Functions of mitochondrial ISCU and cytosolic ISCU in mammalian iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis and iron homeostasis

Glial ferritin maintains neural stem cells via transporting iron required for self-renewal in Drosophila

Stem cell niche is critical for regulating the behavior of stem cells. Drosophila neural stem cells (Neuroblasts, NBs) are encased by glial niche cells closely, but it still remains unclear whether glial niche cells can regulate the self-renewal and differentiation of NBs. Here, we show that ferritin produced by glia, cooperates with Zip13 to transport iron into NBs for the energy production, which is essential to the self-renewal and proliferation of NBs. The knockdown of glial ferritin encoding genes causes energy shortage in NBs via downregulating aconitase activity and NAD+ level, which leads to the low proliferation and premature differentiation of NBs mediated by Prospero entering nuclei. More importantly, ferritin is a potential target for tumor suppression. In addition, the level of glial ferritin production is affected by the status of NBs, establishing a bicellular iron homeostasis. In this study, we demonstrate that glial cells are indispensable to maintain the self-renewal of NBs, unveiling a novel role of the NB glial niche during brain development.

Mitochondrial acyl carrier protein, Acp1, required for iron-sulfur cluster assembly in mitochondria and cytoplasm in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Mitochondria perform vital biosynthetic processes, including fatty acid synthesis and iron-sulfur (FeS) cluster biogenesis. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae mitochondria, the acyl carrier protein Acp1 participates in type II fatty acid synthesis, requiring a 4-phosphopantetheine (PP) prosthetic group. Acp1 also interacts with the mitochondrial FeS cluster assembly complex that contains the cysteine desulfurase Nfs1. Here we investigated the role of Acp1 in FeS cluster biogenesis in mitochondria and cytoplasm. In the Acp1-depleted (Acp1↓) cells, biogenesis of mitochondrial FeS proteins was impaired, likely due to greatly reduced Nfs1 protein and/or its persulfide-forming activity. Formation of cytoplasmic FeS proteins was also deficient, suggesting a disruption in generating the (Fe-S)int intermediate, that is exported from mitochondria and is subsequently utilized for cytoplasmic FeS cluster assembly. Iron homeostasis was perturbed, with enhanced iron uptake into the cells and accumulation of iron in mitochondria. The Δppt2 strain, lacking the mitochondrial ability to add PP to Acp1, phenocopied the Acp1↓ cells. These data suggest that the holo form of Acp1 with the PP-conjugated acyl chain is required for stability of the Nfs1 protein and/or stimulation of its persulfide-forming activity. Thus, mitochondria lacking Acp1 (or Ppt2) cannot support FeS cluster biogenesis in mitochondria or cytoplasm, leading to disrupted iron homeostasis.

Mechanism of mitochondrial [2Fe-2S] cluster biosynthesis

Iron‑sulfur (Fe-S) clusters constitute ancient cofactors that accompany a versatile range of fundamental biological reactions across eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Several cellular pathways exist to coordinate iron acquisition and sulfur mobilization towards a scaffold protein during the tightly regulated synthesis of Fe-S clusters. The mechanism of mitochondrial eukaryotic [2Fe-2S] cluster synthesis is coordinated by the Iron-Sulfur Cluster (ISC) machinery and its aberrations herein have strong implications to the field of disease and medicine which is therefore of particular interest. Here, we describe our current knowledge on the step-by-step mechanism leading to the production of mitochondrial [2Fe-2S] clusters while highlighting the recent developments in the field alongside the challenges that are yet to be overcome.

Iron regulatory protein 1 is required for the propagation of inflammation in inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) are complex disorders. Iron accumulates in the inflamed tissue of IBD patients, yet neither a mechanism for the accumulation nor its implication on the course of inflammation is known. We hypothesized that the inflammation modifies iron homeostasis, affects tissue iron distribution, and that this in turn perpetuates the inflammation. This study analyzed human biopsies, animal models, and cellular systems to decipher the role of iron homeostasis in IBD. We found inflammation-mediated modifications of iron distribution, and iron-decoupled activation of the iron regulatory protein (IRP) 1. To understand the role of IRP1 in the course of this inflammation-associated iron pattern, a novel cellular coculture model was established, which replicated the iron-pattern observed in vivo, and supported involvement of nitric oxide in the activation of IRP1 and the typical iron pattern in inflammation. Importantly, deletion of IRP1 from an IBD mouse model completely abolished both, the misdistribution of iron and intestinal inflammation. These findings suggest that IRP1 plays a central role in the coordination of the inflammatory response in the intestinal mucosa and that it is a viable candidate for therapeutic intervention in IBD.

The deletion of ppr2 interferes iron sensing and leads to oxidative stress response in Schizosaccharomyces pombe

Pentatricopeptide repeat proteins are involved in mitochondrial both transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation. Schizosaccharomyces pombe Ppr2 is a general mitochondrial translation factor that plays a critical role in the synthesis of all mitochondrial DNA-encoded oxidative phosphorylation subunits, which are essential for mitochondrial respiration. Our previous analysis showed that ppr2 deletion resulted in increased expression of iron uptake genes and caused ferroptosis-like cell death in S. pombe. In the present work, we showed that deletion of ppr2 reduced viability on glycerol- and galactose-containing media.Php4 is a transcription repressor that regulates iron homeostasis in fission yeast. We found that in the ppr2 deletion strain, Php4 was constitutively active and accumulated in the nucleus in the stationary phase. We also found that deletion of ppr2 decreased the ferroptosis-related protein Gpx1 in the mitochondria. Overexpression of Gpx1 improves the viability of Δppr2 cells. We showed that the deletion of ppr2 increased the production of ROS, downregulated heme synthesis and iron-sulfur cluster proteins, and induced stress proteins. Finally, we observed the nuclear accumulation of Pap1-GFP and Sty1-GFP, suggesting that Sty1 and Pap1 in response to cellular stress in the ppr2 deletion strain. These results suggest thatppr2 deletion may cause mitochondrial dysfunction, which is likely to lead to iron-sensing defect and iron starvation response, resulting in perturbation of iron homeostasis and increased hydroxyl radical production. The increased hydroxyl radical production triggers cellular responses in theppr2 deletion strain.

Ferroptosis and cuproptposis in kidney Diseases: dysfunction of cell metabolism

Metal ions play an important role in living organisms and are involved in essential physiological activities. However, the overload state of ions can cause excess free radicals, cell damage, and even cell death. Ferroptosis and cuproptosis are specific forms of cell death that are distinct from apoptosis, necroptosis, and other regulated cell death. These unique modalities of cell death, dependent on iron and copper, are regulated by multiple cellular metabolic pathways, including steady-state metal redox treatment mitochondrial activity of lipid, amino acid and glucose metabolism, and various signaling pathways associated with disease. Although the mechanisms of ferroptosis and cuproptosis are not yet fully understood, there is no doubt that ion overload plays a crucial act in these metal-dependent cell deaths. In this review, we discussed the core roles of ion overload in ferroptosis and cuproptosis, the association between metabolism imbalance and ferroptosis and cuproptosis, the extract the diseases caused by ion overload and current treatment modalities.

