Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with photo-diode array and quadrupole/time-of-flight mass spectrometry based chemical profiling approach to evaluate the influence of preparation methods on the holistic quality of Qiong-Yu-Gao, a traditional complex herbal medicine

Gut Microbiota Mediates the Protective Effects of Traditional Chinese Medicine Formula Qiong-Yu-Gao against Cisplatin-Induced Acute Kidney Injury

Our previous study found that Qiong-Yu-Gao (QYG), a traditional Chinese medicine formula derived from Rehmanniae Radix, Poria, and Ginseng Radix, has protective effects against cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury (AKI), but the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. In the present study, the potential role of gut microbiota in the nephroprotective effects of QYG was investigated. We found that QYG treatment significantly attenuated cisplatin-induced AKI and gut dysbiosis, altered the levels of bacterial metabolites, with short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) such as acetic acid and butyric acid increasing and uremic toxins such as indoxyl sulfate and p-cresyl sulfate reducing, and suppressed histone deacetylase expression and activity. Spearman's correlation analysis found that QYG-enriched fecal bacterial genera Akkermansia, Faecalibaculum, Bifidobacterium, and Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group were correlated with the altered metabolites, and these metabolites were also correlated with the biomarkers of AKI, as well as the indicators of fibrosis and inflammation. The essential role of gut microbiota was further verified by both the diminished protective effects with antibiotics-induced gut microbiota depletion and the transferable renal protection with fecal microbiota transplantation. All these results suggested that gut microbiota mediates the nephroprotective effects of QYG against cisplatin-induced AKI, potentially via increasing the production of SCFAs, thus suppressing histone deacetylase expression and activity, and reducing the accumulation of uremic toxins, thereby alleviating fibrosis, inflammation, and apoptosis in renal tissue. IMPORTANCE Cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury is the main limiting factor restricting cisplatin's clinical application. Accumulating evidence indicated the important role of gut microbiota in pathogenesis of acute kidney injury. In the present study, we have demonstrated that gut microbiota mediates the protective effects of traditional Chinese medicine formula Qiong-Yu-Gao against cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury. The outputs of this study would provide scientific basis for future clinical applications of QYG as prebiotics to treat cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury, and gut microbiota may be a promising therapeutic target for chemotherapy-induced nephrotoxicity.

Qualitative analysis on chemical constituents from different polarity extracted fractions of the pulp and peel of ginger rhizomes by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

Ginger pulp is the dried rhizome scraped off the skin which originates from Zingiber officinale Rosc., a Zingiberaceae plant. Ginger peel is the dried rhizome skin of Zingiber officinale Rosc. (Zingiberaceae). The present work aims to investigate the different chemical constituents that are related to the medicinal properties of the ginger pulp and ginger peel.

METHODS

A rapid ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC/ESI-QTOF/MS) method was developed for qualitative analysis of the constituents in different polarity extracted fractions of the pulp and peel of ginger rhizomes.

RESULTS

A total of 83 compounds were identified from the pulp and peel of ginger rhizomes, including 36 diarylheptanoids, 25 gingerols and 22 other compounds. Nine of these were new compounds. In total, 46, 27, 65 and 51 compounds were identified from the crude extract, petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, and n-butanol fractions of the ginger pulp, respectively, and 60, 30, 70 and 62 compounds were identified from the crude extract, petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, n-butanol fractions of the ginger peel, respectively. Each identified compound is marked on the corresponding chromatogram.

CONCLUSIONS

The integrated method is sensitive and reliable for searching the different chemical constituents from different polarity extracted fractions of the ginger pulp and ginger peel. This work may provide a significant contribution to research into the medicinal properties of the ginger pulp and ginger peel.

