1
|
Preece EP, Otten TG, Cooke J, Kudela RM. Microcystins in the benthic food-web of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, California. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 946:174250. [PMID: 38936722 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
Harmful cyanobacteria blooms are a growing threat in estuarine waters as upstream blooms are exported into coastal environments. Cyanobacteria can produce potent toxins, one of which-hepatotoxic microcystins (MCs)-can persist and accumulate within the food web. Filter-feeding invertebrates may biomagnify toxins up to 100× ambient concentrations. As such, bivalves can be used as an environmentally relevant and highly sensitive sentinel for MC monitoring. To date there has been little research on cyanotoxin bioaccumulation in estuaries. The Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta (Delta) aquatic food web has undergone a profound change in response to widespread colonization of aquatic invasive species such as Asian clams (Corbicula fluminea) in the freshwater portion of the Delta. These clams are prolific-blanketing areas of the Delta at densities up to 1000 clams/m2 and are directly implicated in the pelagic organism decline of threatened and endangered fishes. We hypothesized that Asian clams accumulate MCs which may act as an additional stressor to the food web and MCs would seasonally be in exceedance of public health advisory levels. MCs accumulation in Delta Asian clams and signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) were studied over a two-year period. ELISA and LC-MS analytical methods were used to measure free and protein-bound MCs in clam and crayfish tissues. We describe an improved MC extraction method for use when analyzing these taxa by LC-MS. MCs were found to accumulate in Asian clams across all months and at all study sites, with seasonal maxima occurring during the summer. Although MC concentrations rarely exceeded public health advisory levels, the persistence of MCs year-round still poses a chronic risk to consumers. Crayfish at times also accumulated high concentrations of MCs. Our results highlight the utility of shellfish as sentinel organisms for monitoring in estuarine areas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ellen P Preece
- California Department of Water Resources, 3500 Industrial Blvd, West Sacramento, CA 95691, United States of America; Robertson-Bryan, Inc., 3100 Zinfandel Drive, St 300, Rancho Cordova, CA, United States of America.
| | - Timothy G Otten
- Bend Genetics, LLC, 107 Scripps Drive St 210, Sacramento, CA, United States of America
| | - Janis Cooke
- Central Valley Regional Water Quality Control Board, 11020, Sun Center Drive, St 200, Rancho Cordova, CA, United States of America
| | - Raphael M Kudela
- University of California Santa Cruz, Dept. of Ocean Sciences, 1156 High St, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Réveillon D, Georges des Aulnois M, Savar V, Robert E, Caruana AMN, Briand E, Bormans M. Extraction and analysis by liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry of intra- and extracellular microcystins and nodularin to study the fate of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins across the freshwater-marine continuum. Toxicon 2024; 237:107551. [PMID: 38070753 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
The presence of microcystins (MCs) is increasingly being reported in coastal areas worldwide. To provide reliable data regarding this emerging concern, reproducible and accurate methods are required to quantify MCs in salt-containing samples. Herein, we characterized methods of extraction and analysis by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for nine MCs and one nodularin (NOD) variants in both cyanobacteria (intracellular) and dissolved forms (extracellular). Different approaches have been used to cope with salinity for the extraction of dissolved MCs but none assessed solid phase extraction (SPE) so far. It was found that salt had negligible effect on the SPE recovery of dissolved MCs using the C18 cartridge while an overestimation up to 67% was noted for some variants with a polymeric sorbent. The limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) were 1.0-22 and 5.5-124 pg on column for the intracellular toxins, while 0.05-0.81 and 0.13-2.4 ng/mL were obtained for dissolved toxins. Extraction recoveries were excellent for intracellular (89-121%) and good to excellent for extracellular cyanotoxins (73-102%) while matrix effects were considered neglectable (<12% for 16/20 toxin-matrix combinations), except for the two MC-RR variants. The strategy based on the application of a corrective factor to compensate for losses proved useful as the accuracy was satisfactory (73-117% for intra- and 81-139% for extracellular cyanotoxins, bias <10% for 46/60 conditions, with a few exceptions), with acceptable precisions (intra- and inter-days variabilities <11%). We then applied this method on natural colonies of Microcystis spp. subjected to a salt shock, mimicking their estuarine transfer, in order to assess their survival and to quantify their toxins. The colonies of Microcystis spp. had both their growth and photosynthetic activity impaired at salinities from 10, while toxins remained mainly intracellular (>76%) even at salinity 20, suggesting a potential health risk and contamination of estuarine organisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Myriam Bormans
- University of Rennes, CNRS, Ecobio UMR, 6553, Rennes, France
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Howard MDA, Smith J, Caron DA, Kudela RM, Loftin K, Hayashi K, Fadness R, Fricke S, Kann J, Roethler M, Tatters A, Theroux S. Integrative monitoring strategy for marine and freshwater harmful algal blooms and toxins across the freshwater-to-marine continuum. INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 2023; 19:586-604. [PMID: 35748667 DOI: 10.1002/ieam.4651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Many coastal states throughout the USA have observed negative effects in marine and estuarine environments caused by cyanotoxins produced in inland waterbodies that were transported downstream or produced in the estuaries. Estuaries and other downstream receiving waters now face the dual risk of impacts from harmful algal blooms (HABs) that occur in the coastal ocean as well as those originating in inland watersheds. Despite this risk, most HAB monitoring efforts do not account for hydrological connections in their monitoring strategies and designs. Monitoring efforts in California have revealed the persistent detection of cyanotoxins across the freshwater-to-marine continuum. These studies underscore the importance of inland waters as conduits for the transfer of cyanotoxins to the marine environment and highlight the importance of approaches that can monitor across hydrologically connected waterbodies. A HAB monitoring strategy is presented for the freshwater-to-marine continuum to inform HAB management and mitigation efforts and address the physical and hydrologic challenges encountered when monitoring in these systems. Three main recommendations are presented based on published studies, new datasets, and existing monitoring programs. First, HAB monitoring would benefit from coordinated and cohesive efforts across hydrologically interconnected waterbodies and across organizational and political boundaries and jurisdictions. Second, a combination of sampling modalities would provide the most effective monitoring for HAB toxin dynamics and transport across hydrologically connected waterbodies, from headwater sources to downstream receiving waterbodies. Third, routine monitoring is needed for toxin mixtures at the land-sea interface including algal toxins of marine origins as well as cyanotoxins that are sourced from inland freshwater or produced in estuaries. Case studies from California are presented to illustrate the implementation of these recommendations, but these recommendations can also be applied to inland states or regions where the downstream receiving waterbody is a freshwater lake, reservoir, or river. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:586-604. © 2022 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meredith D A Howard
- Central Valley Regional Water Quality Control Board, Rancho Cordova, California, USA
| | - Jayme Smith
- Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, Costa Mesa, California, USA
| | - David A Caron
- University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | | | - Keith Loftin
- U.S. Geological Survey, Kansas Water Science Center, Lawrence, Kansas, USA
| | | | - Rich Fadness
- North Coast Regional Water Quality Control Board, Santa Rosa, California, USA
| | | | - Jacob Kann
- Aquatic Ecosystem Sciences, Ashland, Oregon, USA
| | | | - Avery Tatters
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida, USA
| | - Susanna Theroux
- Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, Costa Mesa, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Straquadine NRW, Kudela RM, Gobler CJ. Hepatotoxic shellfish poisoning: Accumulation of microcystins in Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) and Asian clams (Corbicula fluminea) exposed to wild and cultured populations of the harmful cyanobacteria, Microcystis. HARMFUL ALGAE 2022; 115:102236. [PMID: 35623692 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2022.102236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The Asian clam (Corbicula fluminea) and eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) are important resource bivalves found in and downstream of waterways afflicted with cyanobacterial harmful algae blooms (CHABs), respectively. This study examined the potential for C. fluminea and C. virginica to become vectors of the hepatotoxin, microcystin, from the CHAB Microcystis. Laboratory experiments were performed to quantify clearance rates, particle selection, and accumulation of the hepatotoxin, microcystin, using a microcystin-producing Microcystis culture isolated from Lake Erie (strain LE-3) and field experiments were performed with water from Microcystis blooms in Lake Agawam, NY, USA. Clearance rates of Microcystis were faster (p<0.05) than those of Raphidocelis for C. fluminea, while C. virginica cleared Microcystis and Tisochrysis at similar rates. For both bivalves, clearance rates of bloom water were slower than cultures and clams displayed significantly greater electivity for green algae compared to wild populations of cyanobacteria in field experiments while oysters did not. In experiments with cultured Microcystis comprised of single and double cells, both bivalves accumulated >3 µg microcystins g - 1 (wet weight) in 24 - 72 h, several orders of magnitude beyond California guidance value (10 ng g - 1) but accumulated only up to 2 ng microcystins g - 1 when fed bloom water dominated by large Microcystis colonies for four days. For Asian clams, clearance rates and tissue microcystin content decreased when exposed to toxic Microcystis for 3 - 4 days. In contrast, eastern oysters did not depurate microcystin over 3 - 4-day exposures and accumulated an order of magnitude more microcystin than clams. This contrast suggests Asian clams are likely to accumulate minor amounts of microcystin by reducing clearance rates during blooms of Microcystis, selectively feeding on green algae, and depurating microcystin whereas oysters are more likely to accumulate microcystins and thus are more likely to be a vector for hepatotoxic shellfish poisoning in estuaries downstream of Microcystis blooms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nora R W Straquadine
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, 239 Montauk HWY, Southampton, NY 11968, USA
| | - Raphael M Kudela
- University of California Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Christopher J Gobler
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, 239 Montauk HWY, Southampton, NY 11968, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Sundaravadivelu D, Sanan TT, Venkatapathy R, Mash H, Tettenhorst D, DAnglada L, Frey S, Tatters AO, Lazorchak J. Determination of Cyanotoxins and Prymnesins in Water, Fish Tissue, and Other Matrices: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14030213. [PMID: 35324710 PMCID: PMC8949488 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14030213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms (HABs) and their toxins are a significant and continuing threat to aquatic life in freshwater, estuarine, and coastal water ecosystems. Scientific understanding of the impacts of HABs on aquatic ecosystems has been hampered, in part, by limitations in the methodologies to measure cyanotoxins in complex matrices. This literature review discusses the methodologies currently used to measure the most commonly found freshwater cyanotoxins and prymnesins in various matrices and to assess their advantages and limitations. Identifying and quantifying cyanotoxins in surface waters, fish tissue, organs, and other matrices are crucial for risk assessment and for ensuring quality of food and water for consumption and recreational uses. This paper also summarizes currently available tissue extraction, preparation, and detection methods mentioned in previous studies that have quantified toxins in complex matrices. The structural diversity and complexity of many cyanobacterial and algal metabolites further impede accurate quantitation and structural confirmation for various cyanotoxins. Liquid chromatography–triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (LC–MS/MS) to enhance the sensitivity and selectivity of toxin analysis has become an essential tool for cyanotoxin detection and can potentially be used for the concurrent analysis of multiple toxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Toby T. Sanan
- Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA; (H.M.); (D.T.)