NCOA4 requires a [3Fe-4S] to sense and maintain the iron homeostasis

NCOA4 is a selective cargo receptor for ferritinophagy, the autophagic turnover of ferritin (FTH), a process critical for regulating intracellular iron bioavailability. However, how ferritinophagy flux is controlled through NCOA4 in iron-dependent processes needs to be better understood. Here, we show that the C-terminal FTH-binding domain of NCOA4 harbors a [3Fe-4S]-binding site with a stoichiometry of approximately one labile [3Fe-4S] cluster per NCOA4 monomer. By analyzing the interaction between NCOA4 and HERC2 ubiquitin ligase or NCOA4 and FTH, we demonstrate that NCOA4 regulates ferritinophagy by sensing the intracellular iron-sulfur cluster levels. Under iron-repletion conditions, HERC2 recognizes and recruits holo-NCOA4 as a substrate for polyubiquitination and degradation, favoring ferritin iron storage. Under iron-depletion conditions, NCOA4 exists in the form of apo-protein and binds ferritin to promote the occurrence of ferritinophagy and release iron. Thus, we identify an iron-sulfur cluster [3Fe-4S] as a critical cofactor in determining the fate of NCOA4 in favoring iron storage in ferritin or iron release via ferritinophagy and provide a dual mechanism for selective interaction between HERC2 and [3Fe-4S]-NCOA4 for proteasomal degradation or between ferritin and apo-NCOA4 for ferritinophagy in the control of iron homeostasis.

Examining the Role of a Functional Deficiency of Iron in Lysosomal Storage Disorders with Translational Relevance to Alzheimer's Disease

The recently presented Azalea Hypothesis for Alzheimer's disease asserts that iron becomes sequestered, leading to a functional iron deficiency that contributes to neurodegeneration. Iron sequestration can occur by iron being bound to protein aggregates, such as amyloid β and tau, iron-rich structures not undergoing recycling (e.g., due to disrupted ferritinophagy and impaired mitophagy), and diminished delivery of iron from the lysosome to the cytosol. Reduced iron availability for biochemical reactions causes cells to respond to acquire additional iron, resulting in an elevation in the total iron level within affected brain regions. As the amount of unavailable iron increases, the level of available iron decreases until eventually it is unable to meet cellular demands, which leads to a functional iron deficiency. Normally, the lysosome plays an integral role in cellular iron homeostasis by facilitating both the delivery of iron to the cytosol (e.g., after endocytosis of the iron-transferrin-transferrin receptor complex) and the cellular recycling of iron. During a lysosomal storage disorder, an enzyme deficiency causes undigested substrates to accumulate, causing a sequelae of pathogenic events that may include cellular iron dyshomeostasis. Thus, a functional deficiency of iron may be a pathogenic mechanism occurring within several lysosomal storage diseases and Alzheimer's disease.

Cannflavins A and B with Anti-Ferroptosis, Anti-Glycation, and Antioxidant Activities Protect Human Keratinocytes in a Cell Death Model with Erastin and Reactive Carbonyl Species

Precursors of advanced glycation endproducts, namely, reactive carbonyl species (RCSs), are aging biomarkers that contribute to cell death. However, the impact of RCSs on ferroptosis-an iron-dependent form of cell death-in skin cells remains unknown. Herein, we constructed a cellular model (with human keratinocyte; HaCaT cells) to evaluate the cytotoxicity of the combinations of RCSs (including glyoxal; GO and methyglyoxal; MGO) and erastin (a ferroptosis inducer) using bioassays (measuring cellular lipid peroxidation and iron content) and proteomics with sequential window acquisition of all theoretical mass spectra. Additionally, a data-independent acquisition approach was used to characterize RCSs' and erastin's molecular network including genes, canonical pathways, and upstream regulators. Using this model, we evaluated the cytoprotective effects of two dietary flavonoids including cannflavins A and B against RCSs and erastin-induced cytotoxicity in HaCaT cells. Cannflavins A and B (at 0.625 to 20 µM) inhibited ferroptosis by restoring the cell viability (by 56.6-78.6% and 63.8-81.1%) and suppressing cellular lipid peroxidation (by 42.3-70.2% and 28.8-63.6%), respectively. They also alleviated GO + erastin- or MGO + erastin-induced cytotoxicity by 62.2-67.6% and 56.1-69.3%, and 35.6-54.5% and 33.8-62.0%, respectively. Mechanistic studies supported that the cytoprotective effects of cannflavins A and B are associated with their antioxidant activities including free radical scavenging capacity and an inhibitory effect on glycation. This is the first study showing that cannflavins A and B protect human keratinocytes from RCSs + erastin-induced cytotoxicity, which supports their potential applications as dietary interventions for aging-related skin conditions.

Child Neurology: Progressive Cerebellar Atrophy and Retinal Dystrophy: Clues to an Ultrarare ACO2-Related Neurometabolic Diagnosis

Pathogenic biallelic variants in ACO2, which encodes the enzyme mitochondrial aconitase, are associated with the very rare diagnosis of ACO2-related infantile cerebellar retinal degeneration (OMIM 614559). We describe the diagnostic odyssey of a 4-year-old female patient with profound global developmental delays, microcephaly, severe hypotonia, retinal dystrophy, seizures, and progressive cerebellar atrophy. Whole-exome sequencing revealed 2 variants in ACO2; c.2105_2106delAG (p.Gln702ArgfsX9), a likely pathogenic variant, and c.988C>T (p.Pro330Ser) which was classified as a variant of uncertain significance (VUS). While the VUS was confirmed to be maternally inherited, the phase of the other variant could not be confirmed due to lack of a paternal sample. Functional biochemical studies were performed on a research basis to clarify the interpretation of the VUS, which enabled clinical confirmation of the diagnosis of ACO2-related infantile cerebellar retinal degeneration for our patient.

Iron Regulatory Protein 1 is Required for the Propagation of Inflammation in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Objective

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are complex disorders. Iron accumulates in the inflamed tissue of IBD patients, yet neither a mechanism for the accumulation nor its implication on the course of inflammation are known. We hypothesized that the inflammation modifies iron homeostasis, affects tissue iron distribution and that this in turn perpetuates the inflammation.

Design

This study analyzed human biopsies, animal models and cellular systems to decipher the role of iron homeostasis in IBD.

Results

We found inflammation-mediated modifications of iron distribution, and iron-decoupled activation of the iron regulatory protein (IRP)1. To understand the role of IRP1 in the course of this inflammation-associated iron pattern, a novel cellular co-culture model was established, that replicated the iron-pattern observed in vivo, and supported involvement of nitric oxide in the activation of IRP1 and the typical iron pattern in inflammation. Importantly, deletion of IRP1 from an IBD mouse model completely abolished both, the misdistribution of iron and intestinal inflammation.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that IRP1 plays a central role in the coordination of the inflammatory response in the intestinal mucosa and that it is a viable candidate for therapeutic intervention in IBD.

The Fe-S cluster assembly protein IscU2 increases α-ketoglutarate catabolism and DNA 5mC to promote tumor growth

IscU2 is a scaffold protein that is critical for the assembly of iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters and the functions of Fe-S-containing mitochondrial proteins. However, the role of IscU2 in tumor development remains unclear. Here, we demonstrated that IscU2 expression is much higher in human pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) tissues than in adjacent normal pancreatic tissues. In PDAC cells, activated KRAS enhances the c-Myc-mediated IscU2 transcription. The upregulated IscU2 stabilizes Fe-S cluster and regulates the activity of tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle enzymes α-ketoglutarate (α-KG) dehydrogenase and aconitase 2, which promote α-KG catabolism through oxidative and reductive TCA cycling, respectively. In addition to promoting mitochondrial functions, activated KRAS-induced and IscU2-dependent acceleration of α-KG catabolism results in reduced α-KG levels in the cytosol and nucleus, leading to an increase in DNA 5mC due to Tet methylcytosine dioxygenase 3 (TET3) inhibition and subsequent expression of genes including DNA polymerase alpha 1 catalytic subunit for PDAC cell proliferation and tumor growth in mice. These findings underscore a critical role of IscU2 in KRAS-promoted α-KG catabolism, 5mC-dependent gene expression, and PDAC growth and highlight the instrumental and integrated regulation of mitochondrial functions and gene expression by IscU2 in PDAC cells.

