated porous media with peanut shell biochar (PSB) and MgO-PSB amendment: Co-effects of cations and humic acid

Biochar particles are extensively used in soil remediation and interact with microplastics (MPs), especially metal oxide-modified biochar may have stronger interactions with MPs. The mechanism of interactions between humic acid (HA) and different valence cations is different and the co-effect on the transport of MPs is not clear. In this study, the co-effects of HA and cations (Na⁺, Ca²⁺) on the transport and retention of MPs in saturated porous media with peanut shell biochar (PSB) and MgO-modified PSB (MgO-PSB) were systematically investigated. Breakthrough curves (BTCs) of MPs were fitted by the two-site kinetic retention model for analysis. In the absence of HA, the addition of PSB and MgO-PSB significantly hindered the transport of MPs in saturated porous media, and the retention of MPs increased from 34.2% to 59.1% and 75.5%, respectively. In Na⁺ solutions, the HA concentration played a dominant role in controlling MPs transport, compared to the minor role of Na⁺. The transport capacity of MPs always increased gradually with the increase of HA concentration. Whereas, in Ca²⁺ solutions, Ca²⁺ concentrations had a stronger effect than HA. The transport ability of MPs was instead greater than that in Na⁺ solutions as the HA concentration increased at low ionic strength (1 mM). However, the transport capacity of MPs was significantly reduced with increasing HA concentrations at higher ionic strength (10, 100 mM). The two-site kinetic retention model indicated that chemical attachment and physical straining are the main mechanisms of MPs retention in the saturated porous media.