Glucose Metabolism: A Sweet Relief of Alzheimer's Disease

Eta-secretase-like processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by the rhomboid protease RHBDL4

The amyloid precursor protein (APP) is a key protein in Alzheimer's disease synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and translocated to the plasma membrane where it undergoes proteolytic cleavages by several proteases. Conversely, to other known proteases, we previously elucidated rhomboid protease RHBDL4 as a novel APP processing enzyme where several cleavages likely occur already in the ER. Interestingly, the pattern of RHBDL4-derived large APP C-terminal fragments resembles those generated by the η-secretase or MT5-MMP, which was described to generate so-called Aη fragments. The similarity in large APP C-terminal fragments between both proteases raised the question of whether RHBDL4 may contribute to η-secretase activity and Aη-like fragments. Here, we identified two cleavage sites of RHBDL4 in APP by mass spectrometry, which, intriguingly, lie in close proximity to the MT5-MMP cleavage sites. Indeed, we observed that RHBDL4 generates Aη-like fragments in vitro without contributions of α-, β-, or γ-secretases. Such Aη-like fragments are likely generated in the ER since RHBDL4-derived APP-C-terminal fragments do not reach the cell surface. Inherited, familial APP mutations appear to not affect this processing pathway. In RHBDL4 knockout mice, we observed increased cerebral full-length APP in comparison to wild type (WT) in support of RHBDL4 being a physiologically relevant protease for APP. Furthermore, we found secreted Aη fragments in dissociated mixed cortical cultures from WT mice, however significantly fewer Aη fragments in RHBDL4 knockout cultures. Our data underscores that RHBDL4 contributes to the η-secretease-like processing of APP and that RHBDL4 is a physiologically relevant protease for APP.

Metabolism changes caused by glucose in normal and cancer human brain cell lines by Raman imaging and chemometric methods

Glucose is the main source of energy for the human brain. This paper presents a non-invasive technique to study metabolic changes caused by glucose in human brain cell lines. In this paper we present the spectroscopic characterization of human normal brain (NHA; astrocytes) and human cancer brain (CRL-1718; astrocytoma and U-87 MG; glioblastoma) control cell lines and cell lines upon supplementation with glucose. Based on Raman techniques we have identified biomarkers that can monitor metabolic changes in lipid droplets, mitochondria and nucleus caused by glucose. We have studied the vibrations at 750 cm-1, 1444 cm-1, 1584 cm-1 and 1656 cm-1 as a function of malignancy grade. We have compared the concentration of cytochrome, lipids and proteins in the grade of cancer aggressiveness in normal and cancer human brain cell lines. Chemometric analysis has shown that control normal, control cancer brain cell lines and normal and cancer cell lines after supplementation with glucose can be distinguished based on their unique vibrational properties. PLSDA (Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis) and ANOVA tests have confirmed the main role of cytochromes, proteins and lipids in differentiation of control human brain cells and cells upon supplementation with glucose. We have shown that Raman techniques combined with chemometric analysis provide additional insight to monitor the biology of astrocytes, astrocytoma and glioblastoma after glucose supplementation.

Acarbose ameliorates Western diet-induced metabolic and cognitive impairments in the 3xTg mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Age is the greatest risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD) as well as for other disorders that increase the risk of AD such as diabetes and obesity. There is growing interest in determining if interventions that promote metabolic health can prevent or delay AD. Acarbose is an anti-diabetic drug that not only improves glucose homeostasis, but also extends the lifespan of wild-type mice. Here, we test the hypothesis that acarbose will not only preserve metabolic health, but also slow or prevent AD pathology and cognitive deficits in 3xTg mice, a model of AD, fed either a Control diet or a high-fat, high-sucrose Western diet (WD). We find that acarbose decreases the body weight and adiposity of WD-fed 3xTg mice, increasing energy expenditure while also stimulating food consumption, and improves glycemic control. Both male and female WD-fed 3xTg mice have worsened cognitive deficits than Control-fed mice, and these deficits are ameliorated by acarbose treatment. Molecular and histological analysis of tau and amyloid pathology identified sex-specific effects of acarbose which are uncoupled from the dramatic improvements in cognition, suggesting that the benefits of acarbose on AD are largely driven by improved metabolic health. In conclusion, our results suggest that acarbose may be a promising intervention to prevent, delay, or even treat AD, especially in individuals consuming a Western diet.

Protein restriction slows the development and progression of pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Dietary protein is a critical regulator of metabolic health and aging. Low protein diets are associated with healthy aging in humans, and dietary protein restriction extends the lifespan and healthspan of mice. In this study, we examined the effect of protein restriction (PR) on metabolic health and the development and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) in the 3xTg mouse model of AD. Here, we show that PR promotes leanness and glycemic control in 3xTg mice, specifically rescuing the glucose intolerance of 3xTg females. PR induces sex-specific alterations in circulating and brain metabolites, downregulating sphingolipid subclasses in 3xTg females. PR also reduces AD pathology and mTORC1 activity, increases autophagy, and improves the cognition of 3xTg mice. Finally, PR improves the survival of 3xTg mice. Our results suggest that PR or pharmaceutical interventions that mimic the effects of this diet may hold promise as a treatment for AD.

Molecular mechanisms linking type 2 diabetes mellitus and late-onset Alzheimer's disease: A systematic review and qualitative meta-analysis

Research evidence indicating common metabolic mechanisms through which type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) increases risk of late-onset Alzheimer's dementia (LOAD) has accumulated over recent decades. The aim of this systematic review is to provide a comprehensive review of common mechanisms, which have hitherto been discussed in separate perspectives, and to assemble and evaluate candidate loci and epigenetic modifications contributing to polygenic risk linkages between T2DM and LOAD. For the systematic review on pathophysiological mechanisms, both human and animal studies up to December 2023 are included. For the qualitative meta-analysis of genomic bases, human association studies were examined; for epigenetic mechanisms, data from human studies and animal models were accepted. Papers describing pathophysiological studies were identified in databases, and further literature gathered from cited work. For genomic and epigenomic studies, literature mining was conducted by formalised search codes using Boolean operators in search engines, and augmented by GeneRif citations in Entrez Gene, and other sources (WikiGenes, etc.). For the systematic review of pathophysiological mechanisms, 923 publications were evaluated, and 138 gene loci extracted for testing candidate risk linkages. 3 57 publications were evaluated for genomic association and descriptions of epigenomic modifications. Overall accumulated results highlight insulin signalling, inflammation and inflammasome pathways, proteolysis, gluconeogenesis and glycolysis, glycosylation, lipoprotein metabolism and oxidation, cell cycle regulation or survival, autophagic-lysosomal pathways, and energy. Documented findings suggest interplay between brain insulin resistance, neuroinflammation, insult compensatory mechanisms, and peripheral metabolic dysregulation in T2DM and LOAD linkage. The results allow for more streamlined longitudinal studies of T2DM-LOAD risk linkages.

Microglial activation induces nitric oxide signalling and alters protein S-nitrosylation patterns in extracellular vesicles

Neuroinflammation is an underlying feature of neurodegenerative conditions, often appearing early in the aetiology of a disease. Microglial activation, a prominent initiator of neuroinflammation, can be induced through lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment resulting in expression of the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), which produces nitric oxide (NO). NO post-translationally modifies cysteine thiols through S-nitrosylation, which can alter function of the target protein. Furthermore, packaging of these NO-modified proteins into extracellular vesicles (EVs) allows for the exertion of NO signalling in distant locations, resulting in further propagation of the neuroinflammatory phenotype. Despite this, the NO-modified proteome of activated microglial EVs has not been investigated. This study aimed to identify the protein post-translational modifications NO signalling induces in neuroinflammation. EVs isolated from LPS-treated microglia underwent mass spectral surface imaging using time of flight-secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), in addition to iodolabelling and comparative proteomic analysis to identify post-translation S-nitrosylation modifications. ToF-SIMS imaging successfully identified cysteine thiol side chains modified through NO signalling in the LPS treated microglial-derived EV proteins. In addition, the iodolabelling proteomic analysis revealed that the EVs from LPS-treated microglia carried S-nitrosylated proteins indicative of neuroinflammation. These included known NO-modified proteins and those associated with LPS-induced microglial activation that may play an essential role in neuroinflammatory communication. Together, these results show activated microglia can exert broad NO signalling changes through the selective packaging of EVs during neuroinflammation.