- Correspondence: (T.T.S.); (J.L.); Tel.: +1-513-569-7076 (J.L.)
| | | | - Heath Mash
- Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA; (H.M.); (D.T.)
| | - Dan Tettenhorst
- Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA; (H.M.); (D.T.)
| | - Lesley DAnglada
- Office of Water, Science and Technology, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC 20004, USA; (L.D.); (S.F.)
| | - Sharon Frey
- Office of Water, Science and Technology, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC 20004, USA; (L.D.); (S.F.)
| | - Avery O. Tatters
- Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, U.S. EPA, Gulf Breeze, FL 32561, USA;
| | - James Lazorchak
- Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
- Correspondence: (T.T.S.); (J.L.); Tel.: +1-513-569-7076 (J.L.)
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Baliu-Rodriguez D, Peraino NJ, Premathilaka SH, Birbeck JA, Baliu-Rodriguez T, Westrick JA, Isailovic D. Identification of Novel Microcystins Using High-Resolution MS and MS n with Python Code. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:1652-1663. [PMID: 35018784 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c04296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Cyanotoxins called microcystins (MCs) are highly toxic and can be present in drinking water sources. Determining the structure of MCs is paramount because of its effect on toxicity. Though over 300 MC congeners have been discovered, many remain unidentified. Herein, a method is described for the putative identification of MCs using liquid chromatography (LC) coupled with high-resolution (HR) Orbitrap mass spectrometry (MS) and a new bottom-up sequencing strategy. Maumee River water samples were collected during a harmful algal bloom and analyzed by LC-MS with simultaneous HRMS and MS/MS. Unidentified ions with characteristic MC fragments (135 and 213 m/z) were recognized as possible novel MC congeners. An innovative workflow was developed for the putative identification of these ions. Python code was written to generate the potential structures of unidentified MCs and to assign ions after the fragmentation for structural confirmation. The workflow enabled the putative identification of eight previously reported MCs for which standards are not available and two newly discovered congeners, MC-HarR and MC-E(OMe)R.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David Baliu-Rodriguez
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606, United States
| | - Nicholas J Peraino
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Sanduni H Premathilaka
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606, United States
| | - Johnna A Birbeck
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | | | - Judy A Westrick
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Dragan Isailovic
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606, United States
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
A Summer of Cyanobacterial Blooms in Belgian Waterbodies: Microcystin Quantification and Molecular Characterizations. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14010061. [PMID: 35051038 PMCID: PMC8780180 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14010061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
In the context of increasing occurrences of toxic cyanobacterial blooms worldwide, their monitoring in Belgium is currently performed by regional environmental agencies (in two of three regions) using different protocols and is restricted to some selected recreational ponds and lakes. Therefore, a global assessment based on the comparison of existing datasets is not possible. For this study, 79 water samples from a monitoring of five lakes in Wallonia and occasional blooms in Flanders and Brussels, including a canal, were analyzed. A Liquid Chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method allowed to detect and quantify eight microcystin congeners. The mcyE gene was detected using PCR, while dominant cyanobacterial species were identified using 16S RNA amplification and direct sequencing. The cyanobacterial diversity for two water samples was characterized with amplicon sequencing. Microcystins were detected above limit of quantification (LOQ) in 68 water samples, and the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended guideline value for microcystins in recreational water (24 µg L−1) was surpassed in 18 samples. The microcystin concentrations ranged from 0.11 µg L−1 to 2798.81 µg L−1 total microcystin. For 45 samples, the dominance of the genera Microcystis sp., Dolichospermum sp., Aphanizomenon sp., Cyanobium/Synechococcus sp., Planktothrix sp., Romeria sp., Cyanodictyon sp., and Phormidium sp. was shown. Moreover, the mcyE gene was detected in 75.71% of all the water samples.
Collapse
|
8
|
Bernstein S, Ruiz-Cooley RI, Kudela R, Anderson CR, Dunkin R, Field JC. Stable isotope analysis reveals differences in domoic acid accumulation and feeding strategies of key vectors in a California hotspot for outbreaks. HARMFUL ALGAE 2021; 110:102117. [PMID: 34887000 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.102117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Given the effects of harmful algal blooms (HABs) on human and wildlife health, understanding how domoic acid (DA) is accumulated and transferred through food webs is critical for recognizing the most affected marine communities and predicting ecosystem effects. This study combines stable isotopes of carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) from bulk muscle tissue with DA measurements from viscera to identify the foraging strategies of important DA vectors and predators in Monterey Bay, CA. Tissue samples were collected from 27 species across three habitats in the summer of 2018 and 2019 (time periods without prominent HABs). Our results highlight an inshore-offshore variation in krill δ13C values and DA concentrations ([DA]; ppm) in anchovies indicating differences in coastal productivity and DA accumulation. The narrow overlapping isotopic niches between anchovies and sardines suggest similar diets and trophic positions, but striking differences in [DA] indicate a degree of specialization, thus, resource partitioning. In contrast, krill, market squid, and juvenile rockfish accumulated minimal DA and had comparatively broad isotopic niches, suggesting a lower capacity to serve as vectors because of potential differences in diet or feeding in isotopically distinct locations. Low [DA] in the liver of stranded sea lions and their generalist foraging tendencies limits our ability to use them as sentinels for DA outbreaks in a specific geographic area. Collectively, our results show that DA was produced a few kilometers from the coastline, and anchovies were the most powerful DA vector in coastal-pelagic zones (their DA loads exceeded the 20 ppm FDA regulatory limits for human consumption), while mussels did not contain detectable DA and only reflect in situ DA, δ13C, and δ15N values. Our study demonstrates the efficacy of combining multiple biogeochemical tracers to improve HAB monitoring efforts and identify the main routes of DA transfer across habitats and trophic levels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Bernstein
- Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, 8272 Moss Landing Road, Moss Landing, CA 95039, USA.
| | - Rocio I Ruiz-Cooley
- Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, 8272 Moss Landing Road, Moss Landing, CA 95039, USA; Departamento de Oceanografía Biológica, Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada (CICESE), Ensenada, México.
| | - Raphael Kudela
- University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Clarissa R Anderson
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography/Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, University of California, San Diego, Scripps Institute of Oceanography, 8880 Biological Grade La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Robin Dunkin
- University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - John C Field
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Fisheries Ecology Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center 110 McAllister Way Road Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Changes in Growth, Photosynthesis Performance, Pigments, and Toxin Contents of Bloom-Forming Cyanobacteria after Exposure to Macroalgal Allelochemicals. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13080589. [PMID: 34437460 PMCID: PMC8402365 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Macroalgae can directly restrict the growth of various phytoplankton species by releasing allelopathic compounds; therefore, considerable attention should be paid to the allelopathic potential of these organisms against harmful and bloom-forming cyanobacteria. The main aim of this study was to demonstrate for the first time the allelopathic activity of Ulva intestinalis on the growth, the fluorescence parameters: the maximum PSII quantum efficiency (Fv/Fm) and the effective quantum yield of PSII photochemistry (ΦPSII), the chlorophyll a (Chl a) and carotenoid (Car) content, and the microcystin-LR (MC-LR) and phenol content of three bloom-forming cyanobacteria, Aphanizomenon sp., Nodularia spumigena, and Nostoc sp. We found both negative and positive allelopathic effects of U. intestinalis on tested cyanobacteria. The study clearly showed that the addition of the filtrate of U. intestinalis significantly inhibited growth, decreased pigment content and Fv/Fm and ΦPSII values of N. spumigena and Nostoc sp., and stimulated Aphanizomenon sp. The addition of different concentrations of aqueous extract also stimulated the cyanobacterial growth. It was also shown that the addition of extract obtained from U. intestinalis caused a significant decrease in the MC-LR content in Nostoc sp. cells. Moreover, it the phenol content in N. spumigena cells was increased. On the other hand, the cell-specific phenol content for Aphanizomenon sp. decreased due to the addition of the filtrate. In this work, we demonstrated that the allelopathic effect of U. intestinalis depends on the target species’ identity as well as the type of allelopathic method used. The study of the allelopathic Baltic macroalgae may help to identify their possible role as a significant biological factor influencing harmful cyanobacterial blooms in brackish ecosystems.
Collapse
|
10
|
Danil K, Berman M, Frame E, Preti A, Fire SE, Leighfield T, Carretta J, Carter ML, Lefebvre K. Marine algal toxins and their vectors in southern California cetaceans. HARMFUL ALGAE 2021; 103:102000. [PMID: 33980440 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.102000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Published baseline data on biotoxin exposure in cetaceans is sparse but critical for interpreting mortality events as harmful algal blooms increase in frequency and duration. We present the first synthesis of domoic acid (DA), saxitoxin (STX), okadaic acid (OA), and microcystin detections in the feces and urine of stranded and bycaught southern California cetaceans, over an 18 year period (2001-2018), along with corresponding stomach content data. DA was detected in 13 out of 19 cetacean species, most often in harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) (81.8%, n = 22) and long-beaked common dolphins (Delphinus delphis bairdii) (74%, n = 231). Maximum DA concentrations of 324,000 ng/g in feces and 271, 967 ng/ml in urine were observed in D. d. bairdii. DA was detected more frequently and at higher concentrations in male vs. female D. d. bairdii. Higher fecal DA concentrations in D. d. bairdii were associated with a greater proportion of northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax) in the diet, indicating it may be a primary vector of DA. Fecal DA concentrations for D. d. bairdii off Point Conception were greater than those from animals sampled off Los Angeles and San Diego counties, reflecting greater primary productivity and higher Pseudo-nitzschia spp. abundance in that region and a greater abundance of E. mordax in the diet. STX was detected at low levels (fecal max = 7.5 ng/g, urine max = 17 ng/ml) in 3.6% (n = 165) of individuals from 3 out of 11 species. The occurrence of E. mordax in 100% of the 3 examined stomachs suggests this species could be a primary vector of the detected STX. OA was detected in 2.4% of tested individuals (n = 85) at a maximum fecal concentration of 422.8 ng/g. Microcystin was detected in 14.3% (n = 7) of tested individuals with a maximum liver concentration of 96.8 ppb.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kerri Danil
- NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, La Jolla, CA, United States.