The vacuolar iron transporter mediates iron detoxification in Toxoplasma gondii

Iron is essential to cells as a cofactor in enzymes of respiration and replication, however without correct storage, iron leads to the formation of dangerous oxygen radicals. In yeast and plants, iron is transported into a membrane-bound vacuole by the vacuolar iron transporter (VIT). This transporter is conserved in the apicomplexan family of obligate intracellular parasites, including in Toxoplasma gondii. Here, we assess the role of VIT and iron storage in T. gondii. By deleting VIT, we find a slight growth defect in vitro, and iron hypersensitivity, confirming its essential role in parasite iron detoxification, which can be rescued by scavenging of oxygen radicals. We show VIT expression is regulated by iron at transcript and protein levels, and by altering VIT localization. In the absence of VIT, T. gondii responds by altering expression of iron metabolism genes and by increasing antioxidant protein catalase activity. We also show that iron detoxification has an important role both in parasite survival within macrophages and in virulence in a mouse model. Together, by demonstrating a critical role for VIT during iron detoxification in T. gondii, we reveal the importance of iron storage in the parasite and provide the first insight into the machinery involved.

A mitochondrial iron-responsive pathway regulated by DELE1

The heme-regulated kinase HRI is activated under heme/iron deficient conditions; however, the underlying molecular mechanism is incompletely understood. Here, we show that iron-deficiency-induced HRI activation requires the mitochondrial protein DELE1. Notably, mitochondrial import of DELE1 and its subsequent protein stability are regulated by iron availability. Under steady-state conditions, DELE1 is degraded by the mitochondrial matrix-resident protease LONP1 soon after mitochondrial import. Upon iron chelation, DELE1 import is arrested, thereby stabilizing DELE1 on the mitochondrial surface to activate the HRI-mediated integrated stress response (ISR). Ablation of this DELE1-HRI-ISR pathway in an erythroid cell model enhances cell death under iron-limited conditions, suggesting a cell-protective role for this pathway in iron-demanding cell lineages. Our findings highlight mitochondrial import regulation of DELE1 as the core component of a previously unrecognized mitochondrial iron responsive pathway that elicits stress signaling following perturbation of iron homeostasis.

Preparation of Iron-Based Sulfides and Their Applications in Biomedical Fields

Recently, iron-based sulfides, including iron sulfide minerals and biological iron sulfide clusters, have attracted widespread interest, owing to their excellent biocompatibility and multi-functionality in biomedical applications. As such, controlled synthesized iron sulfide nanomaterials with elaborate designs, enhanced functionality and unique electronic structures show numerous advantages. Furthermore, iron sulfide clusters produced through biological metabolism are thought to possess magnetic properties and play a crucial role in balancing the concentration of iron in cells, thereby affecting ferroptosis processes. The electrons in the Fenton reaction constantly transfer between Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺, participating in the production and reaction process of reactive oxygen species (ROS). This mechanism is considered to confer advantages in various biomedical fields such as the antibacterial field, tumor treatment, biosensing and the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, we aim to systematically introduce recent advances in common iron-based sulfides.

Obstructive Sleep Apnea-induced Endothelial Dysfunction Is Mediated by miR-210

Rationale: Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA)-induced endothelial cell (EC) dysfunction contributes to OSA-related cardiovascular sequelae. The mechanistic basis of endothelial impairment by OSA is unclear. Objectives: The goals of this study were to identify the mechanism of OSA-induced EC dysfunction and explore the potential therapies for OSA-accelerated cardiovascular disease. Methods: The experimental methods include data mining, bioinformatics, EC functional analyses, OSA mouse models, and assessment of OSA human subjects. Measurements and Main Results: Using mined microRNA sequencing data, we found that microRNA 210 (miR-210) conferred the greatest induction by intermittent hypoxia in ECs. Consistently, the serum concentration of miR-210 was higher in individuals with OSA from two independent cohorts. Importantly, miR-210 concentration was positively correlated with the apnea-hypopnea index. RNA sequencing data collected from ECs transfected with miR-210 or treated with OSA serum showed a set of genes commonly altered by miR-210 and OSA serum, which are largely involved in mitochondrion-related pathways. ECs transfected with miR-210 or treated with OSA serum showed reduced [Formula: see text]o2 rate, mitochondrial membrane potential, and DNA abundance. Mechanistically, intermittent hypoxia-induced SREBP2 (sterol regulatory element-binding protein 2) bound to the promoter region of miR-210, which in turn inhibited the iron-sulfur cluster assembly enzyme and led to mitochondrial dysfunction. Moreover, the SREBP2 inhibitor betulin alleviated intermittent hypoxia-increased systolic blood pressure in the OSA mouse model. Conclusions: These results identify an axis involving SREBP2, miR-210, and mitochondrial dysfunction, representing a new mechanistic link between OSA and EC dysfunction that may have important implications for treating and preventing OSA-related cardiovascular sequelae.

Effect of intravenous ferric carboxymaltose on exercise capacity and quality of life in patients with COPD : A pilot study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is associated with reduced exercise capacity. In COPD iron deficiency is found in up to 50% of patients and may impair exercise capacity, the potential therapeutic effect is yet unknown. We aimed to estimate the beneficial effect of intravenous ferric carboxymaltose on exercise capacity and quality of life in patients with COPD.

METHODS

In this non-randomized, interrupted time series pilot trial we enrolled outpatients with stable COPD (GOLD II and III) and nonanemic iron deficiency (i.e., ferritin level < 100 μg/l or ferritin level 100-300 μg/l if transferrin saturation < 20%). Patients with cardiovascular-or inflammatory diseases were excluded. Participants performed 6‑minute walking test (6-MWT) and cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) and completed the St. George's Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ).

RESULTS

From 35 screened patients, 11 (72% male, 63 ± 8 years, FEV1%predicted 44 ± 14) were included. Mean ferritin and hemoglobin were 70 ± 41 µg/l and 13.8 ± 1.7 g/dl, respectively. Four weeks after iron administration the 6‑MWT distance increased by 34.7 ± 34.4 m (95% CI, 10.0-59.3); p = 0.011. The VO2max increased by 1.87 ± 1.2 ml/kg/min (95% CI, 0.76-3); p = 0.006. Mean score of SGRQ was reduced by 7.56 ± 6.12 units (95% CI, 3 to 11); p = 0.004. The insignificant alteration in hemoglobin did not correlate with increase in exercise capacity.

CONCLUSION

Administration of intravenous iron was associated with improved exercise capacity and quality of life in stable COPD patients independent of hemoglobin. Our data provide a basis to calculate a statistically sufficient sample size for a randomized controlled follow-up study.

Epigenetic Regulation in Chromium-, Nickel- and Cadmium-Induced Carcinogenesis

Environmental and occupational exposure to heavy metals, such as hexavalent chromium, nickel, and cadmium, are major health concerns worldwide. Some heavy metals are well-documented human carcinogens. Multiple mechanisms, including DNA damage, dysregulated gene expression, and aberrant cancer-related signaling, have been shown to contribute to metal-induced carcinogenesis. However, the molecular mechanisms accounting for heavy metal-induced carcinogenesis and angiogenesis are still not fully understood. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have indicated that in addition to genotoxicity and genetic mutations, epigenetic mechanisms play critical roles in metal-induced cancers. Epigenetics refers to the reversible modification of genomes without changing DNA sequences; epigenetic modifications generally involve DNA methylation, histone modification, chromatin remodeling, and non-coding RNAs. Epigenetic regulation is essential for maintaining normal gene expression patterns; the disruption of epigenetic modifications may lead to altered cellular function and even malignant transformation. Therefore, aberrant epigenetic modifications are widely involved in metal-induced cancer formation, development, and angiogenesis. Notably, the role of epigenetic mechanisms in heavy metal-induced carcinogenesis and angiogenesis remains largely unknown, and further studies are urgently required. In this review, we highlight the current advances in understanding the roles of epigenetic mechanisms in heavy metal-induced carcinogenesis, cancer progression, and angiogenesis.