Exploring the Active Components of Simotang Oral Liquid and Their Potential Mechanism of Action on Gastrointestinal Disorders by Integrating Ultrahigh-Pressure Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Linear Ion Trap-Orbitrap Analysis and Network Pharmacology

Simotang oral liquid (SMT), a well-known traditional Chinese medicine formula composed of four medicinal and edible plants, has been extensively used for treating gastrointestinal disorders (GIDs) since ancient times. However, the major active constituents and the underlying molecular mechanism of SMT on GIDs are still partially understood. Herein, the preliminary chemical profile of SMT was first identified by ultrahigh-pressure liquid chromatography coupled with linear ion trap-Orbitrap tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap). In total, 70 components were identified. Then, a network pharmacology approach integrating target prediction, pathway enrichment analysis, and network construction was adopted to explore the therapeutic mechanism of SMT. As a result, 170 main targets were screened out and considered as effective players in ameliorating GIDs. More importantly, the major hubs were found to be highly enriched in a calcium signaling pathway. Furthermore, 26 core SMT-related genes were identified, which may play key roles in ameliorating gastrointestinal motility. In conclusion, this work would provide valuable information for further development and clinical application of SMT.

Role of gut microbiota in identification of novel TCM-derived active metabolites

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has been extensively used to ameliorate diseases in Asia for over thousands of years. However, owing to a lack of formal scientific validation, the absence of information regarding the mechanisms underlying TCMs restricts their application. After oral administration, TCM herbal ingredients frequently are not directly absorbed by the host, but rather enter the intestine to be transformed by gut microbiota. The gut microbiota is a microbial community living in animal intestines, and functions to maintain host homeostasis and health. Increasing evidences indicate that TCM herbs closely affect gut microbiota composition, which is associated with the conversion of herbal components into active metabolites. These may significantly affect the therapeutic activity of TCMs. Microbiota analyses, in conjunction with modern multiomics platforms, can together identify novel functional metabolites and form the basis of future TCM research.

Effects of chromatographic conditions and mass spectrometric parameters on the ionization and fragmentation of triterpene saponins of Ilex asprella in liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis

High performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-QTOF-MS) is widely used to qualitatively characterize the chemical profiles of herbal medicines, in which the generated adducts and fragments are crucial for confirming molecular ion (deprotonated/protonated ion) and deducing structure of detected components. However, how chromatographic and mass spectrometric (LC-MS) conditions/parameters affect the quantity and intensity of adducts and fragments of detected components is scarcely concerned. In present study, three types of triterpene saponins from the root of Ilex asprella (RIA) were selected as a case study to systematically investigate the effects of LC/MS conditions/parameters on their ionization and fragmentation, so as to obtain higher intensity (higher detection sensitivity) and quantity (rich information) of adducts and fragments for the characterization of components in RIA. It was found that for LC conditions, methanol as organic phase was more benefit for generating more adducts with higher intensity; formic acid as a modifier suppressed the formation of [M-2H]^2-, thus promoted the generation of other types of adducts at lower concentration but inhibited the generation when the concentration exceeded 0.1%. MS parameters affect scarcely the quantity but mainly intensity of adducts, cone voltage, source temperature and desolvation gas flow have relatively higher impacts when compared with other parameters. Collision energy affected both quantity and intensity of fragments. MS parameters at the medium value largely increased the quantity and intensity of adducts and fragments. Three-types of triterpene saponins presented structurally specific ionization and fragmentation due to their amounts of acidic substitutes. A total of 55 components were detected and definitely or tentatively identified in RIA under the optimized LC-MS conditions, among which 35 triterpene saponins were firstly discovered. This is the first report that proposes and validates a systematic approach for assessing the effects of LC/MS conditions/parameters on the ionization and fragmentation of analytes, which could be helpful for the optimization of LC-MS conditions for effective chemical profiling analysis of herbal medicines.

Comparisons of antithrombosis, hematopoietic effects and chemical profiles of dried and rice wine-processed Rehmanniae Radix extracts

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), Rehmanniae Radix (RR, derived from the root of Rehmannia glutinosa (Gaertn.) DC.) is commonly used as natural medicine for thousands of years, two types including the dried and rice-wine processed RR were used for different clinical purposes respectively, which were the typical case that pharmaceutical effect changed by processing in TCM.

AIM OF STUDY

The goal of this study was to investigate the differences in the antithrombosis and hematopoietic effects of extracts of dried and processed RR (DRR and PRR) in vivo, and to explore the chemical basis underlying changes of medicinal properties caused by processing.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The aqueous extracts of DRR and PRR were prepared. Protective effect of varying doses of different extracts were investigated in type-I carrageenan induced mice tail thrombosis and cyclophosphamide induced myelosuppression model. The chemical composition of DRR and PRR extracts were determined by High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with tandem quadrupole time-of-flight Mass Spectrometry (HPLC/Q-TOF-MS).