| | - Michelle Berman
- Channel Islands Cetacean Research Unit, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
| | - Elizabeth Frame
- King County Environmental Laboratory, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Antonella Preti
- NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, La Jolla, CA, United States; Institute of Marine Studies, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, United States
| | - Spencer E Fire
- Department of Ocean Engineering and Marine Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, United States
| | - Tod Leighfield
- NOAA, National Ocean Service, National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, Charleston, SC, United States
| | - Jim Carretta
- NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Melissa L Carter
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Kathi Lefebvre
- NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, Seattle, WA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Tatters AO, Smith J, Kudela RM, Hayashi K, Howard MDA, Donovan AR, Loftin KA, Caron DA. The tide turns: Episodic and localized cross-contamination of a California coastline with cyanotoxins. HARMFUL ALGAE 2021; 103:102003. [PMID: 33980443 PMCID: PMC8931693 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.102003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The contamination of coastal ecosystems from a variety of toxins of marine algal origin is a common and well-documented situation along the coasts of the United States and globally. The occurrence of toxins originating from cyanobacteria along marine coastlines is much less studied, and little information exists on whether toxins from marine and freshwater sources co-occur regularly. The current study focused on the discharge of cyanotoxins from a coastal lagoon (Santa Clara River Estuary) as a consequence of an extreme tide event (King Tides; December 3-5, 2017) resulting in a breach of the berm separating the lagoon from the ocean. Monthly monitoring in the lagoon throughout 2017 documented more than a dozen co-occurring cyanobacterial genera, as well as multiple algal and cyanobacterial toxins. Biotoxin monitoring before and following the King Tide event using Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) in the lagoon and along the coast revealed the co-occurrence of microcystins, anatoxin, domoic acid, and other toxins on multiple dates and locations. Domoic acid was ubiquitously present in SPATT deployed in the lagoon and along the coast. Microcystins were also commonly detected in both locations, although the beach berm retained the lagoonal water for much of the year. Mussels collected along the coast contained microcystins in approximately half the samples, particularly following the King Tide event. Anatoxin was observed in SPATT only in late December, following the breach of the berm. Our findings indicate both episodic and persistent occurrence of both cyanotoxins and marine toxins may commonly contaminate coastlines in proximity to cyanobacteria-laden creeks and lagoons.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Avery O Tatters
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California Los Angeles, 570 Westwood Plaza Building 114, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
| | - Jayme Smith
- Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 3535 Harbor Blvd # 110, Costa Mesa, CA 92626, USA
| | - Raphael M Kudela
- Ocean Sciences Department, University of California Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Kendra Hayashi
- Ocean Sciences Department, University of California Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Meredith DA Howard
- Central Valley Regional Water Board, 11020 Sun Center Drive, Rancho Cordova, CA 95670, USA
| | - Ariel R Donovan
- U.S. Geological Survey Kansas Water Science Center, 1217 Biltmore Drive, Lawrence, KS 66049, USA
| | - Keith A Loftin
- U.S. Geological Survey Kansas Water Science Center, 1217 Biltmore Drive, Lawrence, KS 66049, USA
| | - David A Caron
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Parkway, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0371, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Howard MDA, Kudela RM, Hayashi K, Tatters AO, Caron DA, Theroux S, Oehrle S, Roethler M, Donovan A, Loftin K, Laughrey Z. Multiple co-occurring and persistently detected cyanotoxins and associated cyanobacteria in adjacent California lakes. Toxicon 2021; 192:1-14. [PMID: 33428970 PMCID: PMC8811718 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The global proliferation of toxin producing cyanobacterial blooms has been attributed to a wide variety of environmental factors with nutrient pollution, increased temperatures, and drought being three of the most significant. The current study is the first formal assessment of cyanotoxins in two impaired lakes, Canyon Lake and Lake Elsinore, in southern California that have a history of cyanobacterial blooms producing high biomass as measured by chl-a. Cyanotoxins in Lake Elsinore were detected at concentrations that persistently exceeded California recreational health thresholds, whereas Canyon Lake experienced persistent concentrations that only occasionally exceeded health thresholds. The study results are the highest recorded concentrations of microcystins, anatoxin-a, and cylindrospermopsin detected in southern California lakes. Concentrations exceeded health thresholds that caused both lakes to be closed for recreational activities. Cyanobacterial identifications indicated a high risk for the presence of potentially toxic genera and agreed with the cyanotoxin results that indicated frequent detection of multiple cyanotoxins simultaneously. A statistically significant correlation was observed between chlorophyll-a (chl-a) and microcystin concentrations for Lake Elsinore but not Canyon Lake, and chl-a was not a good indicator of cylindrospermopsin, anatoxin-a, or nodularin. Therefore, chl-a was not a viable screening indicator of cyanotoxin risk in these lakes. The study results indicate potential acute and chronic risk of exposure to cyanotoxins in these lakes and supports the need for future monitoring efforts to help minimize human and domestic pet exposure and to better understand potential effects to wildlife. The frequent co-occurrence of complex cyanotoxin mixtures further complicates the risk assessment process for these lakes given uncertainty in the toxicology of mixtures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meredith D A Howard
- Central Valley Regional Water Quality Control Board, 11020 Sun Center Drive, #200, Rancho Cordova, CA, 95670, USA.
| | - Raphael M Kudela
- Department of Ocean Science, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA.
| | - Kendra Hayashi
- Department of Ocean Science, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA.
| | - Avery O Tatters
- USEPA Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division Laboratory, 1 Sabine Drive, Gulf Breeze, FL, 32561, USA.
| | - David A Caron
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Parkway, Los Angeles, CA, 90089-0371, USA.
| | - Susanna Theroux
- Biogeochemistry Department, Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 3535 Harbor Blvd., Suite 110, Costa Mesa, CA, 92626, USA.
| | - Stuart Oehrle
- Waters Field Lab, Northern Kentucky University, Chemistry Department, Highland Heights, KY, 41099, USA.
| | - Miranda Roethler
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, 1122 NE Boat St. Box 355020, Seattle, WA, 98195-5020, USA.
| | - Ariel Donovan
- U.S. Geological Survey, Kansas Water Science Center, Organic Geochemistry Research Laboratory, 1217 Biltmore Drive, Lawrence, KS, 66049, USA.
| | - Keith Loftin
- U.S. Geological Survey, Kansas Water Science Center, Organic Geochemistry Research Laboratory, 1217 Biltmore Drive, Lawrence, KS, 66049, USA.
| | - Zachary Laughrey
- U.S. Geological Survey, Kansas Water Science Center, Organic Geochemistry Research Laboratory, 1217 Biltmore Drive, Lawrence, KS, 66049, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Anaraki MT, Shahmohamadloo RS, Sibley PK, MacPherson K, Bhavsar SP, Simpson AJ, Ortiz Almirall X. Optimization of an MMPB Lemieux Oxidation method for the quantitative analysis of microcystins in fish tissue by LC-QTOF MS. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 737:140209. [PMID: 32783840 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Microcystins are toxic heptapeptides produced by cyanobacteria in marine and freshwater environments. In biological samples such as fish, microcystins can be found in the free form or covalently bound to protein phosphatases type I and II. Total microcystins in fish have been quantified in the past using the Lemieux Oxidation approach, where all toxins are oxidated to a common fragment (2-methyl-3-methoxy-4-phenylbutyric acid, MMPB) regardless of their initial amino acid configuration or form (free or protein bound). These studies have been carried out using different experimental conditions and employed different quantification strategies. The present study has further investigated the oxidation step using a systematic approach, to identify the most important factors leading to a higher, more robust MMPB generation yield from fish tissue in order to reduce the method detection limit. Field samples were quantified using an in-situ generated MMPB matrix matched calibration curve by isotope dilution with d3-MMPB via liquid chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF MS). This approach improves method's accuracy by taking into account of potential matrix effects that could affect the derivatization, sample prepation and instrumental analysis steps. The validated method showed 16.7% precision (RSD) and +6.7% accuracy (bias), with calculated method detection limits of 7.28 ng g-1 Performance of the method was assessed with the analysis of laboratory exposed Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) to cyanobacteria as a positive control, where no microcystins were detected in the pre-exposure fish liver and fillet, low levels in the exposed fillet (65.0 ng g-1) and higher levels in the exposed liver (696 ng g-1). Finally, the method was employed for the analysis of 26 fillets (muscle) and livers of Walleye (Sander vitreus) and Yellow Perch (Perca flavescens) from Lake Erie, showing very low concentrations of microcystins in the fillet and higher concentrations in liver, up to 3720 ng g-1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Tabatabaei Anaraki
- Department of Physical and Environment Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | - Paul K Sibley
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Karen MacPherson
- Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation, and Parks, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Satyendra P Bhavsar
- Department of Physical and Environment Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, Canada; Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation, and Parks, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - André J Simpson
- Department of Physical and Environment Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Xavier Ortiz Almirall
- Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation, and Parks, Toronto, ON, Canada; School of Environmental Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Hartnell DM, Chapman IJ, Taylor NGH, Esteban GF, Turner AD, Franklin DJ. Cyanobacterial Abundance and Microcystin Profiles in Two Southern British Lakes: The Importance of Abiotic and Biotic Interactions. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12080503. [PMID: 32764428 PMCID: PMC7472260 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12080503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Revised: 07/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Freshwater cyanobacteria blooms represent a risk to ecological and human health through induction of anoxia and release of potent toxins; both conditions require water management to mitigate risks. Many cyanobacteria taxa may produce microcystins, a group of toxic cyclic heptapeptides. Understanding the relationships between the abiotic drivers of microcystins and their occurrence would assist in the implementation of targeted, cost-effective solutions to maintain safe drinking and recreational waters. Cyanobacteria and microcystins were measured by flow cytometry and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry in two interconnected reservoirs varying in age and management regimes, in southern Britain over a 12-month period. Microcystins were detected in both reservoirs, with significantly higher concentrations in the southern lake (maximum concentration >7 µg L-1). Elevated microcystin concentrations were not positively correlated with numbers of cyanobacterial cells, but multiple linear regression analysis suggested temperature and dissolved oxygen explained a significant amount of the variability in microcystin across both reservoirs. The presence of a managed fishery in one lake was associated with decreased microcystin levels, suggestive of top down control on cyanobacterial populations. This study supports the need to develop inclusive, multifactor holistic water management strategies to control cyanobacterial risks in freshwater bodies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David M. Hartnell
- The Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (N.G.H.T.); (A.D.T.)