Exendin-4 Prevents Memory Loss and Neuronal Death in Rats with Sporadic Alzheimer-Like Disease

This study investigated the neuroprotective effects of exendin-4 (EXE-4), an analog of the glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor (GLP-1R) on memory and on the neuronal populations that constitute the hippocampus of rats submitted to a sporadic dementia of Alzheimer's type (SDAT). Male Wistar rats received streptozotocin (STZ icv, 3 mg/kg diluted in aCFS, 5 µl/ventricle) and were treated for 21 days with EXE-4 (10 µg/kg, ip; saline as the vehicle). Four groups were formed: vehicle, EXE-4, STZ, and STZ + EXE-4. The groups were submitted to Y-Maze (YM), object recognition (ORT), and object displacement tasks (ODT) to assess learning and memory. The brains were used for immunohistochemical and immunofluorescent techniques with antibodies to NeuN, cleaved caspase-3 (CC3), PCNA, doublecortin (DCX), synaptophysin (SYP), and insulin receptor (IR). STZ worsened spatial memory in the YMT, as well as short-term (STM) and long-term (LTM) memories in the ORT and ODT, respectively. EXE-4 protected against memory impairment in STZ animals. STZ reduced mature neuron density (NeuN) and increased cell apoptosis (CC3) in the DG, CA1, and CA3. EXE-4 protected against neuronal death in all regions. EXE-4 increased PCNA+ cells in all regions of the hippocampus, and STZ attenuated this effect. STZ reduced neurogenesis in DG per se as well as synaptogenesis induced by EXE-4. EXE-4 increased immunoreactivity to IR in the CA1. From these findings, EXE-4 showed a beneficial effect on hippocampal pyramidal and granular neurons in the SDAT showing anti-apoptotic properties and promoting cell proliferation. In parallel, EXE-4 preserved the memory of SDAT rats. EXE-4 appears to enhance synapses at CA3 and DG. In conclusion, these data indicate that agonists to GLP-1R have a beneficial effect on hippocampal neurons in AD.

Disease and brain region specific immune response profiles in neurodegenerative diseases with pure and mixed protein pathologies

The disease-specific accumulation of pathological proteins has long been the major focus of research in neurodegenerative diseases (ND), including Alzheimer's disease (AD) and related dementias (RD), but the recent identification of a multitude of genetic risk factors for ND in immune-associated genes highlights the importance of immune processes in disease pathogenesis and progression. Studies in animal models have characterized the local immune response to disease-specific proteins in AD and ADRD, but due to the complexity of disease processes and the co-existence of multiple protein pathologies in human donor brains, the precise role of immune processes in ND is far from understood. To better characterize the interplay between different extracellular and intracellular protein pathologies and the brain's intrinsic immune system in ND, we set out to comprehensively profile the local immune response in postmortem brain samples of individuals with "pure" beta-Amyloid and tau pathology (AD), "pure" α-Synuclein pathology in Lewy body diseases (LBD), as well as cases with Alzheimer's disease neuropathological changes (ADNC) and Lewy body pathology (MIX). Combining immunohistochemical profiling of microglia and digital image analysis, along with deep immunophenotyping using gene expression profiling on the NanoString nCounter® platform and digital spatial profiling on the NanoString GeoMx® platform we identified a robust immune activation signature in AD brain samples. This signature is maintained in persons with mixed pathologies, irrespective of co-existence of AD pathology and Lewy body (LB) pathology, while LBD brain samples with "pure" LB pathology exhibit an attenuated and distinct immune signature. Our studies highlight disease- and brain region-specific immune response profiles to intracellular and extracellular protein pathologies and further underscore the complexity of neuroimmune interactions in ND.

Neuropathogenesis-on-chips for neurodegenerative diseases

Developing diagnostics and treatments for neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) is challenging due to multifactorial pathogenesis that progresses gradually. Advanced in vitro systems that recapitulate patient-like pathophysiology are emerging as alternatives to conventional animal-based models. In this review, we explore the interconnected pathogenic features of different types of ND, discuss the general strategy to modelling NDs using a microfluidic chip, and introduce the organoid-on-a-chip as the next advanced relevant model. Lastly, we overview how these models are being applied in academic and industrial drug development. The integration of microfluidic chips, stem cells, and biotechnological devices promises to provide valuable insights for biomedical research and developing diagnostic and therapeutic solutions for NDs.

Unveiling New Strategies Facilitating the Implementation of Artificial Intelligence in Neuroimaging for the Early Detection of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder with a global impact. The past few decades have witnessed significant strides in comprehending the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms and developing diagnostic methodologies for AD, such as neuroimaging approaches. Neuroimaging techniques, including positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, have revolutionized the field by providing valuable insights into the structural and functional alterations in the brains of individuals with AD. These imaging modalities enable the detection of early biomarkers such as amyloid-β plaques and tau protein tangles, facilitating early and precise diagnosis. Furthermore, the emerging technologies encompassing blood-based biomarkers and neurochemical profiling exhibit promising results in the identification of specific molecular signatures for AD. The integration of machine learning algorithms and artificial intelligence has enhanced the predictive capacity of these diagnostic tools when analyzing complex datasets. In this review article, we will highlight not only some of the most used diagnostic imaging approaches in neurodegeneration research but focus much more on new tools like artificial intelligence, emphasizing their application in the realm of AD. These advancements hold immense potential for early detection and intervention, thereby paving the way for personalized therapeutic strategies and ultimately augmenting the quality of life for individuals affected by AD.

Interactions of Cellular Energetic Gene Clusters in the Alzheimer's Mouse Brain

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia in the aging population. The pathological characteristics include extracellular senile plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles. In addition, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation contribute to AD pathogenesis. In this study, we sought to determine the crosstalk between different pathways in the brain of 5XFAD mice, a mouse model for amyloid pathology, by RNA-seq analysis. We observed significant changes in the expression of genes (1288 genes; adj p value < 0.05; log2-fold > 1 and < 1) related to pathways including oxidation-reduction, oxidative phosphorylation, innate immune response, ribosomal protein synthesis, and ubiquitin proteosome system. The most striking feature was the downregulation of genes related to oxidation-reduction process with changes in the expression of a large number of mitochondrial genes. We also observed an upregulation of several immune response genes. Gene interaction network of oxidation-reduction related genes further confirmed a tight cluster of mitochondrial genes. Furthermore, gene interaction analysis of all the 1288 genes showed at least three distinct interaction clusters, with the predominant one relating to cellular energetics. In summary, we identified 1288 genes distinctly different in the 5XFAD brain compared to the WT brain and found cellular energetics to be the most distinct gene cluster in the AD mouse brain.