RESULTS

In antithrombosis activity tests, PRR possessed less ameliorated effects than DRR in the model mouse on body temperature, tail thrombus length and blood flow. Both DRR and PRR had no significant influence on prothrombin time (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), only high dose DRR could decrease the content of fibrinogen (FIB) in plasma. Histological examination of lung tissue suggested that thrombosis was significantly improved in DRR-H group. For myelosuppression model, only PRR could improve peripheral hemogram, both DRR and PRR had hematopoietic effects as demonstrated by their abilities to ameliorate the bone marrow nucleated cells (BMNC) and pathology of bone marrow tissue. The hematopoietic effects of PRR were significantly more potent than that of DRR at the concentration of 9 g/kg. By comparing the chemical composition, we found that iridoid glycosides were decreased and furfural derivatives increased in DRR after processing which may be the chemical mechanism contribute to the differences in efficacy.

CONCLUSIONS

According to the results of this research, processing with rice wine for nine cycles significantly reduced antithrombotic effects and enhanced the hematopoietic effects of DRR as demonstrated in model mice. It can scientifically explain the different effect among two types of RR in clinical through the diverse method of processing and usage. Meanwhile, the predicted activity compounds from two types of RR can be potential candidates for the treatment of thrombosis and anemia.

Radix Rehmanniae Extract Ameliorates Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis by Suppressing Macrophage-Derived Nitrative Damage

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neuroinflammatory disease in central nervous system (CNS) without effective treatment or medication yet. With high prevalence of MS patients worldwide and poor therapeutic outcome, seeking novel therapeutic strategy for MS is timely important. Radix Rehmanniae (RR), a typical Chinese Medicinal herb, has been used for neuroinflammatory diseases in Traditional Chinese Medicine for centuries. However, scientific evidence and underlying mechanisms of RR for MS are unclear. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that RR could attenuate the progress and severity of MS via suppressing macrophage-derived nitrative damage and inflammation by using experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model for mimicking MS pathology. The results showed the RR treatment effectively ameliorated clinical disease severity, inhibited inflammation/demyelination in spinal cord, and alleviated CNS infiltration of encephalitogenic T cells and activated macrophages. Meanwhile, RR possessed bioactivities of scavenging ONOO- and reducing the expression of iNOS and NADPH oxidases in the spinal cords of the EAE mice. Furthermore, RR treatment suppressed nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway in the splenocytes of EAE mice. The in vitro experiments on macrophages and neuronal cells exerted consistent results with the in vivo animal experiments. Taken together, we conclude that Radix Rehmanniae extract has therapeutic values for ameliorating EAE/MS pathological process and disease severity and its underlying mechanisms are associated with anti-inflammation and inhibiting macrophage-derived nitrative damages. Further study could yield novel promising therapeutic agent for multiple sclerosis.

Rapid HPLC Analytical Method Development for Herbal Medicine Formulae Based on Retention Rules Acquired from the Constituting Herbs

Herbal medicine (HM) formulae are the combinations of two or more types of constituting herbs. This study has proposed a novel approach to efficiently develop HPLC methods for HM formulae, which take advantage of the mutual retention rules between HM formulae and their constituting herbs. An HM formula composed of two herbs, Radix Salviae Miltiorrhizae and Rhizoma Chuanxiong, was taken as a case study. Based on design of experiments and stepwise multiple linear regression, models relating the analytical parameters to the chromatographic parameters were built (correlation coefficients >0.9870) for chemical compounds in the two herbs. These models representing the retention rules were utilized to predict the elution profile of the formula. The analytical parameters were numerically optimized to ensure adequate separation of the analytes. In validation experiments, satisfactory separations were achieved without any pre-experiments on the formula. The approach can significantly increase the HPLC method development efficiency for HM formulae.