- Centre for Ecology, Environment and Sustainability, Faculty of Science & Technology, Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, Dorset BH12 5BB, UK; (I.J.C.); (G.F.E.); (D.J.F.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +44-1305-206600
| | - Ian J. Chapman
- Centre for Ecology, Environment and Sustainability, Faculty of Science & Technology, Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, Dorset BH12 5BB, UK; (I.J.C.); (G.F.E.); (D.J.F.)
- New South Wales Shellfish Program, NSW Food Authority, Taree 2430, Australia
| | - Nick G. H. Taylor
- The Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (N.G.H.T.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Genoveva F. Esteban
- Centre for Ecology, Environment and Sustainability, Faculty of Science & Technology, Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, Dorset BH12 5BB, UK; (I.J.C.); (G.F.E.); (D.J.F.)
| | - Andrew D. Turner
- The Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (N.G.H.T.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Daniel J. Franklin
- Centre for Ecology, Environment and Sustainability, Faculty of Science & Technology, Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, Dorset BH12 5BB, UK; (I.J.C.); (G.F.E.); (D.J.F.)
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Tamele IJ, Vasconcelos V. Microcystin Incidence in the Drinking Water of Mozambique: Challenges for Public Health Protection. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E368. [PMID: 32498435 PMCID: PMC7354522 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12060368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Microcystins (MCs) are cyanotoxins produced mainly by freshwater cyanobacteria, which constitute a threat to public health due to their negative effects on humans, such as gastroenteritis and related diseases, including death. In Mozambique, where only 50% of the people have access to safe drinking water, this hepatotoxin is not monitored, and consequently, the population may be exposed to MCs. The few studies done in Maputo and Gaza provinces indicated the occurrence of MC-LR, -YR, and -RR at a concentration ranging from 6.83 to 7.78 µg·L-1, which are very high, around 7 times above than the maximum limit (1 µg·L-1) recommended by WHO. The potential MCs-producing in the studied sites are mainly Microcystis species. These data from Mozambique and from surrounding countries (South Africa, Lesotho, Botswana, Malawi, Zambia, and Tanzania) evidence the need to implement an operational monitoring program of MCs in order to reduce or avoid the possible cases of intoxications since the drinking water quality control tests recommended by the Ministry of Health do not include an MC test. To date, no data of water poisoning episodes recorded were associated with MCs presence in the water. However, this might be underestimated due to a lack of monitoring facilities and/or a lack of public health staff trained for recognizing symptoms of MCs intoxication since the presence of high MCs concentration was reported in Maputo and Gaza provinces.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isidro José Tamele
- CIIMAR/CIMAR—Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal;
- Institute of Biomedical Science Abel Salazar, University of Porto, R. Jorge de Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Eduardo Mondlane University, Av. Julius Nyerere, n 3453, Campus Principal, Maputo 257, Mozambique
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- CIIMAR/CIMAR—Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal;
- Faculty of Science, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4069-007 Porto, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Díez-Quijada Jiménez L, Guzmán-Guillén R, Cătunescu GM, Campos A, Vasconcelos V, Jos Á, Cameán AM. A new method for the simultaneous determination of cyanotoxins (Microcystins and Cylindrospermopsin) in mussels using SPE-UPLC-MS/MS. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 185:109284. [PMID: 32244106 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.109284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to optimize the extraction conditions of Microcystin-LR (MC-LR), Microcystin-RR (MC-RR), Microcystin-YR (MC-YR) and Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) simultaneously from mussels by using response surface methodology (RSM) and to validate the method by a dual solid phase extraction (SPE) system combined with ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). The optimal parameters were: 90% MeOH (% v/v) for the extraction, a solvent/sample ratio of 75 and 15% MeOH in the extract before loading onto SPE. Mussels were spiked at 10; 37.5 and 75 ng g-1 fresh weight (f.w) of the 4 toxins, showing linear ranges of 0.5-75 ng g-1 f.w; low values for the limits of detection (0.01-0.39 ng g-1 f.w.) and quantification (0.23-0.40 ng g-1 f.w.); acceptable recoveries (70.37-114.03%) and relative standard deviation (%RSDIP) values (2.61-13.73%). The method was successfully applied to edible mussels exposed to cyanobacterial extracts under laboratory conditions, and it could allow the monitoring of these cyanotoxins in environmental mussel samples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Giorgiana M Cătunescu
- University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Calea Mănăștur 3-5, 400372, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
| | - Alexandre Campos
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Matosinhos, Portugal.
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Matosinhos, Portugal; Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Porto, Portugal.
| | - Ángeles Jos
- Area of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain.
| | - Ana M Cameán
- Area of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Hemmati M, Tejada-Casado C, Lara FJ, García-Campaña AM, Rajabi M, del Olmo-Iruela M. Monitoring of cyanotoxins in water from hypersaline microalgae colonies by ultra high performance liquid chromatography with diode array and tandem mass spectrometry detection following salting-out liquid-liquid extraction. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1608:460409. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.460409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2019] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/28/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
|
18
|
Li S, Cui Y, Wang Y, Dai Z, Shen Q. A shotgun method for high throughput screening microcystins in Margarya melanioides on a triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry. Food Chem 2018; 269:89-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2017] [Revised: 05/27/2018] [Accepted: 07/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
|
19
|
Bouma-Gregson K, Kudela RM, Power ME. Widespread anatoxin-a detection in benthic cyanobacterial mats throughout a river network. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0197669. [PMID: 29775481 PMCID: PMC5959195 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0197669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Benthic algae fuel summer food webs in many sunlit rivers, and are hotspots for primary and secondary production and biogeochemical cycling. Concerningly, riverine benthic algal assemblages can become dominated by toxic cyanobacteria, threatening water quality and public health. In the Eel River in Northern California, over a dozen dog deaths have been attributed to cyanotoxin poisonings since 2000. During the summers of 2013–2015, we documented spatial and temporal patterns of cyanotoxin concentrations in the watershed, showing widespread distribution of anatoxin-a in benthic cyanobacterial mats. Solid phase adsorption toxin tracking (SPATT) samplers were deployed weekly to record dissolved microcystin and anatoxin-a levels at 10 sites throughout the watershed, and 187 Anabaena-dominated or Phormidium-dominated cyanobacterial mat samples were collected from 27 locations to measure intracellular anatoxin-a (ATX) and microcystins (MCY). Anatoxin-a levels were higher than microcystin for both SPATT (mean MCY = 0.8 and ATX = 4.8 ng g resin-1 day-1) and cyanobacterial mat samples (mean MCY = 0.074 and ATX = 1.89 μg g-1 DW). Of the benthic mats sampled, 58.9% had detectable anatoxin-a (max = 70.93 μg g-1 DW), while 37.6% had detectable microcystins (max = 2.29 μg g-1 DW). SPATT cyanotoxin levels peaked in mid-summer in warm mainstem reaches of the watershed. This is one of the first documentations of widespread anatoxin-a occurrence in benthic cyanobacterial mats in a North American watershed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Keith Bouma-Gregson
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Raphael M. Kudela
- Ocean Sciences Department, University of California, Santa Cruz, California, United States of America
| | - Mary E. Power
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Greer B, Meneely JP, Elliott CT. Uptake and accumulation of Microcystin-LR based on exposure through drinking water: An animal model assessing the human health risk. Sci Rep 2018; 8:4913. [PMID: 29559706 PMCID: PMC5861052 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-23312-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) in freshwater systems and intensified aquaculture have increased the risk to human health through exposure to cyanotoxins such as microcystin-LR (MC-LR). To understand the uptake and processing of MC-LR in humans, the pig was chosen as an animal model. This was assessed by repeated exposure for 13 weeks of eight animals dosed daily with MC-LR at 0.04 µg/kg bw, repeated with six animals over five weeks at a dose 50 times higher at 2 µg/kg bw. An analytical method was developed for MC-LR in porcine serum and also to analyse levels of free MC-LR in harvested porcine tissues, with Lemieux Oxidation employed to determine bound MC-LR in these tissues. MC-LR was not detected in the serum of treated animals from either experiment but free MC-LR was observed in the large intestine and kidney from two animals from the higher dosed group at levels of 1.4 and 1.9 µg/kg dry weight (dw) respectively. The results indicated 50% of higher dosed animals accumulated bound MC-LR in liver tissue, averaging 26.4 µg, approximately 1.1% of the dose administered. These results point to the potential uptake and accumulation of MC-LR in human liver tissue exposed chronically to sub-acute doses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brett Greer
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queens University Belfast, Stranmillis Road, Belfast, BT9 5AG, UK.
| | - Julie P Meneely
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queens University Belfast, Stranmillis Road, Belfast, BT9 5AG, UK
| | - Christopher T Elliott
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queens University Belfast, Stranmillis Road, Belfast, BT9 5AG, UK
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Peacock MB, Gibble CM, Senn DB, Cloern JE, Kudela RM. Blurred lines: Multiple freshwater and marine algal toxins at the land-sea interface of San Francisco Bay, California. HARMFUL ALGAE 2018; 73:138-147. [PMID: 29602502 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2017] [Revised: 02/10/2018] [Accepted: 02/10/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
San Francisco Bay (SFB) is a eutrophic estuary that harbors both freshwater and marine toxigenic organisms that are responsible for harmful algal blooms. While there are few commercial fishery harvests within SFB, recreational and subsistence harvesting for shellfish is common. Coastal shellfish are monitored for domoic acid and paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), but within SFB there is no routine monitoring for either toxin. Dinophysis shellfish toxins (DSTs) and freshwater microcystins are also present within SFB, but not routinely monitored. Acute exposure to any of these toxin groups has severe consequences for marine organisms and humans, but chronic exposure to sub-lethal doses, or synergistic effects from multiple toxins, are poorly understood and rarely addressed. This study documents the occurrence of domoic acid and microcystins in SFB from 2011 to 2016, and identifies domoic acid, microcystins, DSTs, and PSTs in marine mussels within SFB in 2012, 2014, and 2015. At least one toxin was detected in 99% of mussel samples, and all four toxin suites were identified in 37% of mussels. The presence of these toxins in marine mussels indicates that wildlife and humans who consume them are exposed to toxins at both sub-lethal and acute levels. As such, there are potential deleterious impacts for marine organisms and humans and these effects are unlikely to be documented. These results demonstrate the need for regular monitoring of marine and freshwater toxins in SFB, and suggest that co-occurrence of multiple toxins is a potential threat in other ecosystems where freshwater and seawater mix.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melissa B Peacock
- Northwest Indian College, 2522 Kwina Rd, Bellingham, WA, 98226, USA; Ocean Sciences Department, 1156 High Street, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA; San Francisco Estuary Institute, 4911 Central Avenue, Richmond, CA 94804, USA.