Schizosaccharomyces pombe MAP kinase Sty1 promotes survival of Δppr10 cells with defective mitochondrial protein synthesis

Deletion of the Schizosaccharomyces pombe pentatricopeptide repeat gene ppr10 severely impairs mitochondrial translation, resulting in defective oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). ppr10 deletion also induces iron starvation response, resulting in increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and reduced viability under fermentative conditions. S. pombe has two principal stress-response pathways, which are mediated by the mitogen-activated protein kinase Sty1 and the basic leucine zipper transcription factor Pap1, respectively. In this study, we examined the roles of Sty1 and Pap1 in the cellular response to the mitochondrial translation defect caused by ppr10 deletion. We found that ppr10 deletion resulted in two waves of stress protein activation. The early response occurred in exponential phase and resulted in the expression of a subset of stress proteins including Gst2 and Obr1. The upregulation of some of these stress proteins in Δppr10 cells in early response is dependent on the basal nuclear levels of Sty1 or Pap1. The late response occurred in early stationary phase and coincided with the stable localization of Sty1 and Pap1 in the nucleus, presumably resulting in persistent activation of a large set of stress proteins. Deletion of sty1 in Δppr10 cells caused severe defects in cell division and growth, and further impaired cell viability. Deletion of the mitochondrial superoxide dismutase gene sod2 whose expression is controlled by Sty1 severely inhibited the growth of Δppr10 cells. Overexpression of sod2 improves the viability of Δppr10 cells. Our results support an important role for Sty1 in counteracting stress induced by ppr10 deletion under fermentative growth conditions.

Eprenetapopt triggers ferroptosis, inhibits NFS1 cysteine desulfurase, and synergizes with serine and glycine dietary restriction

The mechanism of action of eprenetapopt (APR-246, PRIMA-1^MET) as an anticancer agent remains unresolved, although the clinical development of eprenetapopt focuses on its reported mechanism of action as a mutant-p53 reactivator. Using unbiased approaches, this study demonstrates that eprenetapopt depletes cellular antioxidant glutathione levels by increasing its turnover, triggering a nonapoptotic, iron-dependent form of cell death known as ferroptosis. Deficiency in genes responsible for supplying cancer cells with the substrates for de novo glutathione synthesis (SLC7A11, SHMT2, and MTHFD1L), as well as the enzymes required to synthesize glutathione (GCLC and GCLM), augments the activity of eprenetapopt. Eprenetapopt also inhibits iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis by limiting the cysteine desulfurase activity of NFS1, which potentiates ferroptosis and may restrict cellular proliferation. The combination of eprenetapopt with dietary serine and glycine restriction synergizes to inhibit esophageal xenograft tumor growth. These findings reframe the canonical view of eprenetapopt from a mutant-p53 reactivator to a ferroptosis inducer.

Hyperactivation of mTOR and AKT in a cardiac hypertrophy animal model of Friedreich ataxia

Cardiomyopathy is a primary cause of death in Friedreich ataxia (FRDA) patients with defective iron-sulfur cluster (ISC) biogenesis due to loss of functional frataxin and in rare patients with functional loss of other ISC biogenesis factors. The mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and AKT signaling cascades that coordinate eukaryotic cell growth and metabolism with environmental inputs, including nutrients and growth factors, are crucial regulators of cardiovascular growth and homeostasis. We observed increased phosphorylation of AKT and dysregulation of multiple downstream effectors of mTORC1, including S6K1, S6, ULK1 and 4EBP1, in a cardiac/skeletal muscle specific FRDA conditional knockout (cKO) mouse model and in human cell lines depleted of ISC biogenesis factors. Knockdown of several mitochondrial metabolic proteins that are downstream targets of ISC biogenesis, including lipoyl synthase and subunit B of succinate dehydrogenase, also resulted in activation of mTOR and AKT signaling, suggesting that mTOR and AKT hyperactivations are part of the metabolic stress response to ISC deficiencies. Administration of rapamycin, a specific inhibitor of mTOR signaling, enhanced the survival of the Fxn cKO mice, providing proof of concept for the potential of mTOR inhibition to ameliorate cardiac disease in patients with defective ISC biogenesis. However, AKT phosphorylation remained high in rapamycin-treated Fxn cKO hearts, suggesting that parallel mTOR and AKT inhibition might be necessary to further improve the lifespan and healthspan of ISC deficient individuals.

Skeletal muscle MiR-210 expression is associated with mitochondrial function in peripheral artery disease patients

Previous studies have demonstrated that circulating microRNA (miR)-210 levels are elevated in peripheral artery disease (PAD) patients. MiR-210 is known to be a negative regulator of mitochondrial respiration; however, the relationship between miR-210 and mitochondrial function has yet to be studied in PAD. We aimed to compare skeletal muscle miR-210 expression of PAD patients to non-PAD controls (CON) and to examine the relationship between miR-210 expression and mitochondrial function. Skeletal muscle biopsies from CON (n = 20), intermittent claudication (IC) patients (n = 20), and critical limb ischemia (CLI) patients (n = 20) were analyzed by high-resolution respirometry to measure mitochondrial respiration of permeabilized fibers. Samples were also analyzed for miR-210 expression by real-time PCR. MiR-210 expression was significantly elevated in IC and CLI muscle compared to CON (P = 0.008 and P < 0.001, respectively). Mitochondrial respiration of electron transport chain (ETC) Complexes II (P = 0.001) and IV (P < 0.001) were significantly reduced in IC patients. Further, CLI patients demonstrated significant reductions in respiration during Complexes I (state 2: P = 0.04, state 3: P = 0.003), combined I and II (P < 0.001), II (P < 0.001), and IV (P < 0.001). The expression of the miR-210 targets, cytochrome c oxidase assembly factor heme A: farnesyltransferase (COX10), and iron-sulfur cluster assembly enzyme (ISCU) were down-regulated in PAD muscle. MiR-210 may play a role in the cellular adaptation to hypoxia and may be involved in the metabolic myopathy associated with PAD.

Genetic suppressors of Δgrx3 Δgrx4, lacking redundant multidomain monothiol yeast glutaredoxins, rescue growth and iron homeostasis

Saccharomyces cerevisiae Grx3 and Grx4 are multidomain monothiol glutaredoxins that are redundant with each other. They can be efficiently complemented by heterologous expression of their mammalian ortholog, PICOT, which has been linked to tumor development and embryogenesis. PICOT is now believed to act as a chaperone distributing Fe-S clusters, although the first link to iron metabolism was observed with its yeast counterparts. Like PICOT, yeast Grx3 and Grx4 reside in the cytosol and nucleus where they form unusual Fe-S clusters coordinated by two glutaredoxins with CGFS motifs and two molecules of glutathione. Depletion or deletion of Grx3/Grx4 leads to functional impairment of virtually all cellular iron-dependent processes and loss of cell viability, thus making these genes the most upstream components of the iron utilization system. Nevertheless, the Δgrx3/4 double mutant in the BY4741 genetic background is viable and exhibits slow but stable growth under hypoxic conditions. Upon exposure to air, growth of the double deletion strain ceases, and suppressor mutants appear. Adopting a high copy-number library screen approach, we discovered novel genetic interactions: overexpression of ESL1, ESL2, SOK1, SFP1 or BDF2 partially rescues growth and iron utilization defects of Δgrx3/4. This genetic escape from the requirement for Grx3/Grx4 has not been previously described. Our study shows that even a far-upstream component of the iron regulatory machinery (Grx3/4) can be bypassed, and cellular networks involving RIM101 pH sensing, cAMP signaling, mTOR nutritional signaling, or bromodomain acetylation, may confer the bypassing activities.