Chemomics-based marker compounds mining and mimetic processing for exploring chemical mechanisms in traditional processing of herbal medicines, a continuous study on Rehmanniae Radix

Exploring processing chemistry, in particular the chemical transformation mechanisms involved, is a key step to elucidate the scientific basis in traditional processing of herbal medicines. Previously, taking Rehmanniae Radix (RR) as a case study, the holistic chemome (secondary metabolome and glycome) difference between raw and processed RR was revealed by integrating hyphenated chromatographic techniques-based targeted glycomics and untargeted metabolomics. Nevertheless, the complex chemical transformation mechanisms underpinning the holistic chemome variation in RR processing remain to be extensively clarified. As a continuous study, here a novel strategy by combining chemomics-based marker compounds mining and mimetic processing is proposed for further exploring the chemical mechanisms involved in herbal processing. First, the differential marker compounds between raw and processed herbs were rapidly discovered by untargeted chemomics-based mining approach through multivariate statistical analysis of the chemome data obtained by integrated metabolomics and glycomics analysis. Second, the marker compounds were mimetically processed under the simulated physicochemical conditions as in the herb processing, and the final reaction products were chemically characterized by targeted chemomics-based mining approach. Third, the main chemical transformation mechanisms involved were clarified by linking up the original marker compounds and their mimetic processing products. Using this strategy, a set of differential marker compounds including saccharides, glycosides and furfurals in raw and processed RR was rapidly found, and the major chemical mechanisms involved in RR processing were elucidated as stepwise transformations of saccharides (polysaccharides, oligosaccharides and monosaccharides) and glycosides (iridoid glycosides and phenethylalcohol glycosides) into furfurals (glycosylated/non-glycosylated hydroxymethylfurfurals) by deglycosylation and/or dehydration. The research deliverables indicated that the proposed strategy could advance the understanding of RR processing chemistry, and therefore may be considered a promising approach for delving into the scientific basis in traditional processing of herbal medicines.

Designing a broad-spectrum integrative approach for cancer prevention and treatment

Targeted therapies and the consequent adoption of "personalized" oncology have achieved notable successes in some cancers; however, significant problems remain with this approach. Many targeted therapies are highly toxic, costs are extremely high, and most patients experience relapse after a few disease-free months. Relapses arise from genetic heterogeneity in tumors, which harbor therapy-resistant immortalized cells that have adopted alternate and compensatory pathways (i.e., pathways that are not reliant upon the same mechanisms as those which have been targeted). To address these limitations, an international task force of 180 scientists was assembled to explore the concept of a low-toxicity "broad-spectrum" therapeutic approach that could simultaneously target many key pathways and mechanisms. Using cancer hallmark phenotypes and the tumor microenvironment to account for the various aspects of relevant cancer biology, interdisciplinary teams reviewed each hallmark area and nominated a wide range of high-priority targets (74 in total) that could be modified to improve patient outcomes. For these targets, corresponding low-toxicity therapeutic approaches were then suggested, many of which were phytochemicals. Proposed actions on each target and all of the approaches were further reviewed for known effects on other hallmark areas and the tumor microenvironment. Potential contrary or procarcinogenic effects were found for 3.9% of the relationships between targets and hallmarks, and mixed evidence of complementary and contrary relationships was found for 7.1%. Approximately 67% of the relationships revealed potentially complementary effects, and the remainder had no known relationship. Among the approaches, 1.1% had contrary, 2.8% had mixed and 62.1% had complementary relationships. These results suggest that a broad-spectrum approach should be feasible from a safety standpoint. This novel approach has potential to be relatively inexpensive, it should help us address stages and types of cancer that lack conventional treatment, and it may reduce relapse risks. A proposed agenda for future research is offered.