| | - Corinne M Gibble
- Ocean Sciences Department, 1156 High Street, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA; California Department of Fish and Wildlife, Office of Spill Prevention and Response, Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, 151 McAllister Way, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
| | - David B Senn
- California Department of Fish and Wildlife, Office of Spill Prevention and Response, Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, 151 McAllister Way, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
| | - James E Cloern
- United States Geological Survey MS496, 345 Middlefield Rd, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - Raphael M Kudela
- Ocean Sciences Department, 1156 High Street, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Stewart AK, Strangman WK, Percy A, Wright JLC. The biosynthesis of 15N-labeled microcystins and the comparative MS/MS fragmentation of natural abundance and their 15N-labeled congeners using LC-MS/MS. Toxicon 2018; 144:91-102. [PMID: 29427567 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2017] [Revised: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The global need for accurate and sensitive quantitation of microcystins (MCs) persists as incidents of cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms continue to rise and recent research reveals an underestimation of the human health implications of these toxins. An optimal approach for their accurate quantitation relies on the availability of stable isotope-labeled MC standards for use in stable isotope dilution analysis (SIDA) strategies involving liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Due to the dearth of isotopically labeled MCs, ten different 15N-enriched MCs were biosynthesized from producing cultures and fully characterized. This involved the comparative MS/MS fragmentation of natural abundance or unlabeled metabolites with their 15N-labeled congeners for improved confidence in product ion annotation. These results revealed a series of incorrect annotations described previously in the literature. In this manuscript, the biosynthesis of labeled microcystin is detailed, and their complete analytical characterization for prospective use in targeted SIDA applications, such as routine water testing is described.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Allison K Stewart
- MARBIONC, UNC- Wilmington, Center for Marine Science, 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA
| | - Wendy K Strangman
- MARBIONC, UNC- Wilmington, Center for Marine Science, 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA
| | - Andrew Percy
- Cambridge Isotope Laboratories, Department of Applications Development, 3 Highwood Drive, Tewksburg, MA 01876, USA
| | - Jeffrey L C Wright
- MARBIONC, UNC- Wilmington, Center for Marine Science, 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA; UNC-Wilmington, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 601 S. College Road, Wilmington, NC 28403, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Turner AD, Dhanji-Rapkova M, O'Neill A, Coates L, Lewis A, Lewis K. Analysis of Microcystins in Cyanobacterial Blooms from Freshwater Bodies in England. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E39. [PMID: 29324646 PMCID: PMC5793126 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10010039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Revised: 01/02/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacterial blooms in freshwater bodies in England are currently monitored reactively, with samples containing more than 20,000 cells/mL of potentially toxin-producing species by light microscopy resulting in action by the water body owner. Whilst significantly reducing the risk of microcystin exposure, there is little data describing the levels of these toxins present in cyanobacterial blooms. This study focused on the quantitative LC-MS/MS analysis of microcystins in freshwater samples, collected across England during 2016 and found to contain potentially toxin-producing cyanobacteria. More than 50% of samples contained quantifiable concentrations of microcystins, with approximately 13% exceeding the WHO medium health threshold of 20 μg/L. Toxic samples were confirmed over a nine-month period, with a clear increase in toxins during late summer, but with no apparent geographical patterns. No statistical relationships were found between total toxin concentrations and environmental parameters. Complex toxin profiles were determined and profile clusters were unrelated to cyanobacterial species, although a dominance of MC-RR was determined in water samples from sites associated with lower rainfall. 100% of samples with toxins above the 20 μg/L limit contained cell densities above 20,000 cells/mL or cyanobacterial scum, showing the current regime is suitable for public health. Conversely, with only 18% of cell density threshold samples having total microcystins above 20 μg/L, there is the potential for reactive water closures to unnecessarily impact upon the socio-economics of the local population. In the future, routine analysis of bloom samples by LC-MS/MS would provide a beneficial confirmatory approach to the current microscopic assessment, aiding both public health and the needs of water users and industry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Monika Dhanji-Rapkova
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Alison O'Neill
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Lewis Coates
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Adam Lewis
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Katy Lewis
- Environment Agency, Horizon House, Deanery Rd, Bristol BS1 5AH, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Ahn S, Magaña AA, Bozarth C, Shepardson J, Morré J, Dreher T, Maier CS. Integrated identification and quantification of cyanobacterial toxins from Pacific Northwest freshwaters by Liquid Chromatography and High-resolution Mass Spectrometry. J MEX CHEM SOC 2018; 62:10.29356/jmcs.v62i2.386. [PMID: 30214641 PMCID: PMC6133267 DOI: 10.29356/jmcs.v62i2.386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The occurrence of harmful algal blooms in nutrient-rich freshwater bodies has increased world-wide, including in the Pacific Northwest. Some cyanobacterial genera have the potential to produce secondary metabolites that are highly toxic to humans, livestock and wildlife. Reliable methods for the detection of cyanobacterial toxins with high specificity and low limits of detection are in high demand. Here we test a relatively new hybrid high resolution accurate mass quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry platform (TripleTOF) for the analysis of cyanobacterial toxins in freshwater samples. We developed a new method that allows the quantitative analysis of four commonly observed microcystin congeners (LR, LA, YR, and RR) and anatoxin-a in a 6-min LC run without solid-phase enrichment. Limits of detection for the microcystin congeners (LR, LA, YR, and RR) and anatoxin-a were <5 ng/L (200-fold lower than the guideline value of 1 μg/L as maximum allowable concentration of MC-LR in drinking water). The method was applied for screening freshwaters in the Pacific Northwest during the bloom and post-bloom periods. The use of high resolution mass spectrometry and concomitant high sensitivity detection of specific fragment ions with high mass accuracy provides an integrated approach for the simultaneous identification and quantification of cyanobacterial toxins. The method is sensitive enough for detecting the toxins in single Microcystis colonies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Soyoun Ahn
- Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA
| | | | - Connie Bozarth
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA
| | - Jonathan Shepardson
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA
| | - Jeffery Morré
- Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA
| | - Theo Dreher
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA
- Center for Genome Research and Biocomputing, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA
| | - Claudia S. Maier
- Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Turner AD, Waack J, Lewis A, Edwards C, Lawton L. Development and single-laboratory validation of a UHPLC-MS/MS method for quantitation of microcystins and nodularin in natural water, cyanobacteria, shellfish and algal supplement tablet powders. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2017; 1074-1075:111-123. [PMID: 29358154 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2017.12.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Revised: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 12/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
A simple, rapid UHPLC-MS/MS method has been developed and optimised for the quantitation of microcystins and nodularin in wide variety of sample matrices. Microcystin analogues targeted were MC-LR, MC-RR, MC-LA, MC-LY, MC-LF, LC-LW, MC-YR, MC-WR, [Asp3] MC-LR, [Dha7] MC-LR, MC-HilR and MC-HtyR. Optimisation studies were conducted to develop a simple, quick and efficient extraction protocol without the need for complex pre-analysis concentration procedures, together with a rapid sub 5min chromatographic separation of toxins in shellfish and algal supplement tablet powders, as well as water and cyanobacterial bloom samples. Validation studies were undertaken on each matrix-analyte combination to the full method performance characteristics following international guidelines. The method was found to be specific and linear over the full calibration range. Method sensitivity in terms of limits of detection, quantitation and reporting were found to be significantly improved in comparison to LC-UV methods and applicable to the analysis of each of the four matrices. Overall, acceptable recoveries were determined for each of the matrices studied, with associated precision and within-laboratory reproducibility well within expected guidance limits. Results from the formalised ruggedness analysis of all available cyanotoxins, showed that the method was robust for all parameters investigated. The results presented here show that the optimised LC-MS/MS method for cyanotoxins is fit for the purpose of detection and quantitation of a range of microcystins and nodularin in shellfish, algal supplement tablet powder, water and cyanobacteria. The method provides a valuable early warning tool for the rapid, routine extraction and analysis of natural waters, cyanobacterial blooms, algal powders, food supplements and shellfish tissues, enabling monitoring labs to supplement traditional microscopy techniques and report toxicity results within a short timeframe of sample receipt. The new method, now accredited to ISO17025 standard, is simple, quick, applicable to multiple matrices and is highly suitable for use as a routine, high-throughout, fast turnaround regulatory monitoring tool.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, United Kingdom.
| | - Julia Waack
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, United Kingdom; Robert Gordon University, School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Sir Ian Wood Building, Garthdee Road, Aberdeen AB10 7QB, United Kingdom
| | - Adam Lewis
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Christine Edwards
- Robert Gordon University, School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Sir Ian Wood Building, Garthdee Road, Aberdeen AB10 7QB, United Kingdom
| | - Linda Lawton
- Robert Gordon University, School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Sir Ian Wood Building, Garthdee Road, Aberdeen AB10 7QB, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Microcystins Presence in Mussels (M. galloprovincialis) and Water of Two Productive Mediterranean's Lagoons (Sardinia, Italy). BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 2017:3769245. [PMID: 29359150 PMCID: PMC5735587 DOI: 10.1155/2017/3769245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Microcystins (MCs) are hepatotoxins harmful for animal and human health. The most toxic type between them is MC-LR whose presence has been investigated in different reservoirs all around the world. In this work microcystins were monitored in spring and summer in water and mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) of two Sardinia lagoons: Cabras and Calich lagoons. A Solid Phase Extraction method was developed to clean and concentrate samples before the Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) and the following Mass Spectrometry detection. MCs presence was detected using the screening ELISA test in both lagoons. MCs peak was revealed in July for water and mussels belonging to Cabras lagoon (0.75 ± 0.07 ng/L in water and 0.12 ± 0.04 ng/g ww in mussels). In water of Calich lagoon there was a constant trend in the concentration of MCs during the considered months, while there was a MCs peak in July (0.6 ± 0.5 ng/g ww) in mussels. The following LC-MS/MS analysis did not reveal MC-LR presence in all analyzed samples. These results can be useful to enrich knowledge on public health and consumer's safeguard.