Construction of hypoxia-immune-related prognostic model and targeted therapeutic strategies for cervical cancer

Emerging evidence indicates that hypoxia and immunity play important roles in tumorigenesis and development. However, the hypoxia-immune-related prognostic risk model has not been established in cervical cancer (CC). We aimed to construct a hypoxia-immune-based prognostic risk model with potential application in CC patient prognosis and predicting response to targeted therapy. The RNA-seq data and corresponding clinical information were retrieved from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. Hypoxia and immune status of CC patients were evaluated using the Consensus Clustering method and single sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA), respectively. The univariate Cox regression, least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) and multivariate Cox regression were applied to establish the prognostic risk model of CC. The chemotherapy response for six chemotherapeutic agents of each CC patient was calculated according to the Genomics of Drug Sensitivity in Cancer (GDSC). And the Connectivity Map (CMap) database was performed to screen candidate small molecule drugs. In this study, we identified 7 gene signatures (P4HA2, MSMO1, EGLN1, ZNF316, IKZF3, ISCU, MYO1B) with prognostic values. And the survival time of patients with low-risk was significantly longer than those with high-risk. Meanwhile, CC patients in the high-risk group yielded higher sensitivity to five chemotherapeutic agents. And we listed ten candidate small-molecules drugs that exhibited a high correlation with the prognosis of cervical cancer. Thus, the prognostic model can accurately predict the prognosis of patients with CC and may be helpful for the development of new hypoxia-immune prognostic markers and therapeutic strategies for CC.

miR-210 hypoxamiR in Angiogenesis and Diabetes

Significance: microRNA-210 (miR-210) is the master hypoxia-inducible miRNA (hypoxamiR) since it has been found to be significantly upregulated under hypoxia in a wide range of cell types. Recent advances: Gene ontology analysis of its targets indicates that miR-210 modulates several aspects of cellular response to hypoxia. Due to its high pleiotropy, miR-210 not only plays a protective role by fine-tuning mitochondrial metabolism and inhibiting red-ox imbalance and apoptosis, but it can also promote cell proliferation, differentiation, and migration, substantially contributing to angiogenesis. Critical issues: As most miRNAs, modulating different gene pathways, also miR-210 can potentially lead to different and even opposite effects, depending on the physio-pathological contexts in which it acts. Future direction: The use of miRNAs as therapeutics is a fast growing field. This review aimed at highlighting the role of miR-210 in angiogenesis in the context of ischemic cardiovascular diseases and diabetes in order to clarify the molecular mechanisms underpinning miR-210 action. Particular attention will be dedicated to experimentally validated miR-210 direct targets involved in cellular processes related to angiogenesis and diabetes mellitus, such as mitochondrial metabolism, redox balance, apoptosis, migration, and adhesion. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 36, 685-706.

N-terminal tyrosine of ISCU2 triggers [2Fe-2S] cluster synthesis by ISCU2 dimerization

Synthesis of iron-sulfur (Fe/S) clusters in living cells requires scaffold proteins for both facile synthesis and subsequent transfer of clusters to target apoproteins. The human mitochondrial ISCU2 scaffold protein is part of the core ISC (iron-sulfur cluster assembly) complex that synthesizes a bridging [2Fe-2S] cluster on dimeric ISCU2. Initial iron and sulfur loading onto monomeric ISCU2 have been elucidated biochemically, yet subsequent [2Fe-2S] cluster formation and dimerization of ISCU2 is mechanistically ill-defined. Our structural, biochemical and cell biological experiments now identify a crucial function of the universally conserved N-terminal Tyr35 of ISCU2 for these late reactions. Mixing two, per se non-functional ISCU2 mutant proteins with oppositely charged Asp35 and Lys35 residues, both bound to different cysteine desulfurase complexes NFS1-ISD11-ACP, restores wild-type ISCU2 maturation demonstrating that ionic forces can replace native Tyr-Tyr interactions during dimerization-induced [2Fe-2S] cluster formation. Our studies define the essential mechanistic role of Tyr35 in the reaction cycle of de novo mitochondrial [2Fe-2S] cluster synthesis.

[2Fe-2S] protein cofactors are essential for life and are synthesized on ISCU2 scaffolds. Here, the authors show that hydrophobic interaction of two conserved N-terminal tyrosines induces ISCU2 dimerization and concomitant [2Fe-2S] cluster synthesis.

Assembly of the [4Fe-4S] cluster of NFU1 requires the coordinated donation of two [2Fe-2S] clusters from the scaffold proteins, ISCU2 and ISCA1

NFU1, a late-acting iron-sulfur (Fe-S) cluster carrier protein, has a key role in the pathogenesis of the disease, multiple mitochondrial dysfunctions syndrome. In this work, using genetic and biochemical approaches, we identified the initial scaffold protein, mitochondrial ISCU (ISCU2) and the secondary carrier, ISCA1, as the direct donors of Fe-S clusters to mitochondrial NFU1, which appears to dimerize and reductively mediate the formation of a bridging [4Fe-4S] cluster, aided by ferredoxin 2. By monitoring the abundance of target proteins that acquire their Fe-S clusters from NFU1, we characterized the effects of several novel pathogenic NFU1 mutations. We observed that NFU1 directly interacts with each of the Fe-S cluster scaffold proteins known to ligate [2Fe-2S] clusters, ISCU2 and ISCA1, and we mapped the site of interaction to a conserved hydrophobic patch of residues situated at the end of the C-terminal alpha-helix of NFU1. Furthermore, we showed that NFU1 lost its ability to acquire its Fe-S cluster when mutagenized at the identified site of interaction with ISCU2 and ISCA1, which thereby adversely affected biochemical functions of proteins that are thought to acquire their Fe-S clusters directly from NFU1, such as lipoic acid synthase, which supports the Fe-S-dependent process of lipoylation of components of multiple key enzyme complexes, including pyruvate dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and the glycine cleavage complex.

Short exposure to hyperoxia causes cultured lung epithelial cell mitochondrial dysregulation and alveolar simplification in mice

BACKGROUND

Prolonged exposure to high oxygen concentrations in premature infants, although lifesaving, can induce lung oxidative stress and increase the risk of developing BPD, a form of chronic lung disease. The lung alveolar epithelium is damaged by sustained hyperoxia, causing oxidative stress and alveolar simplification; however, it is unclear what duration of exposure to hyperoxia negatively impacts cellular function.

METHODS

Here we investigated the role of a very short exposure to hyperoxia (95% O₂, 5% CO₂) on mitochondrial function in cultured mouse lung epithelial cells and neonatal mice.

RESULTS

In epithelial cells, 4 h of hyperoxia reduced oxidative phosphorylation, respiratory complex I and IV activity, utilization of mitochondrial metabolites, and caused mitochondria to form elongated tubular networks. Cells allowed to recover in air for 24 h exhibited a persistent global reduction in fuel utilization. In addition, neonatal mice exposed to hyperoxia for only 12 h demonstrated alveolar simplification at postnatal day 14.

CONCLUSION

A short exposure to hyperoxia leads to changes in lung cell mitochondrial metabolism and dynamics and has a long-term impact on alveolarization. These findings may help inform our understanding and treatment of chronic lung disease.

IMPACT

Many studies use long exposures (up to 14 days) to hyperoxia to mimic neonatal chronic lung disease. We show that even a very short exposure to hyperoxia leads to long-term cellular injury in type II-like epithelial cells. This study demonstrates that a short (4 h) period of hyperoxia has long-term residual effects on cellular metabolism. We show that neonatal mice exposed to hyperoxia for a short time (12 h) demonstrate later alveolar simplification. This work suggests that any exposure to clinical hyperoxia leads to persistent lung dysfunction.