Adiponectin and resistin modulate the progression of Alzheimer´s disease in a metabolic syndrome model

Metabolic syndrome (MetS), a cluster of metabolic conditions that include obesity, hyperlipidemia, and insulin resistance, increases the risk of several aging-related brain diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the underlying mechanism explaining the link between MetS and brain function is poorly understood. Among the possible mediators are several adipose-derived secreted molecules called adipokines, including adiponectin (ApN) and resistin, which have been shown to regulate brain function by modulating several metabolic processes. To investigate the impact of adipokines on MetS, we employed a diet-induced model to induce the various complications associated with MetS. For this purpose, we administered a high-fat diet (HFD) to both WT and APP/PSN1 mice at a pre-symptomatic disease stage. Our data showed that MetS causes a fast decline in cognitive performance and stimulates Aβ42 production in the brain. Interestingly, ApN treatment restored glucose metabolism and improved cognitive functions by 50% while decreasing the Aβ42/40 ratio by approximately 65%. In contrast, resistin exacerbated Aβ pathology, increased oxidative stress, and strongly reduced glucose metabolism. Together, our data demonstrate that ApN and resistin alterations could further contribute to AD pathology.

Cognitive dysfunction and increased phosphorylated tau are associated with reduced O-GlcNAc signaling in an aging mouse model of metabolic syndrome

Metabolic syndrome (MetS), characterized by hyperglycemia, obesity, and hyperlipidemia, can increase the risk of developing late-onset dementia. Recent studies in patients and mouse models suggest a putative link between hyperphosphorylated tau, a component of Alzheimer's disease-related dementia (ADRD) pathology, and cerebral glucose hypometabolism. Impaired glucose metabolism reduces glucose flux through the hexosamine metabolic pathway triggering attenuated O-linked N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) protein modification. The goal of the current study was to investigate the link between cognitive function, tau pathology, and O-GlcNAc signaling in an aging mouse model of MetS, agouti KKAy+/- . Male and female C57BL/6, non-agouti KKAy-/- , and agouti KKAy+/- mice were aged 12-18 months on standard chow diet. Body weight, blood glucose, total cholesterol, and triglyceride were measured to confirm the MetS phenotype. Cognition, sensorimotor function, and emotional reactivity were assessed for each genotype followed by plasma and brain tissue collection for biochemical and molecular analyses. Body weight, blood glucose, total cholesterol, and triglyceride levels were significantly elevated in agouti KKAy+/- mice versus C57BL/6 controls and non-agouti KKAy-/- . Behaviorally, agouti KKAy+/- revealed impairments in sensorimotor and cognitive function versus age-matched C57BL/6 and non-agouti KKAy-/- mice. Immunoblotting demonstrated increased phosphorylated tau accompanied with reduced O-GlcNAc protein expression in hippocampal-associated dorsal midbrain of female agouti KKAy+/- versus C57BL/6 control mice. Together, these data demonstrate that impaired cognitive function and AD-related pathology are associated with reduced O-GlcNAc signaling in aging MetS KKAy+/- mice. Overall, our study suggests that interaction of tau pathology with O-GlcNAc signaling may contribute to MetS-induced cognitive dysfunction in aging.

The effects of amyloid beta aggregation on neuronal transcription

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a debilitating condition that impairs cognition and episodic memory. AD is well known for its behavioural phenotype however, knowing its cellular pathology, which is primarily based on the presence of amyloid beta (Aβ) in various aggregation states, is crucial for the development of research efforts against the disorder. The most notable of these aggregation states are the oligomeric and fibril forms of Aβ. This paper aims to describe the transcriptomic profile of neuronal cells exposed to these aggregation states in order to better understand the disorder and identify potential therapeutic genetic targets. The primary findings of this paper illustrate the significant effects of Aβ on genes associated with metabolism as well as the dramatically increased effects of oligomeric Aβ relative to fibril Aβ with respect to the overall changes in gene expression. The presented results also support the further examination of the role of GTPases in the deleterious effects of Aβ.

Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) and Neuroprotection, What Is New? An Up-To-Date Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

In recent years, the potential role of probiotics has become prominent in the discoveries of neurotherapy against neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) exhibit neuroprotective properties and exert their effects via various mechanisms of actions. This review aimed to evaluate the effects of LAB on neuroprotection reported in the literature.

METHODS

A database search on Google Scholar, PubMed, and Science Direct revealed a total of 467 references, of which 25 were included in this review based on inclusion criteria which comprises 7 in vitro, 16 in vivo, and 2 clinical studies.

RESULTS

From the studies, LAB treatment alone or in probiotics formulations demonstrated significant neuroprotective activities. In animals and humans, LAB probiotics supplementation has improved memory and cognitive performance mainly via antioxidant and anti-inflammatory pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite promising findings, due to limited studies available in the literature, further studies still need to be explored regarding synergistic effects, efficacy, and optimum dosage of LAB oral bacteriotherapy as treatment or prevention against neurodegenerative diseases.

Distinct CSF biomarker-associated DNA methylation in Alzheimer's disease and cognitively normal subjects

BACKGROUND

Growing evidence has demonstrated that DNA methylation (DNAm) plays an important role in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and that DNAm differences can be detected in the blood of AD subjects. Most studies have correlated blood DNAm with the clinical diagnosis of AD in living individuals. However, as the pathophysiological process of AD can begin many years before the onset of clinical symptoms, there is often disagreement between neuropathology in the brain and clinical phenotypes. Therefore, blood DNAm associated with AD neuropathology, rather than with clinical data, would provide more relevant information on AD pathogenesis.

METHODS

We performed a comprehensive analysis to identify blood DNAm associated with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pathological biomarkers for AD. Our study included matched samples of whole blood DNA methylation, CSF Aβ42, phosphorylated tau181 (pTau181), and total tau (tTau) biomarkers data, measured on the same subjects and at the same clinical visits from a total of 202 subjects (123 CN or cognitively normal, 79 AD) in the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) cohort. To validate our findings, we also examined the association between premortem blood DNAm and postmortem brain neuropathology measured on a group of 69 subjects in the London dataset.

RESULTS

We identified a number of novel associations between blood DNAm and CSF biomarkers, demonstrating that changes in pathological processes in the CSF are reflected in the blood epigenome. Overall, the CSF biomarker-associated DNAm is relatively distinct in CN and AD subjects, highlighting the importance of analyzing omics data measured on cognitively normal subjects (which includes preclinical AD subjects) to identify diagnostic biomarkers, and considering disease stages in the development and testing of AD treatment strategies. Moreover, our analysis revealed biological processes associated with early brain impairment relevant to AD are marked by DNAm in the blood, and blood DNAm at several CpGs in the DMR on HOXA5 gene are associated with pTau181 in the CSF, as well as tau-pathology and DNAm in the brain, nominating DNAm at this locus as a promising candidate AD biomarker.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides a valuable resource for future mechanistic and biomarker studies of DNAm in AD.

Geroprotective interventions in the 3xTg mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-associated neurodegenerative disease. As the population ages, the increasing prevalence of AD threatens massive healthcare costs in the coming decades. Unfortunately, traditional drug development efforts for AD have proven largely unsuccessful. A geroscience approach to AD suggests that since aging is the main driver of AD, targeting aging itself may be an effective way to prevent or treat AD. Here, we discuss the effectiveness of geroprotective interventions on AD pathology and cognition in the widely utilized triple-transgenic mouse model of AD (3xTg-AD) which develops both β-amyloid and tau pathologies characteristic of human AD, as well as cognitive deficits. We discuss the beneficial impacts of calorie restriction (CR), the gold standard for geroprotective interventions, and the effects of other dietary interventions including protein restriction. We also discuss the promising preclinical results of geroprotective pharmaceuticals, including rapamycin and medications for type 2 diabetes. Though these interventions and treatments have beneficial effects in the 3xTg-AD model, there is no guarantee that they will be as effective in humans, and we discuss the need to examine these interventions in additional animal models as well as the urgent need to test if some of these approaches can be translated from the lab to the bedside for the treatment of humans with AD.