Collapse
|
27
|
Howard MDA, Nagoda C, Kudela RM, Hayashi K, Tatters A, Caron DA, Busse L, Brown J, Sutula M, Stein ED. Microcystin Prevalence throughout Lentic Waterbodies in Coastal Southern California. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E231. [PMID: 28737685 PMCID: PMC5535178 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9070231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Revised: 07/06/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxin producing cyanobacterial blooms have increased globally in recent decades in both frequency and intensity. Despite the recognition of this growing risk, the extent and magnitude of cyanobacterial blooms and cyanotoxin prevalence is poorly characterized in the heavily populated region of southern California. Recent assessments of lentic waterbodies (depressional wetlands, lakes, reservoirs and coastal lagoons) determined the prevalence of microcystins and, in some cases, additional cyanotoxins. Microcystins were present in all waterbody types surveyed although toxin concentrations were generally low across most habitats, as only a small number of sites exceeded California's recreational health thresholds for acute toxicity. Results from passive samplers (Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT)) indicated microcystins were prevalent throughout lentic waterbodies and that traditional discrete samples underestimated the presence of microcystins. Multiple cyanotoxins were detected simultaneously in some systems, indicating multiple stressors, the risk of which is uncertain since health thresholds are based on exposures to single toxins. Anatoxin-a was detected for the first time from lakes in southern California. The persistence of detectable microcystins across years and seasons indicates a low-level, chronic risk through both direct and indirect exposure. The influence of toxic cyanobacterial blooms is a more complex stressor than presently recognized and should be included in water quality monitoring programs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meredith D A Howard
- Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 3535 Harbor Boulevard, Suite 110, Costa Mesa, CA 92626, USA.
| | - Carey Nagoda
- San Diego Regional Water Quality Control Board, 2375 Northside Drive, Suite 100, San Diego, CA 92108, USA.
| | - Raphael M Kudela
- Department of Ocean Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 USA.
| | - Kendra Hayashi
- Department of Ocean Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 USA.
| | - Avery Tatters
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Parkway, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0371, USA.
| | - David A Caron
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Parkway, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0371, USA.
| | - Lilian Busse
- German Federal Environmental Agency, Umweltbundesamt, Wörlitzer Platz 1, 06844 Dessau, Germany.
| | - Jeff Brown
- Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 3535 Harbor Boulevard, Suite 110, Costa Mesa, CA 92626, USA.
| | - Martha Sutula
- Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 3535 Harbor Boulevard, Suite 110, Costa Mesa, CA 92626, USA.
| | - Eric D Stein
- Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 3535 Harbor Boulevard, Suite 110, Costa Mesa, CA 92626, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Zhang W, Lin M, Wang M, Tong P, Lu Q, Zhang L. Magnetic porous β-cyclodextrin polymer for magnetic solid-phase extraction of microcystins from environmental water samples. J Chromatogr A 2017; 1503:1-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2017.04.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2016] [Revised: 02/27/2017] [Accepted: 04/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
|
29
|
Bouma-Gregson K, Power ME, Bormans M. Rise and fall of toxic benthic freshwater cyanobacteria (Anabaena spp.) in the Eel river: Buoyancy and dispersal. HARMFUL ALGAE 2017; 66:79-87. [PMID: 28602256 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2017.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Revised: 05/06/2017] [Accepted: 05/13/2017] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Benthic cyanobacteria in rivers produce cyanotoxins and affect aquatic food webs, but knowledge of their ecology lags behind planktonic cyanobacteria. The buoyancy of benthic Anabaena spp. mats was studied to understand implications for Anabaena dispersal in the Eel River, California. Field experiments were used to investigate the effects of oxygen bubble production and dissolution on the buoyancy of Anabaena dominated benthic mats in response to light exposure. Samples of Anabaena dominated mats were harvested from the South Fork Eel River and placed in settling columns to measure floating and sinking velocities, or deployed into in situ ambient and low light treatments to measure the effect of light on flotation. Floating and sinking occurred within minutes and were driven by oxygen bubbles produced during photosynthesis, rather than intracellular changes in carbohydrates or gas vesicles. Light experiment results showed that in a natural ambient light regime, mats remained floating for at least 4days, while in low light mats begin to sink in <24h. Floating Anabaena samples were collected from five sites in the watershed and found to contain the cyanotoxins anatoxin-a and microcystin, with higher concentrations of anatoxin-a (median 560, max 30,693ng/gDW) than microcystin (median 30, max 37ng/gDW). The ability of Anabaena mats to maintain their buoyancy will markedly increase their downstream dispersal distances. Increased buoyancy also allows toxin-containing mats to collect along shorelines, increasing threats to human and animal public health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Keith Bouma-Gregson
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, 3040 Valley Life Sciences Bldg. Berkeley, CA, 94702-3140, USA.
| | - Mary E Power
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, 3040 Valley Life Sciences Bldg. Berkeley, CA, 94702-3140, USA.
| | - Myriam Bormans
- UMR 6553 ECOBIO CNRS, University of Rennes 1, Campus de Beaulieu, bat 14a, 35042 Rennes, France; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Paulino MG, Tavares D, Bieczynski F, Pedrão PG, Souza NES, Sakuragui MM, Luquet CM, Terezan AP, Fernandes JB, Giani A, Fernandes MN. Crude extract of cyanobacteria (Radiocystis fernandoi, strain R28) induces liver impairments in fish. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2017; 182:91-101. [PMID: 27886582 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2016.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2016] [Revised: 11/12/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Radiocystis fernandoi R28 strain is a cyanobacterium which produces mostly the RR and YR microcystin variants (MC-RR and MC-YR, respectively). The effects of crude extract of the R. fernandoi strain R28 were evaluated on the protein phosphatases and on the structure and ultrastructure of the liver of the Neotropical fish, Hoplias malabaricus, after acute and subchronic exposure. Concomitantly, the accumulation of the majority of MCs was determined in the liver and muscle. The fish were exposed to 120.60 MC-RR+MC-LR kg-fish-1 (=100μg MC-LReq kg-fish-1) for 12 and 96h (one single dose, acute exposure) and 30days (one similar dose every 72h, subchronic exposure). MCs did not accumulate in the muscle but, in the liver, MC-YR accumulated after acute exposure and MC-RR and MC-YR accumulation occurred after subchronic exposure. Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) activity was inhibited only after subchronic exposure. Acute exposure induced liver hyperemia, hemorrhage, changes in hepatocytes and cord-like disorganization. At the ultrastructural level, the decreasing of glycogen and lipid levels, the swelling of mitochondria and whirling of endoplasmic reticulum suggested hepatocyte necrosis. Subchronic exposure resulted in a complete disarrangement of cord-like hepatocytes, some recovery of mitochondria and whirling endoplasmic reticulum and extensive connective tissues containing fibrous materials in the liver parenchyma. Despite microcystin toxicity and liver alterations, no tumor was induced by MCs. In conclusion, the increased algal mass of R. fernandoi in tropical freshwater, producing mainly MC-RR and MC-YR variants, results in fish liver impairments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M G Paulino
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - D Tavares
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - F Bieczynski
- Center of Applied Ecology of Neuquen, INIBIOMA, UNCo-CONICET- Ruta Provincial 61, km 3, 8371, Junín de los Andes, Neuquén, Argentina
| | - P G Pedrão
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - N E S Souza
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - M M Sakuragui
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - C M Luquet
- Center of Applied Ecology of Neuquen, INIBIOMA, UNCo-CONICET- Ruta Provincial 61, km 3, 8371, Junín de los Andes, Neuquén, Argentina
| | - A P Terezan
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - J B Fernandes
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - A Giani
- Department of Botany, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - M N Fernandes
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Gibble CM, Peacock MB, Kudela RM. Evidence of freshwater algal toxins in marine shellfish: Implications for human and aquatic health. HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 59:59-66. [PMID: 28073507 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Revised: 09/26/2016] [Accepted: 09/26/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of freshwater harmful algal bloom toxins impacting the coastal ocean is an emerging threat, and the potential for invertebrate prey items to concentrate toxin and cause harm to human and wildlife consumers is not yet fully recognized. We examined toxin uptake and release in marine mussels for both particulate and dissolved phases of the hepatotoxin microcystin, produced by the freshwater cyanobacterial genus Microcystis. We also extended our experimental investigation of particulate toxin to include oysters (Crassostrea sp.) grown commercially for aquaculture. California mussels (Mytilus californianus) and oysters were exposed to Microcystis and microcystin toxin for 24h at varying concentrations, and then were placed in constantly flowing seawater and sampled through time simulating riverine flushing events to the coastal ocean. Mussels exposed to particulate microcystin purged the toxin slowly, with toxin detectable for at least 8 weeks post-exposure and maximum toxin of 39.11ng/g after exposure to 26.65μg/L microcystins. Dissolved toxin was also taken up by California mussels, with maximum concentrations of 20.74ng/g after exposure to 7.74μg/L microcystin, but was purged more rapidly. Oysters also took up particulate toxin but purged it more quickly than mussels. Additionally, naturally occurring marine mussels collected from San Francisco Bay tested positive for high levels of microcystin toxin. These results suggest that ephemeral discharge of Microcystis or microcystin to estuaries and the coastal ocean accumulate in higher trophic levels for weeks to months following exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Corinne M Gibble
- Ocean Sciences Department, 1156 High Street, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA.
| | - Melissa B Peacock
- Ocean Sciences Department, 1156 High Street, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA; San Francisco Estuary Institute, 4911 Central Avenue, Richmond Ca 94804, USA; Native Environmental Science, Northwest Indian College, 2522 Kwina Rd, Bellingham, Wa, 98226, USA.
| | - Raphael M Kudela
- Ocean Sciences Department, 1156 High Street, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Eguzozie KU, Mavumengwana V, Nkosi D, Kayitesi E, Nnabuo-Eguzozie EC. Screening of Cyanobacterial Peptide Toxin, Microcystins in Hyperscum Water Samples from an Inland Sub Saharan Drinking Freshwater Reservoir. BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2016; 97:728-736. [PMID: 27647015 DOI: 10.1007/s00128-016-1916-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/03/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
A study which probed the occurrence and quantitative variations hepatotoxic microcystin in a Sub Saharan drinking freshwater reservoir was carried out between November 2014 and March 2015. Results reveal the presence of MCYST-YR, MCYST-LR, MCYST-RR, MCYST-LA and MCYST-LF variants either in cells collected directly from bloom or toxic isolates cultured under laboratory conditions. Two minor microcystin congeners (MCYST-(H4)YR) and (D-Asp3, Dha7) MCYST-RR) were identified, but not quantified. Variants dominance were in the order MCYST-LR > MCYST-RR > MCYST-YR > MCYST-LA > MCYST-LF across sampling sites. Maximum and minimum concentrations of quantified MCYSTs congeners were (489.25, 50.95 µg toxin/g DW), (98.92, 9.11 µg toxin/g DW), (140.25, 12.07 µg toxin/g DW), (56.99, 6.20 µg toxin/g DW) and (50.46, 3.65 µg toxin/g DW) for MCYST-LR, MCYST-YR, MCYST-RR, MCYST-LA and MCYST-LF, respectively. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed there was a high significant difference between mean microcystin concentrations across sampling sites (p < 0.05).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kennedy Uchenna Eguzozie
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg "Doornfontein Campus", Doornfontein, Johannesburg, 2028, South Africa.