Mechanisms of cellular iron sensing, regulation of erythropoiesis and mitochondrial iron utilization

To maintain an adequate iron supply for hemoglobin synthesis and essential metabolic functions while counteracting iron toxicity, humans and other vertebrates have evolved effective mechanisms to conserve and finely regulate iron concentration, storage, and distribution to tissues. At the systemic level, the iron-regulatory hormone hepcidin is secreted by the liver in response to serum iron levels and inflammation. Hepcidin regulates the expression of the sole known mammalian iron exporter, ferroportin, to control dietary absorption, storage and tissue distribution of iron. At the cellular level, iron regulatory proteins 1 and 2 (IRP1 and IRP2) register cytosolic iron concentrations and post-transcriptionally regulate the expression of iron metabolism genes to optimize iron availability for essential cellular processes, including heme biosynthesis and iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis. Genetic malfunctions affecting the iron sensing mechanisms or the main pathways that utilize iron in the cell cause a broad range of human diseases, some of which are characterized by mitochondrial iron accumulation. This review will discuss the mechanisms of systemic and cellular iron sensing with a focus on the main iron utilization pathways in the cell, and on human conditions that arise from compromised function of the regulatory axes that control iron homeostasis.

From the discovery to molecular understanding of cellular iron-sulfur protein biogenesis

Protein cofactors often are the business ends of proteins, and are either synthesized inside cells or are taken up from the nutrition. A cofactor that strictly needs to be synthesized by cells is the iron-sulfur (Fe/S) cluster. This evolutionary ancient compound performs numerous biochemical functions including electron transfer, catalysis, sulfur mobilization, regulation and protein stabilization. Since the discovery of eukaryotic Fe/S protein biogenesis two decades ago, more than 30 biogenesis factors have been identified in mitochondria and cytosol. They support the synthesis, trafficking and target-specific insertion of Fe/S clusters. In this review, I first summarize what led to the initial discovery of Fe/S protein biogenesis in yeast. I then discuss the function and localization of Fe/S proteins in (non-green) eukaryotes. The major part of the review provides a detailed synopsis of the three major steps of mitochondrial Fe/S protein biogenesis, i.e. the de novo synthesis of a [2Fe-2S] cluster on a scaffold protein, the Hsp70 chaperone-mediated transfer of the cluster and integration into [2Fe-2S] recipient apoproteins, and the reductive fusion of [2Fe-2S] to [4Fe-4S] clusters and their subsequent assembly into target apoproteins. Finally, I summarize the current knowledge of the mechanisms underlying the maturation of cytosolic and nuclear Fe/S proteins.

Iron-sulfur cluster deficiency can be sensed by IRP2 and regulates iron homeostasis and sensitivity to ferroptosis independent of IRP1 and FBXL5

Intracellular iron levels are strictly regulated to support homeostasis and avoid iron-mediated ROS production. Loss of iron-sulfur cluster (ISC) synthesis can increase iron loading and promote cell death by ferroptosis. Iron-responsive element-binding proteins IRP1 and IRP2 posttranscriptionally regulate iron homeostasis. IRP1 binding to target mRNAs is competitively regulated by ISC occupancy. However, IRP2 is principally thought to be regulated at the protein level via E3 ubiquitin ligase FBXL5-mediated degradation. Here, we show that ISC synthesis suppression can activate IRP2 and promote ferroptosis sensitivity via a previously unidentified mechanism. At tissue-level O₂ concentrations, ISC deficiency enhances IRP2 binding to target mRNAs independent of IRP1, FBXL5, and changes in IRP2 protein level. Deletion of both IRP1 and IRP2 abolishes the iron-starvation response, preventing its activation by ISC synthesis inhibition. These findings will inform strategies to manipulate ferroptosis sensitivity and help illuminate the mechanism underlying ISC biosynthesis disorders, such as Friedreich's ataxia.

Targeting Mitochondrial Iron Metabolism Suppresses Tumor Growth and Metastasis by Inducing Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Mitophagy

Deferoxamine (DFO) represents a widely used iron chelator for the treatment of iron overload. Here we describe the use of mitochondrially targeted deferoxamine (mitoDFO) as a novel approach to preferentially target cancer cells. The agent showed marked cytostatic, cytotoxic, and migrastatic properties in vitro, and it significantly suppressed tumor growth and metastasis in vivo. The underlying molecular mechanisms included (i) impairment of iron-sulfur [Fe-S] cluster/heme biogenesis, leading to destabilization and loss of activity of [Fe-S] cluster/heme containing enzymes, (ii) inhibition of mitochondrial respiration leading to mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production, resulting in dysfunctional mitochondria with markedly reduced supercomplexes, and (iii) fragmentation of the mitochondrial network and induction of mitophagy. Mitochondrial targeting of deferoxamine represents a way to deprive cancer cells of biologically active iron, which is incompatible with their proliferation and invasion, without disrupting systemic iron metabolism. Our findings highlight the importance of mitochondrial iron metabolism for cancer cells and demonstrate repurposing deferoxamine into an effective anticancer drug via mitochondrial targeting. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings show that targeting the iron chelator deferoxamine to mitochondria impairs mitochondrial respiration and biogenesis of [Fe-S] clusters/heme in cancer cells, which suppresses proliferation and migration and induces cell death. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT: http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/canres/81/9/2289/F1.large.jpg.

Lutein Exerts Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects and Influences Iron Utilization of BV-2 Microglia

Lutein is a tetraterpene carotenoid, which has been reported as an important antioxidant and it is widely used as a supplement. Oxidative stress participates in many human diseases, including different types of neurodegenerative disorders. Microglia, the primary immune effector cells in the central nervous system, are implicated in these disorders by producing harmful substances such as reactive oxygen species (ROS). The protective mechanisms which scavenge ROS include enzymes and antioxidant substances. The protective effects of different carotenoids against oxidative stress have been described previously. Our study focuses on the effects of lutein on antioxidant enzymes, cytokines and iron metabolism under stress conditions in BV-2 microglia. We performed cell culture experiments: BV-2 cells were treated with lutein and/or with H₂O₂; the latter was used for inducing oxidative stress in microglial cells. Real-time PCR was performed for gene expression analyses of antioxidant enzymes, and ELISA was used for the detection of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Our results show that the application of lutein suppressed the H₂O₂-induced ROS (10′: 7.5 ng + 10 µM H₂O₂, p = 0.0002; 10 ng/µL + 10 µM H₂O₂, p = 0.0007), influenced iron utilization and changed the anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory cytokine secretions in BV-2 cells. Lutein increased the IL-10 secretions compared to control (24 h: 7.5 ng/µL p = 0.0274; 10 ng/µL p = 0.0008) and to 10 µM H₂O₂-treated cells (24 h: 7.5 ng/µL + H₂O₂, p = 0.0003; 10 ng/µL + H₂O₂, p = 0.0003), while it decreased the TNFα secretions compared to H₂O₂ treated cells (24 h: 7.5 ng/µL + H₂O₂, p < 0.0001; 10 ng/µL + H₂O₂, p < 0.0001). These results contribute to understanding the effects of lutein, which may help in preventing or suppressing ROS-mediated microglia activation, which is related to neuronal degeneration in oxidative stress scenario.

Neuronal Ablation of CoA Synthase Causes Motor Deficits, Iron Dyshomeostasis, and Mitochondrial Dysfunctions in a CoPAN Mouse Model

COASY protein-associated neurodegeneration (CoPAN) is a rare but devastating genetic autosomal recessive disorder of inborn error of CoA metabolism, which shares with pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration (PKAN) similar features, such as dystonia, parkinsonian traits, cognitive impairment, axonal neuropathy, and brain iron accumulation. These two disorders are part of the big group of neurodegenerations with brain iron accumulation (NBIA) for which no effective treatment is available at the moment. To date, the lack of a mammalian model, fully recapitulating the human disorder, has prevented the elucidation of pathogenesis and the development of therapeutic approaches. To gain new insights into the mechanisms linking CoA metabolism, iron dyshomeostasis, and neurodegeneration, we generated and characterized the first CoPAN disease mammalian model. Since CoA is a crucial metabolite, constitutive ablation of the Coasy gene is incompatible with life. On the contrary, a conditional neuronal-specific Coasy knock-out mouse model consistently developed a severe early onset neurological phenotype characterized by sensorimotor defects and dystonia-like movements, leading to premature death. For the first time, we highlighted defective brain iron homeostasis, elevation of iron, calcium, and magnesium, together with mitochondrial dysfunction. Surprisingly, total brain CoA levels were unchanged, and no signs of neurodegeneration were present.