Selective breeding for physical inactivity produces cognitive deficits via altered hippocampal mitochondrial and synaptic function

Physical inactivity is the 4th leading cause of death globally and has been shown to significantly increase the risk for developing Alzheimer's Disease (AD). Recent work has demonstrated that exercise prior to breeding produces heritable benefits to the brains of offspring, suggesting that the physical activity status of previous generations could play an important role in one's brain health and their subsequent risk for neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, our study aimed to test the hypothesis that selective breeding for physical inactivity, or for high physical activity, preference produces heritable deficits and enhancements to brain health, respectively. To evaluate this hypothesis, male and female sedentary Low Voluntary Runners (LVR), wild type (WT), and High Voluntary Runner (HVR) rats underwent cognitive behavioral testing, analysis of hippocampal neurogenesis and mitochondrial respiration, and molecular analysis of the dentate gyrus. These analyses revealed that selecting for physical inactivity preference has produced major detriments to cognition, brain mitochondrial respiration, and neurogenesis in female LVR while female HVR display enhancements in brain glucose metabolism and hippocampal size. On the contrary, male LVR and HVR showed very few differences in these parameters relative to WT. Overall, we provide evidence that selective breeding for physical inactivity has a heritable and detrimental effect on brain health and that the female brain appears to be more susceptible to these effects. This emphasizes the importance of remaining physically active as chronic intergenerational physical inactivity likely increases susceptibility to neurodegenerative diseases for both the inactive individual and their offspring.

Distinct CSF biomarker-associated DNA methylation in Alzheimer's disease and cognitively normal subjects

Background Growing evidence has demonstrated that DNA methylation (DNAm) plays an important role in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and that DNAm differences can be detected in the blood of AD subjects. Most studies have correlated blood DNAm with the clinical diagnosis of AD in living individuals. However, as the pathophysiological process of AD can begin many years before the onset of clinical symptoms, there is often disagreement between neuropathology in the brain and clinical phenotypes. Therefore, blood DNAm associated with AD neuropathology, rather than with clinical data, would provide more relevant information on AD pathogenesis. Methods We performed a comprehensive analysis to identify blood DNAm associated with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pathological biomarkers for AD. Our study included matched samples of whole blood DNA methylation, CSF Aβ 42 , phosphorylated tau 181 (pTau 181 ), and total tau (tTau) biomarkers data, measured on the same subjects and at the same clinical visits from a total of 202 subjects (123 CN or cognitively normal, 79 AD) in the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) cohort. To validate our findings, we also examined the association between premortem blood DNAm and postmortem brain neuropathology measured on a group of 69 subjects in the London dataset. Results We identified a number of novel associations between blood DNAm and CSF biomarkers, demonstrating that changes in pathological processes in the CSF are reflected in the blood epigenome. Overall, the CSF biomarker-associated DNAm is relatively distinct in CN and AD subjects, highlighting the importance of analyzing omics data measured on cognitively normal subjects (which includes preclinical AD subjects) to identify diagnostic biomarkers, and considering disease stages in the development and testing of AD treatment strategies. Moreover, our analysis revealed biological processes associated with early brain impairment relevant to AD are marked by DNAm in the blood, and blood DNAm at several CpGs in the DMR on HOXA5 gene are associated with pTau 181 in the CSF, as well as tau-pathology and DNAm in the brain, nominating DNAm at this locus as a promising candidate AD biomarker. Conclusions Our study provides a valuable resource for future mechanistic and biomarker studies of DNAm in AD.

Diabetes and cognitive function: An evidence-based current perspective

Several epidemiological studies have clearly identified diabetes mellitus (DM) as a major risk factor for cognitive dysfunction, and it is going to be a major public health issue in the coming years because of the alarming rise in diabetes prevalence across the world. Brain and neural tissues predominantly depend on glucose as energy substrate and hence, any alterations in carbohydrate meta-bolism can directly impact on cerebral functional output including cognition, executive capacity, and memory. DM affects neuronal function and mental capacity in several ways, some of which include hypoperfusion of the brain tissues from cerebrovascular disease, diabetes-related alterations of glucose transporters causing abnormalities in neuronal glucose uptake and metabolism, local hyper- and hypometabolism of brain areas from insulin resistance, and recurrent hypoglycemic episodes inherent to pharmacotherapy of diabetes resulting in neuronal damage. Cognitive decline can further worsen diabetes care as DM is a disease largely self-managed by patients. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the pathobiology of cognitive dysfunction in relation to DM and its management for optimal long-term care plan for patients. A thorough appraisal of normal metabolic characteristics of the brain, how alterations in neural metabolism affects cognition, the diagnostic algorithm for patients with diabetes and dementia, and the management and prognosis of patients when they have this dangerous combination of illnesses is imperative in this context. This evidence-based narrative with the back-up of latest clinical trial reviews elaborates the current understanding on diabetes and cognitive function to empower physicians to manage their patients in day-to-day clinical practice.

Unraveling the Mechanism of Immunity and Inflammation Related to Molecular Signatures Crosstalk Among Obesity, T2D, and AD: Insights From Bioinformatics Approaches

Individuals with type 2 diabetes (T2D) and obesity have a higher risk of developing Alzheimer disease (AD), and increasing evidence indicates a link between impaired immune signaling pathways and the development of AD. However, the shared cellular mechanisms and molecular signatures among these 3 diseases remain unknown. The purpose of this study was to uncover similar molecular markers and pathways involved in obesity, T2D, and AD using bioinformatics and a network biology approach. First, we investigated the 3 RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) gene expression data sets and determined 224 commonly shared differentially expressed genes (DEGs) from obesity, T2D, and AD diseases. Gene ontology and pathway enrichment analyses revealed that mutual DEGs were mainly enriched with immune and inflammatory signaling pathways. In addition, we constructed a protein-protein interactions network for finding hub genes, which have not previously been identified as playing a critical role in these 3 diseases. Furthermore, the transcriptional factors and protein kinases regulating commonly shared DEGs among obesity, T2D, and AD were also identified. Finally, we suggested potential drug candidates as possible therapeutic interventions for 3 diseases. The results of this bioinformatics analysis provided a new understanding of the potential links between obesity, T2D, and AD pathologies.

Modeling digestion, absorption, and ketogenesis after administration of tricaprilin formulations to humans

At present, tricaprilin is used as a ketogenic source for the management of mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease. After administration of the medium-chain triglyceride, tricaprilin is hydrolyzed to octanoic acid and further metabolized to ketones, acting as an alternative energy substrate for the brain. In this investigation, we developed a physiologically-based biopharmaceutics model simulating in vivo processes following the peroral administration of tricaprilin. The model includes multiple data sources to establish a partially verified framework for the simulation of plasma profiles. The input parameters were identified based on existing literature data and in vitro digestion studies. Model validation was conducted using the data from a phase I clinical trial. A partial parameter sensitivity analysis elucidated various influences on the plasma ketone levels that are mainly responsible for the therapeutic effects of tricaprilin. Based on our findings, we concluded that dispersibility and lipolysis of tricaprilin together with the gastric emptying patterns are limiting ketogenesis, while other steps such as the conversion of octanoic acid to ketone bodies play a minor role only.