Developing an Absorption-Based Quality Control Method for Hu-Gan-Kang-Yuan Capsules by UFLC-QTOF-MS/MS Screening and HPLC-DAD Quantitative Determination

Traditional Chinese Medicine Preparations (TCMPs) contain massive numbers of ingredients responsible for their multiple efficacies. An absorption–based quality control method for complicated TCMPs using Hu–gan–kang–yuan Capsule (HGKYC) as an example was developed. To select proper chemical markers for quality control of HGKYC, an ultra–fast liquid chromatography (UFLC) coupled with electrospray ionization quadrupole time–off light mass spectrometry (UFLC–QTOF–MS/MS) method was used for the rapid separation and structural identification of the constituents in the HGKYC extract and the rat serum after oral administration of HGKYC. As a result, one hundred and seven prototype constituents including flavonoids, organic acid, phenylpropanoids, anthraquinones, saponins, alkaloids, terpenes, phenols and amino acids in HGKYC extract, and 43 compounds found in rat serum after oral administration of HGKYC were unambiguously identified or tentatively characterized by comparing retention times and MS information with those of authentic standards or available literature references. Finally, a simple, low–cost and effective method of simultaneous determination for baicalein, wogonin, paeonol and emodin in HGKYC was developed using high performance liquid chromatography coupled with a diode array detector. In conclusion, an absorption–based quality control pattern was developed and successfully used for evaluating HGKYC.

Gut microbiota-involved mechanisms in enhancing systemic exposure of ginsenosides by coexisting polysaccharides in ginseng decoction

Oral decoctions of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) serve for therapeutic and prophylactic management of diseases for centuries. Small molecules and polysaccharides are the dominant chemicals co-occurred in the TCM decoction. Small molecules are well-studied by multidisciplinary elaborations, whereas the role of polysaccharides remains largely elusive. Here we explore a gut microbiota-involved mechanism by which TCM polysaccharides restore the homeostasis of gut microbiota and consequently promote the systemic exposure of concomitant small molecules in the decoction. As a case study, ginseng polysaccharides and ginsenosides in Du-Shen-Tang, the decoction of ginseng, were investigated on an over-fatigue and acute cold stress model. The results indicated that ginseng polysaccharides improved intestinal metabolism and absorption of certain ginsenosides, meanwhile reinstated the perturbed holistic gut microbiota, and particularly enhanced the growth of Lactobacillus spp. and Bacteroides spp., two major metabolic bacteria of ginsenosides. By exploring the synergistic actions of polysaccharides with small molecules, these findings shed new light on scientization and rationalization of the classic TCM decoctions in human health care.

Neutral Loss Ion Mapping Experiment Combined with Precursor Mass List and Dynamic Exclusion for Screening Unstable Malonyl Glucoside Conjugates

Malonates are one type of the acylation conjugates and found abundantly in ginseng and soybean. Malonyl conjugates of ginsenosides and isoflavone glycosides were often considered as the characteristic components to evaluate various species and different forms of ginseng and soybean products because of their thermal instability. Another famous isoflavonoid-rich leguminous traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), named Puerarin lobata (Gegen), has also been reported to contain malonyl daidzin and malonyl genistin. However, the conjugates were found to present in very low amount and particularly unstable in the negative ion mode scan using LTQ Orbitrap mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization (ESI). In order to screen and characterize the malonyl conjugates in Gegen, a specific method was designed and developed combining neutral loss ion mapping (NLIM) experiment and precursor mass list (PL) triggered data dependent acquisition (DDA). Along with the activation of dynamic exclusion (DE), the method was proven to be specific and efficient for searching the malonate derivatives from Gegen. Two samples were examined by the established method. A total of 66 compounds were found, and 43 of them were malonates of isoflavone glycoside. Very few compounds were reported previously in Gegen. The results are helpful to understand the constituents of Gegen with more insight. The study not only provided a method for analyzing the malonyl conjugates from complex matrices but also explored a way to trace other low amount components in TCMs.

Ancient Chinese Formula Qiong-Yu-Gao Protects Against Cisplatin-Induced Nephrotoxicity Without Reducing Anti-tumor Activity