Heme biosynthesis depends on previously unrecognized acquisition of iron-sulfur cofactors in human amino-levulinic acid dehydratase

Heme biosynthesis and iron-sulfur cluster (ISC) biogenesis are two major mammalian metabolic pathways that require iron. It has long been known that these two pathways interconnect, but the previously described interactions do not fully explain why heme biosynthesis depends on intact ISC biogenesis. Herein we identify a previously unrecognized connection between these two pathways through our discovery that human aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD), which catalyzes the second step of heme biosynthesis, is an Fe-S protein. We find that several highly conserved cysteines and an Ala306-Phe307-Arg308 motif of human ALAD are important for [Fe₄S₄] cluster acquisition and coordination. The enzymatic activity of human ALAD is greatly reduced upon loss of its Fe-S cluster, which results in reduced heme biosynthesis in human cells. As ALAD provides an early Fe-S-dependent checkpoint in the heme biosynthetic pathway, our findings help explain why heme biosynthesis depends on intact ISC biogenesis.

Heme biosynthesis depends on iron-sulfur (Fe-S) cluster biogenesis but the molecular connection between these pathways is not fully understood. Here, the authors show that the heme biosynthesis enzyme ALAD contains an Fe-S cluster, disruption of which reduces ALAD activity and heme production in human cells.

Mechanistic concepts of iron-sulfur protein biogenesis in Biology

Iron-sulfur (Fe/S) proteins are present in virtually all living organisms and are involved in numerous cellular processes such as respiration, photosynthesis, metabolic reactions, nitrogen fixation, radical biochemistry, protein synthesis, antiviral defense, and genome maintenance. Their versatile functions may go back to the proposed role of their Fe/S cofactors in the origin of life as efficient catalysts and electron carriers. More than two decades ago, it was discovered that the in vivo synthesis of cellular Fe/S clusters and their integration into polypeptide chains requires assistance by complex proteinaceous machineries, despite the fact that Fe/S proteins can be assembled chemically in vitro. In prokaryotes, three Fe/S protein biogenesis systems are known; ISC, SUF, and the more specialized NIF. The former two systems have been transferred by endosymbiosis from bacteria to mitochondria and plastids, respectively, of eukaryotes. In their cytosol, eukaryotes use the CIA machinery for the biogenesis of cytosolic and nuclear Fe/S proteins. Despite the structural diversity of the protein constituents of these four machineries, general mechanistic concepts underlie the complex process of Fe/S protein biogenesis. This review provides a comprehensive and comparative overview of the various known biogenesis systems in Biology, and summarizes their common or diverging molecular mechanisms, thereby illustrating both the conservation and diverse adaptions of these four machineries during evolution and under different lifestyles. Knowledge of these fundamental biochemical pathways is not only of basic scientific interest, but is important for the understanding of human 'Fe/S diseases' and can be used in biotechnology.

Acute Iron Deprivation Reprograms Human Macrophage Metabolism and Reduces Inflammation In Vivo

Iron is an essential metal that fine-tunes the innate immune response by regulating macrophage function, but an integrative view of transcriptional and metabolic responses to iron perturbation in macrophages is lacking. Here, we induced acute iron chelation in primary human macrophages and measured their transcriptional and metabolic responses. Acute iron deprivation causes an anti-proliferative Warburg transcriptome, characterized by an ATF4-dependent signature. Iron-deprived human macrophages show an inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation and a concomitant increase in glycolysis, a large increase in glucose-derived citrate pools associated with lipid droplet accumulation, and modest levels of itaconate production. LPS polarization increases the itaconate:succinate ratio and decreases pro-inflammatory cytokine production. In rats, acute iron deprivation reduces the severity of macrophage-dependent crescentic glomerulonephritis by limiting glomerular cell proliferation and inducing lipid accumulation in the renal cortex. These results suggest that acute iron deprivation has in vivo protective effects mediated by an anti-inflammatory immunometabolic switch in macrophages.

Heme Oxygenase-1 Supports Mitochondrial Energy Production and Electron Transport Chain Activity in Cultured Lung Epithelial Cells

Heme oxygenase-1 is induced by many cellular stressors and catalyzes the breakdown of heme to generate carbon monoxide and bilirubin, which confer cytoprotection. The role of HO-1 likely extends beyond the simple production of antioxidants, for example HO-1 activity has also been implicated in metabolism, but this function remains unclear. Here we used an HO-1 knockout lung cell line to further define the contribution of HO-1 to cellular metabolism. We found that knockout cells exhibit reduced growth and mitochondrial respiration, measured by oxygen consumption rate. Specifically, we found that HO-1 contributed to electron transport chain activity and utilization of certain mitochondrial fuels. Loss of HO-1 had no effect on intracellular non-heme iron concentration or on proteins whose levels and activities depend on available iron. We show that HO-1 supports essential functions of mitochondria, which highlights the protective effects of HO-1 in diverse pathologies and tissue types. Our results suggest that regulation of heme may be an equally significant role of HO-1.

MicroRNAs and obesity-induced endothelial dysfunction: key paradigms in molecular therapy

The endothelium plays a pivotal role in maintaining vascular health. Obesity is a global epidemic that has seen dramatic increases in both adult and pediatric populations. Obesity perturbs the integrity of normal endothelium, leading to endothelial dysfunction which predisposes the patient to cardiovascular diseases. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short, single-stranded, non-coding RNA molecules that play important roles in a variety of cellular processes such as differentiation, proliferation, apoptosis, and stress response; their alteration contributes to the development of many pathologies including obesity. Mediators of obesity-induced endothelial dysfunction include altered endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), oxidative stress, autophagy machinery and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. All of these factors have been shown to be either directly or indirectly caused by gene regulatory mechanisms of miRNAs. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive description of the therapeutic potential of miRNAs to treat obesity-induced endothelial dysfunction. This may lead to the identification of new targets for interventions that may prevent or delay the development of obesity-related cardiovascular disease.

The Role of miR-210 in the Biological System: A Current Overview

BACKGROUND

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) represent a group of non-coding RNAs measuring 19-23 nucleotides in length and are recognized as powerful molecules that regulate gene expression in eukaryotic cells. miRNAs stimulate the post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression via direct or indirect mechanisms.

SUMMARY

miR-210 is highly upregulated in cells under hypoxia, thereby revealing its significance to cell endurance. Induction of this mRNA expression is an important feature of the cellular low-oxygen response and the most consistent and vigorous target of HIF. Key Message: miR-210 is involved in many cellular functions under the effect of HIF-1α, including the cell cycle, DNA repair, immunity and inflammation, angiogenesis, metabolism, and macrophage regulation. It also plays an important regulatory role in T-cell differentiation and stimulation.

Defective mitochondrial ISCs biogenesis switches on IRP1 to fine tune selective mitophagy

Both iron metabolism and mitophagy, a selective mitochondrial degradation process via autolysosomal pathway, are fundamental for the cellular well-being. Mitochondria are the major site for iron metabolism, especially the biogenesis of iron-sulfur clusters (ISCs) via the mitochondria-localized ISCs assembly machinery. Here we report that mitochondrial ISCs biogenesis is coupled with receptor-mediated mitophagy in mammalian cells. Perturbation of mitochondrial ISCs biogenesis, either by depleting iron with the iron chelator or by knocking down the core components of the mitochondrial ISCs assembly machinery, triggers FUNDC1-dependent mitophagy. IRP1, one of the cellular iron sensors to maintain iron homeostasis, is crucial for iron stresses induced mitophagy. Knockdown of IRP1 disturbed iron stresses induced mitophagy. Furthermore, IRP1 could bind to a newly characterized IRE in the 5’ untranslated region of the Bcl-xL mRNA and suppress its translation. Bcl-xL is an intrinsic inhibitory protein of the mitochondrial phosphatase PGAM5, which catalyzes the dephosphorylation of FUNDC1 for mitophagy activation. Alterations of the IRP1/Bcl-xL axis navigate iron stresses induced mitophagy. We conclude that ISCs serve as physiological signals for mitophagy activation, thus coupling mitophagy with iron metabolism.