Altered glucose metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: Role of mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress

Increasing evidence suggests that abnormal cerebral glucose metabolism is largely present in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The brain utilizes glucose as its main energy source and a decline in its metabolism directly reflects on brain function. Weighing on recent evidence, here we systematically assessed the aberrant glucose metabolism associated with amyloid beta and phosphorylated tau accumulation in AD brain. Interlink between insulin signaling and AD highlighted the involvement of the IRS/PI3K/Akt/AMPK signaling, and GLUTs in the disease progression. While shedding light on the mitochondrial dysfunction in the defective glucose metabolism, we further assessed functional consequences of AGEs (advanced glycation end products) accumulation, polyol activation, and other contributing factors including terminal respiration, ROS (reactive oxygen species), mitochondrial permeability, PINK1/parkin defects, lysosome-mitochondrial crosstalk, and autophagy/mitophagy. Combined with the classic plaque and tangle pathologies, glucose hypometabolism with acquired insulin resistance and mitochondrial dysfunction potentiate these factors to exacerbate AD pathology. To this end, we further reviewed AD and DM (diabetes mellitus) crosstalk in disease progression. Taken together, the present work discusses the emerging role of altered glucose metabolism, contributing impact of insulin signaling, and mitochondrial dysfunction in the defective cerebral glucose utilization in AD.

White Matter Damage in Alzheimer's Disease: Contribution of Oligodendrocytes

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disease, seriously influencing the quality of life and is a global health problem. Many factors affect the onset and development of AD, but specific mechanisms underlying the disease are unclear. Most studies investigating AD have focused on neurons and the gray matter in the central nervous system (CNS) but have not led to effective treatments. Recently, an increasing number of studies have focused on the white matter (WM). Magnetic resonance imaging and pathology studies have shown different degrees of WM abnormality during the progression of AD. Myelin sheaths, the main component of WM in the CNS, wrap and insulate axons to ensure conduction of the rapid action potential and axonal integrity. WM damage is characterized by progressive degeneration of axons, oligodendrocytes (OLs), and myelin in one or more areas of the CNS. The contributions of OLs to AD progression have, until recently, been largely overlooked. OLs are integral to myelin production, and the proliferation and differentiation of OLs, an early characteristic of AD, provide a promising target for preclinical diagnosis and treatment. However, despite some progress, the key mechanisms underlying the contributions of OLs to AD remain unclear. Given the heavy burden of medical treatment, a better understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying AD is vital. This review comprehensively summarize the results on WM abnormalities in AD and explores the relationship between OL progenitor cells and the pathogenesis of AD. Finally, the underlying molecular mechanisms and potential future research directions are discussed.

E2F4DN Transgenic Mice: A Tool for the Evaluation of E2F4 as a Therapeutic Target in Neuropathology and Brain Aging

E2F4 was initially described as a transcription factor with a key function in the regulation of cell quiescence. Nevertheless, a number of recent studies have established that E2F4 can also play a relevant role in cell and tissue homeostasis, as well as tissue regeneration. For these non-canonical functions, E2F4 can also act in the cytoplasm, where it is able to interact with many homeostatic and synaptic regulators. Since E2F4 is expressed in the nervous system, it may fulfill a crucial role in brain function and homeostasis, being a promising multifactorial target for neurodegenerative diseases and brain aging. The regulation of E2F4 is complex, as it can be chemically modified through acetylation, from which we present evidence in the brain, as well as methylation, and phosphorylation. The phosphorylation of E2F4 within a conserved threonine motif induces cell cycle re-entry in neurons, while a dominant negative form of E2F4 (E2F4DN), in which the conserved threonines have been substituted by alanines, has been shown to act as a multifactorial therapeutic agent for Alzheimer’s disease (AD). We generated transgenic mice neuronally expressing E2F4DN. We have recently shown using this mouse strain that expression of E2F4DN in 5xFAD mice, a known murine model of AD, improved cognitive function, reduced neuronal tetraploidization, and induced a transcriptional program consistent with modulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide proteostasis and brain homeostasis recovery. 5xFAD/E2F4DN mice also showed reduced microgliosis and astrogliosis in both the cerebral cortex and hippocampus at 3-6 months of age. Here, we analyzed the immune response in 1 year-old 5xFAD/E2F4DN mice, concluding that reduced microgliosis and astrogliosis is maintained at this late stage. In addition, the expression of E2F4DN also reduced age-associated microgliosis in wild-type mice, thus stressing its role as a brain homeostatic agent. We conclude that E2F4DN transgenic mice represent a promising tool for the evaluation of E2F4 as a therapeutic target in neuropathology and brain aging.

ApoE isoform-dependent effects of xanthohumol on high fat diet-induced cognitive impairments and hippocampal metabolic pathways

Consumption of a high fat diet (HFD) is linked to metabolic syndrome and cognitive impairments. This is exacerbated in age-related cognitive decline (ACD) and in individuals with a genetic risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Apolipoprotein E (apoE) is involved in cholesterol metabolism. In humans, there are three major isoforms, E2, E3, and E4. Compared to E3, E4 increases ACD and AD risk and vulnerability to the deleterious cognitive effects of a HFD. The plant compound Xanthohumol (XN) had beneficial effects on cognition and metabolism in C57BL/6J wild-type (WT) male mice put on a HFD at 9 weeks of age for 13 weeks. As the effects of XN in the context of a HFD in older WT, E3, and E4 female and male mice are not known, in the current study male and female WT, E3, and E4 mice were fed a HFD alone or a HFD containing 0.07% XN for 10 or 19 weeks, starting at 6 months of age, prior to the beginning of behavioral and cognitive testing. XN showed sex- and ApoE isoform-dependent effects on cognitive performance. XN-treated E4 and WT, but not E3, mice had higher glucose transporter protein levels in the hippocampus and cortex than HFD-treated mice. E3 and E4 mice had higher glucose transporter protein levels in the hippocampus and lower glucose transporter protein levels in the cortex than WT mice. In the standard experiment, regardless of XN treatment, E4 mice had nearly double as high ceramide and sphingomyelin levels than E3 mice and male mice had higher level of glycosylated ceramide than female mice. When the differential effects of HFD in E3 and E4 males were assessed, the arginine and proline metabolism pathway was affected. In the extended exposure experiment, in E3 males XN treatment affected the arginine and proline metabolism and the glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism. Myristic acid levels were decreased in XN-treated E3 males but not E3 females. These data support the therapeutic potential for XN to ameliorate HFD-induced cognitive impairments and highlight the importance of considering sex and ApoE isoform in determining who might most benefit from this dietary supplement.

Effect of cx-DHED on Abnormal Glucose Transporter Expression Induced by AD Pathologies in the 5xFAD Mouse Model

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a form of dementia associated with abnormal glucose metabolism resulting from amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tau protein tangles. In a previous study, we confirmed that carboxy-dehydroevodiamine∙HCl (cx-DHED), a derivative of DHED, was effective at improving cognitive impairment and reducing phosphorylated tau levels and synaptic loss in an AD mouse model. However, the specific mechanism of action of cx-DHED is unclear. In this study, we investigated how the cx-DHED attenuates AD pathologies in the 5xFAD mouse model, focusing particularly on abnormal glucose metabolism. We analyzed behavioral changes and AD pathologies in mice after intraperitoneal injection of cx-DHED for 2 months. As expected, cx-DHED reversed memory impairment and reduced Aβ plaques and astrocyte overexpression in the brains of 5xFAD mice. Interestingly, cx-DHED reversed the abnormal expression of glucose transporters in the brains of 5xFAD mice. In addition, otherwise low O-GlcNac levels increased, and the overactivity of phosphorylated GSK-3β decreased in the brains of cx-DHED-treated 5xFAD mice. Finally, the reduction in synaptic proteins was found to also improve by treatment with cx-DHED. Therefore, we specifically demonstrated the protective effects of cx-DHED against AD pathologies and suggest that cx-DHED may be a potential therapeutic drug for AD.