Cisplatin is a highly effective anti-cancer chemotherapeutic agent; however, its clinical use is severely limited by serious side effects, of which nephrotoxicity is the most important. In this study, we investigated whether Qiong-Yu-Gao (QYG), a popular traditional Chinese medicinal formula described 840 years ago, exhibits protective effects against cisplatin-induced renal toxicity. Using a mouse model of cisplatin-induced renal dysfunction, we observed that pretreatment with QYG attenuated cisplatin-induced elevations in blood urea nitrogen and creatinine levels, ameliorated renal tubular lesions, reduced apoptosis, and accelerated tubular cell regeneration. Cisplatin-mediated elevations in tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) mRNA, interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) mRNA, and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) protein in the kidney were also significantly suppressed by QYG treatment. Furthermore, QYG reduced platinum accumulation in the kidney by decreasing the expression of copper transporter 1 and organic cation transporter 2. An in vivo study using implanted Lewis lung cancer cells revealed that concurrent administration of QYG and cisplatin did not alter the anti-tumor activity of cisplatin. Our findings suggest that the traditional Chinese medicinal formula QYG inhibits cisplatin toxicity by several mechanisms that act simultaneously, without compromising its therapeutic efficacy. Therefore, QYG may be useful in the clinic as a protective agent to prevent cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity.

Selective ion monitoring of quinochalcone C-glycoside markers for the simultaneous identification of Carthamus tinctorius L. in eleven Chinese patent medicines by UHPLC/QTOF MS

Current China Pharmacopoeia standards for the Chinese patent medicines (CPMs) that contain one or several the same drug(s) employ case-dependent TLC or HPLC approaches to achieve qualitative identification. A qualitative "monomethod-heterotrait matrix" (MHM) strategy is thus proposed, by selective monitoring of multi-biomarkers, to achieve the identification of different CPMs. Carthamus tinctorius L. (safflower) is a reputable gynecological herbal medicine containing characteristic quinochalcone C-glycosides (QCGs) as the major bioactive components. Qualitative identification of safflower in diverse CPMs by selective monitoring of QCG markers was performed by use of the MHM strategy. Initially, 27 QCG analogs (involving 16 potentially new ones) were selectively characterized by product ion filtering (m/z 119.05) and integrated analysis of the negative mode MS(E) and Fast DDA data obtained on a UHPLC/QTOF mass spectrometer. Subsequently, by fingerprint analysis of 20 batches of safflower samples followed by a thermostable test, six QCGs (hydroxysafflor yellow A and its two isomers, anhydrosafflor yellow B, safflomin C, and isosafflomin C) were selected as the biomarkers for safflower. Then, a highly specific selective ion monitoring (SIM) method by recording centroided data was developed and applied to selectively profile six QCG biomarkers from 28 batches of CPM samples collected from versatile vendors. By reference to a standard SIM spectrum established using a home-made safflower reference extract, simultaneous identification of safflower in eleven different CPMs was accomplished with the unified sample preparation and a single UHPLC/QTOF-SIM method. The qualitative MHM strategy represents the novel methodology that facilitates the quality control of CPMs more efficiently.

Comparative study on intestinal metabolism and absorption in vivo of ginsenosides in sulphur-fumigated and non-fumigated ginseng by ultra performance liquid chromatography quadruple time-of-flight mass spectrometry based chemical profiling approach

Our previous study indicated that sulphur-fumigation of ginseng in post-harvest handling processes could induce chemical transformation of ginsenosides to generate multiple ginsenoside sulphur derivatives. In this study, the influence of sulphur-fumigation on intestinal metabolism and absorption in vivo of ginsenosides in ginseng was sequentially studied. The intestinal metabolic and absorbed profiles of ginsenosides in rats after intra-gastric (i.g.) administration of sulphur-fumigated ginseng (SFG) and non-fumigated ginseng (NFG) were comparatively characterized by a newly established ultra performance liquid chromatography quadruple time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS) with electrospray ionization negative (ESI-) mode. A novel strategy based on the characteristic product ions and fragmentation pathways of different types of aglycones (saponin skeletons) and glycosyl moieties was proposed and successfully applied to rapid structural identification of ginsenoside sulphur derivatives and relevant metabolites. In total, 18 ginsenoside sulphur derivatives and 26 ginsenoside sulphur derivative metabolites in the faeces together with six ginsenoside sulphur derivatives in the plasma were identified in the SFG-administrated group but not in the NFG-administrated group. The results clearly demonstrated that the intestinal metabolic and absorbed profiles of ginsenosides in sulphur-fumigated and non-fumigated ginseng were quite different, which inspired that sulphur-fumigation of ginseng should not be recommended before the bioactivity and toxicity of the ginsenoside sulphur derivatives were systematically evaluated.