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Perturbation of ISCs biogenesis triggers FUNDC1 dependent mitophagy.

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IRP1 targets a newly characterized IRE in Bcl-xL mRNA to suppress its translation.

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IRP1/Bcl-xL axis navigates iron stresses induced mitophagy and dominates mitochondrial redox response.

Glia maturation factor-γ regulates murine macrophage iron metabolism and M2 polarization through mitochondrial ROS

In macrophages, cellular iron metabolism status is tightly integrated with macrophage phenotype and associated with mitochondrial function. However, how molecular events regulate mitochondrial activity to integrate regulation of iron metabolism and macrophage phenotype remains unclear. Here, we explored the important role of the actin-regulatory protein glia maturation factor-γ (GMFG) in the regulation of cellular iron metabolism and macrophage phenotype. We found that GMFG was downregulated in murine macrophages by exposure to iron and hydrogen peroxide. GMFG knockdown altered the expression of iron metabolism proteins and increased iron levels in murine macrophages and concomitantly promoted their polarization toward an anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype. GMFG-knockdown macrophages exhibited moderately increased levels of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS), which were accompanied by decreased expression of some mitochondrial respiration chain components, including the iron-sulfur cluster assembly scaffold protein ISCU as well as the antioxidant enzymes SOD1 and SOD2. Importantly, treatment of GMFG-knockdown macrophages with the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine reversed the altered expression of iron metabolism proteins and significantly inhibited the enhanced gene expression of M2 macrophage markers, suggesting that mtROS is mechanistically linked to cellular iron metabolism and macrophage phenotype. Finally, GMFG interacted with the mitochondrial membrane ATPase ATAD3A, suggesting that GMFG knockdown-induced mtROS production might be attributed to alteration of mitochondrial function in macrophages. Our findings suggest that GMFG is an important regulator in cellular iron metabolism and macrophage phenotype and could be a novel therapeutic target for modulating macrophage function in immune and metabolic disorders.

A disease-modifying treatment for Alzheimer's disease: focus on the trans-sulfuration pathway

High homocysteine levels in Alzheimer's disease (AD) result from low activity of the trans-sulfuration pathway. Glutathione levels are also low in AD. L-cysteine is required for the synthesis of glutathione. The synthesis of coenzyme A (CoA) requires L-cysteine, which is synthesized via the trans-sulfuration pathway. CoA is required for the synthesis of acetylcholine and appropriate cholinergic neurotransmission. L-cysteine is required for the synthesis of molybdenum-containing proteins. Sulfite oxidase (SUOX), which is a molybdenum-containing protein, could be dysregulated in AD. SUOX detoxifies the sulfites. Glutaminergic neurotransmission could be dysregulated in AD due to low levels of SUOX and high levels of sulfites. L-cysteine provides sulfur for iron-sulfur clusters. Oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) is heavily dependent on iron-sulfur proteins. The decrease in OXPHOS seen in AD could be due to dysregulations of the trans-sulfuration pathway. There is a decrease in aconitase 1 (ACO1) in AD. ACO1 is an iron-sulfur enzyme in the citric acid cycle that upon loss of an iron-sulfur cluster converts to iron regulatory protein 1 (IRP1). With the dysregulation of iron-sulfur cluster formation ACO1 will convert to IRP1 which will decrease the 2-oxglutarate synthesis dysregulating the citric acid cycle and also dysregulating iron metabolism. Selenomethionine is also metabolized by the trans-sulfuration pathway. With the low activity of the trans-sulfuration pathway in AD selenoproteins will be dysregulated in AD. Dysregulation of selenoproteins could lead to oxidant stress in AD. In this article, we propose a novel treatment for AD that addresses dysregulations resulting from low activity of the trans-sulfuration pathway and low L-cysteine.

Mitochondria Biogenesis Modulates Iron-Sulfur Cluster Synthesis to Increase Cellular Iron Uptake

Iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters are required for mitochondrial function. Fe-S cluster synthesis occurs in the mitochondria and iron uptake is required for mitochondrial biogenesis. However, Fe-S clusters inhibit the expression of the iron importer transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1), whereas lack of the Fe-S cluster stimulates TfR1 expression. Yet, it is unclear whether Fe-S cluster synthesis increases with mitochondria biogenesis and, in turn, whether this negatively modulates TfR1 expression. We manipulated peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1α expression to control mitochondrial biogenesis in a variety of cell types, including erythroid cells. We demonstrated that Fe-S cluster synthesis increases with mitochondria biogenesis but does not interfere with increasing TfR1 expression. In fact, TfR1 expression is stimulated through alternative means to meet iron requirement for mitochondria biogenesis. Furthermore, under enhanced mitochondria biogenesis, increased Fe-S cluster synthesis inhibits the function of iron-regulating protein (IRP)1 and hence stimulates the expression of 5'-aminolevulinate synthase 2 (ALAS2), a target of IRP1 and rate-limiting enzyme in erythroid heme biogenesis. Increased ALAS2 expression leads to enhanced heme production, hemoglobinization, and erythropoiesis. Therefore, our study also provides a mechanism to link mitochondrial biogenesis with erythropoiesis and has a potential therapeutic value in the treatment of blood disorders.

Mammalian iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis: Recent insights into the roles of frataxin, acyl carrier protein and ATPase-mediated transfer to recipient proteins

The recently solved crystal structures of the human cysteine desulfurase NFS1, in complex with the LYR protein ISD11, the acyl carrier protein ACP, and the main scaffold ISCU, have shed light on the molecular interactions that govern initial cluster assembly on ISCU. Here, we aim to highlight recent insights into iron-sulfur (Fe-S) cluster (ISC) biogenesis in mammalian cells that have arisen from the crystal structures of the core ISC assembly complex. We will also discuss how ISCs are delivered to recipient proteins and the challenges that remain in dissecting the pathways that deliver clusters to numerous Fe-S recipient proteins in both the mitochondrial matrix and cytosolic compartments of mammalian cells.

Loss of vacuolar acidity results in iron-sulfur cluster defects and divergent homeostatic responses during aging in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The loss of vacuolar/lysosomal acidity is an early event during aging that has been linked to mitochondrial dysfunction. However, it is unclear how loss of vacuolar acidity results in age-related dysfunction. Through unbiased genetic screens, we determined that increased iron uptake can suppress the mitochondrial respiratory deficiency phenotype of yeast vma mutants, which have lost vacuolar acidity due to genetic disruption of the vacuolar ATPase proton pump. Yeast vma mutants exhibited nuclear localization of Aft1, which turns on the iron regulon in response to iron-sulfur cluster (ISC) deficiency. This led us to find that loss of vacuolar acidity with age in wild-type yeast causes ISC defects and a DNA damage response. Using microfluidics to investigate aging at the single-cell level, we observe grossly divergent trajectories of iron homeostasis within an isogenic and environmentally homogeneous population. One subpopulation of cells fails to mount the expected compensatory iron regulon gene expression program, and suffers progressively severe ISC deficiency with little to no activation of the iron regulon. In contrast, other cells show robust iron regulon activity with limited ISC deficiency, which allows extended passage and survival through a period of genomic instability during aging. These divergent trajectories suggest that iron regulation and ISC homeostasis represent a possible target for aging interventions.