Dysfunctional Glucose Metabolism in Alzheimer’s Disease Onset and Potential Pharmacological Interventions

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common age-related dementia. The alteration in metabolic characteristics determines the prognosis. Patients at risk show reduced glucose uptake in the brain. Additionally, type 2 diabetes mellitus increases the risk of AD with increasing age. Therefore, changes in glucose uptake in the cerebral cortex may predict the histopathological diagnosis of AD. The shifts in glucose uptake and metabolism, insulin resistance, oxidative stress, and abnormal autophagy advance the pathogenesis of AD syndrome. Here, we summarize the role of altered glucose metabolism in type 2 diabetes for AD prognosis. Additionally, we discuss diagnosis and potential pharmacological interventions for glucose metabolism defects in AD to encourage the development of novel therapeutic methods.

Metformin and the risk of dementia based on an analysis of 396,332 participants

Background:

AMPK has attracted widespread interest as a potential therapeutic target for age-related diseases, given its key role in controlling energy homeostasis. Metformin (Met) has historically been used to treat Type 2 diabetes and has been shown to counteract age-related diseases. However, studies regarding the relationship between Met and a variety of age-related classifications of cognitive decline have reported mixed findings.

Objective:

To assess the potential effect of Met on the onset of dementia and discuss the possible biological mechanisms involved.

Methods:

This study was registered in the PROSPERO database (CRD420201251468). PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library were searched from inception to 25 May 2021, for population-based cohort studies. Effect estimates with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were pooled using the random-effects model. Meta-regression and subgroup analyses were performed to explore sources of heterogeneity and the stability of the results.

Results:

Fourteen population-based cohort studies (17 individual comparisons) involving 396,332 participants were identified. Meta-analysis showed that Met exposure was significantly associated with reduced risk of all subtypes of dementias [relative risk (RR) = 0.79, 95% CI = 0.68–0.91; p < 0.001]. Conversely, no significant reduction in risk was observed for those who received Met monotherapy at the onset of vascular dementia (VD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The effect was more prominent in patients who had long-term Met exposure (⩾4 years) (RR = 0.38, 95% CI = 0.32–0.46; p < 0.001), while no such significant effect was found with short-term Met exposure (1–2 years) (RR = 1.20, 95% CI = 0.87–1.66; p < 0.001). Moreover, no association was observed for Met exposure in participants of European descent (RR = 1.01, 95% CI = 0.66–1.54; p = 0.003) compared with those from other countries.

Conclusion:

Based on the evidence from population-based cohort studies, our findings suggest that the AMPK activator, Met, is a potential geroprotective agent for dementias, particularly among long-term Met users. Due to the significant heterogeneity among the included studies, we should interpret the results with caution.

Glucose enrichment impair neurotransmission and induce Aβ oligomerization that cannot be reversed by manipulating O-β-GlcNAcylation in the C. elegans model of Alzheimer's disease

Amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques formation and impaired neurotransmission and neuronal behaviors are primary hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD) that are further associated with impaired glucose metabolism in elderly AD's patients. However, the exact role of glucose metabolism on disease progression has not been elucidated yet. In this study, the effect of glucose on Aβ-mediated toxicity, neurotransmission and neuronal behaviors has been investigated using a C. elegans model system expressing human Aβ. In addition to regular diet, worms expressing Aβ were supplemented with different concentrations of glucose and glycerol and 5 mM 2-deoxyglucose to draw any conclusions. Addition of glucose to the growth medium delayed Aβ-associated paralysis, promoted abnormal body shapes and movement, unable to restore impaired acetylcholine neurotransmission, inhibited egg laying and hatching in pre-existing Aβ-mediated pathology. The harmful effects of glucose may associate with an increase in toxic Aβ oligomers and impaired neurotransmission. O-β-GlcNAcylation (O-GlcNAc), a well-known post-translational modification is directly associated with glucose metabolism and has been found to ameliorates the Aβ- toxicity. We reasoned that glucose addition might induce O-GlcNAc, thereby protect against Aβ. Contrary to our expectations, induced glucose levels were not protective. Increasing O-GlcNAc, either with Thiamet-G (TMG) or by suppressing the O-GlcNAcase (oga-1) gene does interfere with and, therefore, reduce Aβ- toxicity but not in the presence of high glucose. The effects of glucose cannot be effectively managed by manipulating O-GlcNAc in AD models of C. elegans. Our observations suggest that glucose enrichment is unlikely to be an appropriate therapy to minimize AD progression.

A Mutant Variant of E2F4 Triggers Multifactorial Therapeutic Effects in 5xFAD Mice

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has a complex etiology, which requires a multifactorial approach for an efficient treatment. We have focused on E2 factor 4 (E2F4), a transcription factor that regulates cell quiescence and tissue homeostasis, controls gene networks affected in AD, and is upregulated in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients and of APP^swe/PS1^dE9 and 5xFAD transgenic mice. E2F4 contains an evolutionarily conserved Thr-motif that, when phosphorylated, modulates its activity, thus constituting a potential target for intervention. In this study, we generated a knock-in mouse strain with neuronal expression of a mouse E2F4 variant lacking this Thr-motif (E2F4DN), which was mated with 5xFAD mice. Here, we show that neuronal expression of E2F4DN in 5xFAD mice potentiates a transcriptional program consistent with the attenuation of the immune response and brain homeostasis. This correlates with reduced microgliosis and astrogliosis, modulation of amyloid-β peptide proteostasis, and blocking of neuronal tetraploidization. Moreover, E2F4DN prevents cognitive impairment and body weight loss, a known somatic alteration associated with AD. We also show that our finding is significant for AD, since E2F4 is expressed in cortical neurons from Alzheimer patients in association with Thr-specific phosphorylation, as evidenced by an anti-E2F4/anti-phosphoThr proximity ligation assay. We propose E2F4DN-based gene therapy as a promising multifactorial approach against AD.

E2F4-Based Gene Therapy Mitigates the Phenotype of the Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model 5xFAD

After decades of unfruitful work, no effective therapies are available for Alzheimer's disease (AD), likely due to its complex etiology that requires a multifactorial therapeutic approach. We have recently shown using transgenic mice that E2 factor 4 (E2F4), a transcription factor that regulates cell quiescence and tissue homeostasis, and controls gene networks affected in AD, represents a good candidate for a multifactorial targeting of AD. Here we show that the expression of a dominant negative form of human E2F4 (hE2F4DN), unable to become phosphorylated in a Thr-conserved motif known to modulate E2F4 activity, is an effective and safe AD multifactorial therapeutic agent. Neuronal expression of hE2F4DN in homozygous 5xFAD (h5xFAD) mice after systemic administration of an AAV.PHP.B-hSyn1.hE2F4DN vector reduced the production and accumulation of Aβ in the hippocampus, attenuated reactive astrocytosis and microgliosis, abolished neuronal tetraploidization, and prevented cognitive impairment evaluated by Y-maze and Morris water maze, without triggering side effects. This treatment also reversed other alterations observed in h5xFAD mice such as paw-clasping behavior and body weight loss. Our results indicate that E2F4DN-based gene therapy is a promising therapeutic approach against AD.

Brain Glucose Transporters: Role in Pathogenesis and Potential Targets for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

The most common cause of dementia, especially in elderly people, is Alzheimer’s disease (AD), with aging as its main risk factor. AD is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disease. There are several factors increasing the risk of AD development. One of the main features of Alzheimer’s disease is impairment of brain energy. Hypometabolism caused by decreased glucose uptake is observed in specific areas of the AD-affected brain. Therefore, glucose hypometabolism and energy deficit are hallmarks of AD. There are several hypotheses that explain the role of glucose hypometabolism in AD, but data available on this subject are poor. Reduced transport of glucose into neurons may be related to decreased expression of glucose transporters in neurons and glia. On the other hand, glucose transporters may play a role as potential targets for the treatment of AD. Compounds such as antidiabetic drugs, agonists of SGLT1, insulin, siRNA and liposomes are suggested as therapeutics. Nevertheless, the suggested targets of therapy need further investigations.