| | - Vuyo Mavumengwana
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg "Doornfontein Campus", Doornfontein, Johannesburg, 2028, South Africa
| | - Duduzile Nkosi
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg "Doornfontein Campus", Doornfontein, Johannesburg, 2028, South Africa
| | - Eugenie Kayitesi
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg "Doornfontein Campus", Doornfontein, Johannesburg, 2028, South Africa
| | - Emmanuella Chioma Nnabuo-Eguzozie
- Department of Environmental Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa "Florida Campus", Florida, Johannesburg, 1709, South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Eguzozie K, Mavumengwana V, Nkosi D, Kayitesi E, Nnabuo-Eguzozie EC. Bioaccumulation and Quantitative Variations of Microcystins in the Swartspruit River, South Africa. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2016; 71:286-296. [PMID: 26936473 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-016-0269-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 02/06/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The bioaccumulation and quantitative variations of cyanobacterial peptide hepatotoxin intracellular microcystin in floating scums of cyanobacterium microcystis flos aquae collected from predetermined sampling sites in the Swartspruit River was investigated. Three distinct MCs variants (MC-YR, MC-LR, and MC-RR) were isolated, identified, and quantified. Additionally, two minor microcystin congeners (MC-(H4) YR), (D-Asp(3), Dha(7))MC-RR) also were identified but were not quantified. Quantitative analysis was achieved using peak areas substituted on linear regression equations: Y = 10085x - 19698 (R (2) = 0.9998), Y = 201387x + 20328 (R (2) = 0.9929), Y = 2506x + 15659 (R (2) = 0.9999), and 9859x + 208694 (R (2) = 0.9929) of standard curves for 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0, and 10.0 μg/mL MC-LR, MC-RR, MC-YR respectively. Variant dominance followed the order MC-LR > MC-RR > MC-YR across the sampling sites. Analysis of maximum and minimum concentrations of quantified MCs variants showed 270.7, 14.10 (µg/g), 141.5, 1.43 (µg/g), and 72.28, 0.15 (µg/g) for MC-LR, MC-RR, and MC-YR, respectively. This implies there was quantitative variations of microcystin congeners across the sampled sites. Significant differences between means were assessed by an analysis of variance with P < 0.05 being considered significant. Results showed that there were no significant difference between mean MCs concentrations across the sampling periods (P > 0.05) and significant difference between mean MCs concentrations across sampling sites (P < 0.05).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kennedy Eguzozie
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Vuyo Mavumengwana
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Duduzile Nkosi
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Eugenie Kayitesi
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Sedda T, Baralla E, Varoni MV, Pasciu V, Lorenzoni G, Demontis MP. Determination of microcystin-LR in clams (Tapes decussatus) of two Sardinian coastal ponds (Italy). MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2016; 108:317-320. [PMID: 27103424 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2016] [Revised: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 04/10/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The presence of microcystin-LR (MC-LR) was monitored in Tapes decussatus harvested in two Sardinian ponds (Cabras and Tortolì, Italy) in spring and summer. After solid phase extraction, samples were analyzed using a screening enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) followed by a liquid chromatographic coupled to tandem mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS) analysis. Results obtained through the ELISA test showed the presence of microcystins with a maximum concentration in August for Cabras pond (0.55ng/g) and in September for Tortolì pond (0.85ng/g). The LC-MS/MS analysis did not confirm the presence of MC-LR suggesting that results obtained with the ELISA technique could be due to the presence of other microcystins. According to the tolerable daily intake suggested by the World Health Organization, these results hint that clams harvested in these ponds are safe for human health. These data can contribute to enrich the knowledge about the healthiness of Sardinian ponds and of their products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tiziana Sedda
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Via Vienna 2, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| | - Elena Baralla
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Via Vienna 2, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
| | - Maria Vittoria Varoni
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Via Vienna 2, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| | - Valeria Pasciu
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Via Vienna 2, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| | - Giuseppa Lorenzoni
- Experimental Zooprophylattic Institute of Sardinia, via Duca degli Abruzzi, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| | - Maria Piera Demontis
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Via Vienna 2, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Zhang LL, Yu RP, Wang LP, Wu SF, Song QJ. Transformation of microcystins to 2-methyl-3-methoxy-4-phenylbutyric acid by room temperature ozone oxidation for rapid quantification of total microcystins. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2016; 18:493-499. [PMID: 26975781 DOI: 10.1039/c5em00588d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Microcystins (MCs) are cyanobacterial hepatotoxins capable of accumulation into animal tissues. To determine the total microcystins in water, a novel analytical method, including ozonolysis, methylation of 2-methyl-3-methoxy-4-phenylbutyric acid (MMPB) with methylchloroformate (MCF) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) detection was developed. The results show that MCs can be oxidized by ozone to produce MMPB at ambient temperature, proving ozonation is an effective, rapid and green method for the transformation of MCs to MMPB without secondary pollution. The oxidation conditions as well as the esterification process were optimized and, subsequently applied to analysis of environmental samples. The method shows wide linear range and high sensitivity with a detection limit of 0.34 μg L(-1). The established method was successfully applied to the analysis of microcystins in water samples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L L Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Food Colloids and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical and Material Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Pekar H, Westerberg E, Bruno O, Lääne A, Persson KM, Sundström L, Thim AM. Fast, rugged and sensitive ultra high pressure liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method for analysis of cyanotoxins in raw water and drinking water—First findings of anatoxins, cylindrospermopsins and microcystin variants in Swedish source waters and infiltration ponds. J Chromatogr A 2016; 1429:265-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2015.12.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Revised: 12/16/2015] [Accepted: 12/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
37
|
Parker CH, Stutts WL, DeGrasse SL. Development and Validation of a Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Method for the Quantitation of Microcystins in Blue-Green Algal Dietary Supplements. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:10303-10312. [PMID: 26466789 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b04292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed for the simultaneous detection and quantitation of seven microcystin congeners (1-7) and nodularin-R (8) in blue-green algal dietary supplements. Single-laboratory method validation data were collected in four supplement matrices (capsule, liquid, powder, and tablet) fortified at toxin concentrations from 0.25-2.00 μg/g (ppm). Average recoveries and relative standard deviations (RSD) using matrix-corrected solvent calibration curves were 101% (6% RSD) for all congeners and supplements investigated. Limits of detection (0.006-0.028 μg/g) and quantitation (0.018-0.084 μg/g) were sufficient to confirm the presence of microcystin contamination at the Oregon-mandated guidance concentration of 1.0 μg of microcystin-LReq/g. Quantitated concentrations of microcystin contamination in market-available Aphanizomenon flos-aquae blue-green algal supplements ranged from 0.18-1.87 μg of microcystin-LReq/g for detected congeners microcystin-LR, microcystin-LA, and microcystin-LY (3-5). Microcystin-RR, -YR, -LW, and -LF and nodularin-R (1, 2, and 6-8) were not detected in the supplements examined.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christine H Parker
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration , Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 5100 Paint Branch Parkway, College Park, Maryland 20740, United States
| | - Whitney L Stutts
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration , Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 5100 Paint Branch Parkway, College Park, Maryland 20740, United States
| | - Stacey L DeGrasse
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration , Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 5100 Paint Branch Parkway, College Park, Maryland 20740, United States
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Hardy FJ, Johnson A, Hamel K, Preece E. Cyanotoxin bioaccumulation in freshwater fish, Washington State, USA. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2015; 187:667. [PMID: 26439121 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-015-4875-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 09/16/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Until recently, exposure pathways of concern for cyanotoxins have focused on recreational exposure, drinking water, and dermal contact. Exposure to cyanotoxins through fish consumption is a relatively new area of investigation. To address this concern, microcystins and other cyanotoxins were analyzed in fish collected from nine Washington lakes with recurrent toxic blooms using two types of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Microcystins or microcystin-like compounds were elevated in fish liver relative to muscle and other tissues (liver>gut>muscle). Microcystin concentrations in fish fillet samples using anti-Adda ELISA (range 6.3-11 μg/kg wet weight) were consistently higher in all fish species than concentrations using anti-microcystin (MC)-leucine-arginine (LR) ELISA (range 0.25-2.4 μg/kg wet weight). MC-leucine-alanine (LA) was the only variant detected in fish (2.5-12 μg/kg in four livers) among the nine variants analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Fish fillets showed no accumulation of the MCs targeted by LC-MS/MS. Other cyanotoxins analyzed (anatoxin-a, saxitoxin, domoic acid, and okadaic acid) were not detected in fish. Based on this and evidence from other studies, we believe that people can safely consume two 8-oz fish fillet meals per week from lakes with blooms producing MCs (clean the fish and discard viscera).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F Joan Hardy
- Washington State Department of Health, PO Box 47846, Olympia, WA, 98504-7846, USA.
| | - Art Johnson
- Washington State Department of Ecology, PO Box 47600, Olympia, WA, 98504-7600, USA
| | - Kathy Hamel
- Washington State Department of Ecology, PO Box 47600, Olympia, WA, 98504-7600, USA
| | - Ellen Preece
- Washington State University, School of the Environment, PO Box 646410, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Pan SD, Chen XH, Li XP, Cai MQ, Shen HY, Zhao YG, Jin MC. Double-sided magnetic molecularly imprinted polymer modified graphene oxide for highly efficient enrichment and fast detection of trace-level microcystins from large-volume water samples combined with liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2015; 1422:1-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2015.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2015] [Revised: 10/02/2015] [Accepted: 10/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
|
40
|
Preece EP, Moore BC, Swanson ME, Hardy FJ. Identifying best methods for routine ELISA detection of microcystin in seafood. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2015; 187:12. [PMID: 25619698 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-014-4255-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2014] [Accepted: 12/29/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Ingestion of water contaminated with the cyanotoxin, microcystin (MC), can pose serious health risks to humans. MC is also known to accumulate in seafood; however, this exposure pathway is much less understood. A fundamental element of this uncertainty is related to analytical difficulties. Commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) offer one of the best options for routine MC detection, but methods of detecting MC in tissue are far from standardized. We spiked freshwater finfish and marine mussel tissues with MC, then compared recovery rates using four different preparation protocols and two ELISA types (polyclonal anti-MC-ADDA/direct monoclonal (DM)). Preparation protocol, type of ELISA, and seafood tissue variety significantly affected MC detection. This is the first known study to use DM ELISA for tissue analyses, and our findings demonstrate that DM ELISA combined with a short solvent extraction results in fewer false positives than other commonly used methods. This method can be used for rapid and reliable MC detection in seafood.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ellen P Preece
- School of the Environment, Washington State University, PO Box 646410, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA,
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Schmidt JR, Wilhelm SW, Boyer GL. The fate of microcystins in the environment and challenges for monitoring. Toxins (Basel) 2014; 6:3354-87. [PMID: 25514094 PMCID: PMC4280539 DOI: 10.3390/toxins6123354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2014] [Revised: 11/29/2014] [Accepted: 12/05/2014] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Microcystins are secondary metabolites produced by cyanobacteria that act as hepatotoxins in higher organisms. These toxins can be altered through abiotic processes, such as photodegradation and adsorption, as well as through biological processes via metabolism and bacterial degradation. Some species of bacteria can degrade microcystins, and many other organisms metabolize microcystins into a series of conjugated products. There are toxicokinetic models used to examine microcystin uptake and elimination, which can be difficult to compare due to differences in compartmentalization and speciation. Metabolites of microcystins are formed as a detoxification mechanism, and little is known about how quickly these metabolites are formed. In summary, microcystins can undergo abiotic and biotic processes that alter the toxicity and structure of the microcystin molecule. The environmental impact and toxicity of these alterations and the metabolism of microcystins remains uncertain, making it difficult to establish guidelines for human health. Here, we present the current state of knowledge regarding the alterations microcystins can undergo in the environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Justine R Schmidt
- Department of Chemistry, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
| | - Steven W Wilhelm
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0845, USA.