Liver Bile Acid Changes in Mouse Models of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive cognitive impairment. It is hypothesized to develop due to the dysfunction of two major proteins, amyloid-β (Aβ) and microtubule-associated protein, tau. Evidence supports the involvement of cholesterol changes in both the generation and deposition of Aβ. This study was performed to better understand the role of liver cholesterol and bile acid metabolism in the pathophysiology of AD. We used male and female wild-type control (C57BL/6J) mice to compare to two well-characterized amyloidosis models of AD, APP/PS1, and App^NL-G-F. Both conjugated and unconjugated primary and secondary bile acids were quantified using UPLC-MS/MS from livers of control and AD mice. We also measured cholesterol and its metabolites and identified changes in levels of proteins associated with bile acid synthesis and signaling. We observed sex differences in liver cholesterol levels accompanied by differences in levels of synthesis intermediates and conjugated and unconjugated liver primary bile acids in both APP/PS1 and App^NL-G-F mice when compared to controls. Our data revealed fundamental deficiencies in cholesterol metabolism and bile acid synthesis in the livers of two different AD mouse lines. These findings strengthen the involvement of liver metabolism in the pathophysiology of AD.

Measuring Glycolytic Activity with Hyperpolarized [2H7, U-13C6] D-Glucose in the Naive Mouse Brain under Different Anesthetic Conditions

Glucose is the primary fuel for the brain; its metabolism is linked with cerebral function. Different magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) techniques are available to assess glucose metabolism, providing complementary information. Our first aim was to investigate the difference between hyperpolarized ¹³C-glucose MRS and non-hyperpolarized ²H-glucose MRS to interrogate cerebral glycolysis. Isoflurane anesthesia is commonly employed in preclinical MRS, but it affects cerebral hemodynamics and functional connectivity. A combination of low doses of isoflurane and medetomidine is routinely used in rodent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and shows similar functional connectivity, as in awake animals. As glucose metabolism is tightly linked to neuronal activity, our second aim was to assess the impact of these two anesthetic conditions on the cerebral metabolism of glucose. Brain metabolism of hyperpolarized ¹³C-glucose and non-hyperpolaized ²H-glucose was monitored in two groups of mice in a 9.4 T MRI system. We found that the very different duration and temporal resolution of the two techniques enable highlighting the different aspects in glucose metabolism. We demonstrate (by numerical simulations) that hyperpolarized ¹³C-glucose reports on de novo lactate synthesis and is sensitive to cerebral metabolic rate of glucose (CMR_Glc). We show that variations in cerebral glucose metabolism, under different anesthesia, are reflected differently in hyperpolarized and non-hyperpolarized X-nuclei glucose MRS.

Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease associated with human aging. Ten percent of individuals over 65 years have AD and its prevalence continues to rise with increasing age. There are currently no effective disease modifying treatments for AD, resulting in increasingly large socioeconomic and personal costs. Increasing age is associated with an increase in low-grade chronic inflammation (inflammaging) that may contribute to the neurodegenerative process in AD. Although the exact mechanisms remain unclear, aberrant elevation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) levels from several endogenous and exogenous processes in the brain may not only affect cell signaling, but also trigger cellular senescence, inflammation, and pyroptosis. Moreover, a compromised immune privilege of the brain that allows the infiltration of peripheral immune cells and infectious agents may play a role. Additionally, meta-inflammation as well as gut microbiota dysbiosis may drive the neuroinflammatory process. Considering that inflammatory/immune pathways are dysregulated in parallel with cognitive dysfunction in AD, elucidating the relationship between the central nervous system and the immune system may facilitate the development of a safe and effective therapy for AD. We discuss some current ideas on processes in inflammaging that appear to drive the neurodegenerative process in AD and summarize details on a few immunomodulatory strategies being developed to selectively target the detrimental aspects of neuroinflammation without affecting defense mechanisms against pathogens and tissue damage.

Alzheimer's disease improved through the activity of mitochondrial chain complexes and their gene expression in rats by boswellic acid

The foremost neurodegenerative disease is Alzheimer's (AD), which is characterized as a gradual decrease in memory, cognitive function, and also personal changes occurred. This study aims to assess the role of boswellic bioactive component in control Alzheimer's disease through enhancing mitochondrial electron transport chain complexes in the rat model. Rats were divided into five equal groups: the control group (G1), boswellic acid control group (G2), AD disease group (G3), boswellic acid -pre-treated group (G4) and boswellic acid-treated group (G5). At the end of the experiment, blood glucose level, tau protein, different neurochemicals parameters (dopamine, acetylcholine), L-malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, and superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities was determined. Also, GLUT2 and mitochondrial electron transport chain complexes were evaluated. As a result, an increase in hippocampus glucose, tau protein expression, MDA and GLUT2 in the AD group (G3) compared to control groups (G1 and G2) has been recorded. These parameters were declined after pre (G4) and treated (G5) by boswellic acid. The neurochemicals, antioxidants parameters, four mitochondrial chain complexes activities and their gene expression in the hippocampus of the AD group were decreased compared to the control groups (G1 and G2). In contrast, pre and treated groups by boswellic acid (G4 and G5, respectively) have shown an increase in antioxidants parameters, and the activities of four mitochondrial complexes, with the best improvement in the pre-treated group (G4), then treated group (G5). In conclusion; the boswellic acid improved the antioxidant and mitochondrial complexes in Alzheimer's disease.

Glucose metabolism: A link between traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer's disease

Traumatic brain injury (TBI), a growing public health problem, is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide, although its prevention measures and clinical cares are substantially improved. Increasing evidence shows that TBI may increase the risk of mood disorders and neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the complex relationship between TBI and AD remains elusive. Metabolic dysfunction has been the common pathology in both TBI and AD. On the one hand, TBI perturbs the glucose metabolism of the brain, and causes energy crisis and subsequent hyperglycolysis. On the other hand, glucose deprivation promotes amyloidogenesis via β-site APP cleaving enzyme-1 dependent mechanism, and triggers tau pathology and synaptic function. Recent findings suggest that TBI might facilitate Alzheimer's pathogenesis by altering metabolism, which provides clues to metabolic link between TBI and AD. In this review, we will explore how TBI-induced metabolic changes contribute to the development of AD.

Blueberry Supplementation in Neuronal Health and Protective Technologies for Efficient Delivery of Blueberry Anthocyanins

Blueberries are consumed as healthy fruits that provide a variety of benefits to the nervous system. Scientists have found that blueberries can be used as a daily edible source for supplementation to prevent and minimize complexities of age-related diseases as well as to improve learning and memory in children. Anthocyanins are the most mentioned compounds among the components in blueberries, as they play a major role in providing the health benefits of this fruit. However, while they are highly active in impeding biological impairment in neuronal functions, they have poor bioavailability. This review focuses on neurological investigations of blueberries from in vitro cell studies to in vivo studies, including animal and human studies, with respect to their positive outcomes of neuroprotection and intervention in neurodegenerative conditions. Readers will also find information on the bioavailability of anthocyanins and the considerable factors affecting them so that they can make informed decisions regarding the daily consumption of blueberries. In this context, the ways in which blueberries or blueberry supplementation forms are consumed and which of these forms is best for maximizing the health benefits of blueberries should be considered important decision-making factors in the consumption of blueberries; all of these aspects are covered in this review. Finally, we discuss recent technologies that have been employed to improve the bioavailability of blueberry anthocyanins in the development of effective delivery vehicles supporting brain health.