| | - Gregory L Boyer
- Department of Chemistry, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Ma J, Yan F, Chen F, Jiang L, Li J, Chen L. C18-Functionalized Magnetic Silica Nanoparticles for Solid Phase Extraction of Microcystin-LR in Reservoir Water Samples Followed by HPLC-DAD Determination. J LIQ CHROMATOGR R T 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/10826076.2014.936611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiping Ma
- Key Lab of Environmental Engineering in Shandong Province, School of Environment & Municipal Engineering, Qingdao Technological University, Qingdao, China
| | - Fengli Yan
- Key Lab of Environmental Engineering in Shandong Province, School of Environment & Municipal Engineering, Qingdao Technological University, Qingdao, China
| | - Fengxi Chen
- School of Chemical Engineering & Pharmacy, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Lianhua Jiang
- Key Lab of Environmental Engineering in Shandong Province, School of Environment & Municipal Engineering, Qingdao Technological University, Qingdao, China
| | - Jinhua Li
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, China
| | - Lingxin Chen
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, China
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Amrani A, Nasri H, Azzouz A, Kadi Y, Bouaïcha N. Variation in cyanobacterial hepatotoxin (microcystin) content of water samples and two species of fishes collected from a shallow lake in Algeria. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2014; 66:379-389. [PMID: 24445842 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-013-9993-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2013] [Accepted: 12/30/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Microcystins (MCs) produced from cyanobacteria can accumulate in freshwater fish tissues. In this study, variations in these toxins content were examined monthly in water samples and two species of fish in Lake Oubeira, Algeria, from April 2010 to March 2011. During the study period, MCs were analyzed using protein phosphatase type 2A (PP2A) inhibition assay. In lake water, total (dissolved and intracellular toxins) MC concentrations by PP2A ranged from 0.028 to 13.4 μg equivalent MC-LR/l, with a peak in September 2010. MC-LR was the dominant variant (90 % of the total) in water samples, followed by MC-YR and MC-(H4)YR. The highest MC concentration in the omnivorous common carp (Cyprinus carpio) was found in the order intestine > hepatopancreas > muscle; however, in the carnivorous European eel (Anguilla anguilla) the order was liver > intestine > muscle. Highest MC concentrations in the intestine tissue of the common carp were found between August and November 2010 where high MC concentrations were detected in water samples, whereas high levels of MCs in the liver of the European eel were found later between January and February 2011. During the entire period of study, the World Health Organization (WHO) lifetime limit for tolerable daily intake was exceeded only in common carp muscle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amina Amrani
- Laboratoire Biodiversité et Pollution des Écosystèmes, Institut des Sciences de la Nature et de la Vie, Université d'El Tarf, 36 000, El Tarf, Algérie
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Bortoli S, Volmer DA. Account: characterization and identification of microcystins by mass spectrometry. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY (CHICHESTER, ENGLAND) 2014; 20:1-19. [PMID: 24881451 DOI: 10.1255/ejms.1250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
In this brief overview, the authors describe mass spectral techniques for the detection and identification of microcystin toxins. Microcystins are secondary metabolites produced by cyanobacteria. Determination of these toxic compounds and discovery of new variants is very important as they pose a great danger to the human food chain. Cyanobacterial blooms frequently occur in many areas worldwide and have the potential to contaminate the water via cyanotoxin release, especially microcystins. Among the various analytical techniques used for analysis, mass spectrometry has become the most important method as it allows simultaneous quantification and structural characterization of multiple microcystin variants. This brief overview article focuses on mass spectrometry techniques for identification of microcystins, including ionization methods, mass spectral fragmentation routes, profiling techniques, tandem and high-resolution mass spectrometry as well as typing of cyanobacterial strains.
Collapse
|
45
|
Kaloudis T, Zervou SK, Tsimeli K, Triantis TM, Fotiou T, Hiskia A. Determination of microcystins and nodularin (cyanobacterial toxins) in water by LC-MS/MS. Monitoring of Lake Marathonas, a water reservoir of Athens, Greece. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2013; 263 Pt 1:105-115. [PMID: 23958137 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2013] [Revised: 07/04/2013] [Accepted: 07/17/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
A method for the determination of the hepatotoxic cyanotoxins microcystins (MCs, i.e. MC-LR, MC-RR, MC-YR, MC-LA) and nodularin (NOD) in water was developed using liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) after solid phase extraction (SPE). New patterns of fragmentation of MC-LA were observed under the experimental conditions used. The method was fully validated to meet accreditation criteria. Mean recoveries at three concentration levels (0.006, 0.1 and 1 μg L(-1)) ranged between 70 and 114% with %RSD values generally below 20%. Detection limits were 2 ng L(-1) for all hepatotoxins. The method was applied to study the occurrence of MCs and NOD in Lake Marathonas, a water reservoir of Athens, over a period from July 2007 to December 2010. The protein phosphatase inhibition assay (PPIA) was additionally used for fast screening of samples. MC-YR, MC-LR and MC-RR were detected and found to vary seasonally with consistent peaks during early autumn, having maximum concentrations of 717, 451 and 174 ng L(-1), respectively. The results of this study constitute the first report on the presence, concentration levels and seasonal variations of MCs in Lake Marathonas. None of the target cyanotoxins were detected in treated drinking water samples during the period of the study.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Triantafyllos Kaloudis
- Quality Control Department, Athens Water Supply and Sewerage Company (EYDAP SA), Oropou 156, 11146 Galatsi, Athens, Greece
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Rodrigues M, Reis M, Mateus M. Liquid chromatography/negative electrospray ionization ion trap MS2 mass spectrometry application for the determination of microcystins occurrence in Southern Portugal water reservoirs. Toxicon 2013; 74:8-18. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2013] [Revised: 07/15/2013] [Accepted: 07/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
47
|
Variations in the microcystin content of different fish species collected from a eutrophic lake. Toxins (Basel) 2013; 5:992-1009. [PMID: 23676698 PMCID: PMC3709275 DOI: 10.3390/toxins5050992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2013] [Revised: 04/30/2013] [Accepted: 05/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Microcystins produced from cyanobacteria can accumulate in fish tissues. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is an attractive alternative to immunoassays for the determination of low concentrations of microcystins in tissues. Fish taken from Grand Lake St. Marys, a eutrophic lake in Ohio, USA, were analyzed for microcystin-LR in their fillets using LC-MS/MS. Of 129 fish tested for microcystins, only black crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) tested positive for microcystin-LR. Less than 10% of Pomoxis and 7% of Cyprinus samples contained measurable levels of microcystin-LR. Statistical analysis yielded a p-value of 0.07 between Pomoxis and the pooled results of the other four fish species. However, this comparison was complicated by the large difference in sample size between species. Further sampling in Grand Lake St. Marys for microcystin-LR would help determine if microcystin-LR exposure occurs through foodweb transfer.
Collapse
|
48
|
Hayama T, Katoh K, Aoki T, Itoyama M, Todoroki K, Yoshida H, Yamaguchi M, Nohta H. Liquid chromatographic determination of microcystins in water samples following pre-column excimer fluorescence derivatization with 4-(1-pyrene)butanoic acid hydrazide. Anal Chim Acta 2012; 755:93-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2012.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2012] [Revised: 09/27/2012] [Accepted: 10/04/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
49
|
Determination of six microcystins and nodularin in surface and drinking waters by on-line solid phase extraction–ultra high pressure liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1266:61-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2012] [Revised: 09/27/2012] [Accepted: 10/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
50
|
Gambaro A, Barbaro E, Zangrando R, Barbante C. Simultaneous quantification of microcystins and nodularin in aerosol samples using high-performance liquid chromatography/negative electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2012; 26:1497-1506. [PMID: 22592994 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.6246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Cyanobacteria are a small group of photosynthetic planktonic bacteria, producing a large group of strong hepatotoxins called microcystins (MCs). Many studies have been conducted to evaluate the presence of MCs and nodularin (NOD) in water or in marine organisms, but little research has been done on the atmospheric environment. Waterborne toxins can be found in the aerosol phase due to bubble-bursting processes. METHODS The aim of this study was to obtain a sensitive method for the simultaneous determination of trace concentrations of individual cyanotoxins in aerosol samples, using liquid chromatography coupled with a triple quadrupole (HPLC/MS/MS). During method development improved electrospray ionization was found in negative ion mode. In contrast with other authors, we have developed a chromatographic separation using alkaline conditions, thus achieving good resolution, improved electrospray ionization and therefore better sensitivity. RESULTS A sensitive analytical method was set up to simultaneously measure trace concentrations of cyanotoxins in aerosol samples in a single chromatographic analysis using the internal standard method. The limit of detection for all the toxins was determined to be between 1 fg/μL (MC LA and LF) and 9 fg/μL (NOD). CONCLUSIONS The method was applied to ten aerosol samples from the Venice Lagoon. In these samples, trace concentrations of MC-LA ranging between 90 fg m(-3) and 706 fg m(-3), MC-LF between n.d. and 369 fg m(-3) and MC-LW between n.d. and 262 fg m(-3). This is the first study to quantify the cyanotoxins in Venetian aerosol samples using the HPLC/(-)ESI-MS/MS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Gambaro
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Informatics and Statistics (DAIS), University of Venice, Ca' Foscari, Calle Larga Santa Marta 2137, 30123 Venice, Italy
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|