Expression of glucose transporters in human neurodegenerative diseases

The central nervous system (CNS) plays an important role in the human body. It is involved in the receive, store and participation in information retrieval. It can use several substrates as a source of energy, however, the main source of energy is glucose. Cells of the central nervous system need a continuous supply of energy, therefore, transport of glucose into these cells is very important. There are three distinct families of glucose transporters: sodium-independent glucose transporters (GLUTs), sodium-dependent glucose cotransporters (SGLTs), and uniporter, SWEET protein. In the human brain only GLUTs and SGLTs were detected. In neurodegenerative diseases was observed hypometabolism of glucose due to decreased expression of glucose transporters, in particular GLUT1 and GLUT3. On the other hand, animal studies revealed, that increased levels of these glucose transporters, due to for example by the increased copy number of SLC2A genes, may have a beneficial effect and may be a targeted therapy in the treatment of patients with AD, HD and PD.

Tetrahydrocannabinol-Rich Extracts From Cannabis Sativa L. Improve Glucose Consumption and Modulate Metabolic Complications Linked to Neurodegenerative Diseases in Isolated Rat Brains

Reduced brain glucose consumption arising from impaired glucose uptake and utilization has been linked to the pathogenesis and complications of neurodegenerative diseases. The ability of Cannabis sativa L. tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-rich extracts to stimulate brain glucose uptake and utilization as well as its modulatory effect on gluconeogenesis, antioxidative, purinergic and cholinergic activities were investigated in isolated rats’ brains. C. sativa leaves were sequentially extracted to yield the hexane and dichloromethane extracts. The extracts were incubated at 37°C with freshly harvested brains in the presence of glucose for 2 h. The control consisted of incubation without the extracts, while brains without the extracts and glucose served as the normal control. Metformin was used as the standard drug. C. sativa extracts caused a significant (p < 0.05) increase in brain glucose uptake, with concomitant elevation of glutathione level, superoxide dismutase, catalase, and ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase activities compared to the controls. Incubation with C. sativa extracts also led to depletion in malondialdehyde and nitric oxide levels, acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase, glucose 6-phosphatase and fructose-1,6-biphosphatase activities. GC-MS analysis of the extracts revealed the presence of THC. In silico analysis predicted THC to be permeable across the blood-brain-barrier. THC was also predicted to have an oral LD₅₀ and toxicity class values of 482 mg/kg and 4 respectively. These results indicate that C. sativa improves glucose consumption with concomitant suppression of oxidative stress and cholinergic dysfunction, and modulation of purinergic and gluconeogenic activities in brain tissues

Reduced Cerebral Glucose Uptake in an Alzheimer's Rat Model With Glucose-Weighted Chemical Exchange Saturation Transfer Imaging

A correlation between the abnormal cerebral glucose metabolism and the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been found in previous studies, suggesting that glucose alterations may be used to predict the histopathological diagnosis in AD. In this study, we investigated the dynamic changes of cerebral glucose uptake in vivo using MR glucose chemical exchange saturation transfer (glucoCEST) imaging in a rat model of AD with an intracerebroventricular (i.c.v) injection of amyloid Aβ-protein (25-35), confirmed by Morris water maze and Nissl staining. In total, 6 rats in the AD group and 6 rats in the control group that were given an injection of sterile normal saline were included. At 28 days after injection, all rats performed a 7.0 T MR exanimation, including glucoCEST, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and hippocampus magnetic resonance spectra (MRS), to detect the possible metabolic and structural changes in the rat brain. A significantly elevated brain glucoCEST signal in the brain of AD rats was observed, and a decreased brain glucose uptake was also explored during the progression of glucose infusion compared with those in rats of the control group. In addition, there is a significant positive correlation between glucoCEST enhancement (GCE) and myo-Inosito (Ins) in the AD group and the control group (P < 0.05). A significantly reduced number of neurons in the cortex and hippocampus in AD rats combined with the significantly longer escape and a decreased number of crossings were verified at 28 days after Aβ25-35 injection by Nissl staining and Morris water maze, respectively. Our results indicated that an abnormal brain glucose mechanism in AD rats could be detected by glucoCEST imaging, suggesting a new method to explore the occurrence and progress of diabetes-related AD or dementia.

Current Strategies and Novel Drug Approaches for Alzheimer Disease

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a chronic, devastating dysfunction of neurons in the brain leading to dementia. It mainly arises due to neuronal injury in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus area of the brain and is clinically manifested as a progressive mental failure, disordered cognitive functions, personality changes, reduced verbal fluency and impairment of speech. The pathology behind AD is the formation of intraneuronal fibrillary tangles, deposition of amyloid plaque and decline in choline acetyltransferase and loss of cholinergic neurons. Tragically, the disease cannot be cured, but its progression can be halted. Various cholinesterase inhibitors available in the market like Tacrine, Donepezil, Galantamine, Rivastigmine, etc. are being used to manage the symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. The paper's objective is to throw light not only on the cellular/genetic basis of the disease, but also on the current trends and various strategies of treatment including the use of phytopharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals. Enormous literature survey was conducted and published articles of PubMed, Scifinder, Google Scholar, Clinical Trials.org and Alzheimer Association reports were studied intensively to consolidate the information on the strategies available to combat Alzheimer's disease. Currently, several strategies are being investigated for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Immunotherapies targeting amyloid-beta plaques, tau protein and neural pathways are undergoing clinical trials. Moreover, antisense oligonucleotide methodologies are being approached as therapies for its management. Phytopharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals are also gaining attention in overcoming the symptoms related to AD. The present review article concludes that novel and traditional therapies simultaneously promise future hope for AD treatment.

Electroacupuncture reduces scopolamine-induced amnesia via mediating the miR-210/SIN3A and miR-183/SIN3A signaling pathway

Background

The expression of SIN3A is closely correlated with electroacupuncture (EA) treatment efficacy of scopolamine-induced amnesia (SIA), but its underlying mechanisms remain to be further explored.

Methods

Quantitative real-time PCR was performed to analyze the expression of candidate microRNAs (miRNAs) and SIN3A mRNA in a rat model of SIA. Western blot was carried out to evaluate the differential expression of SIN3A proteins under different circumstances. Luciferase assay was used to explore the inhibitory role of certain miRNAs in SIN3A expression. A novel object recognition (NOR) test was performed to assess the memory function of SIA rats undergoing EA treatment. Immunohistochemistry was carried out to evaluate the expression of SIN3A in the hippocampus of SIA rats.

Results

Rno-miR-183-5p, rno-miR-34c-3p and rno-miR-210-3p were significantly up-regulated in SIA rats treated with EA. In addition, rno-miR-183-5p and rno-miR-210-3p exerted an inhibitory effect on SIN3A expression. EA treatment of SIA rats effectively restored the dysregulated expression of rno-miR-183-5p, rno-miR-210-3p and SIN3A. EA treatment also promoted the inhibited expression of neuronal IEGs including Arc, Egr1, Homer1 and Narp in the hippocampus of SIA rats. Accordingly, the NOR test also confirmed the effect of EA treatment on the improvement of memory in SIA rats.

Conclusion

In summary, the findings of this study demonstrated that scopolamine-induced amnesia was associated with downregulated expression of miR-210/miR-183 and upregulated expression of SIN3A. Furthermore, treatment with EA alleviated scopolamine-induced amnesia in rats and was associated with upregulated expression of miR-210/miR-183 and downregulated expression of SIN3A.

Regular Exercise Enhances Cognitive Function and Intracephalic GLUT Expression in Alzheimer's Disease Model Mice

Brain energy metabolic impairment is one of the main features of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and is considered an underlying factor involved in cognitive impairment. Therefore, brain energy metabolism may represent a new therapeutic target for AD medical interventions. Among nutrients providing energy, glucose, the primary energy source, cannot cross the blood-brain barrier freely without specific glucose transporters (GLUTs), which are essential for the maintenance of cerebral energy metabolism homeostasis. Several converging lines of evidence suggest that GLUT1 deficiency in mice leads to synapse reduction and dysregulation coupled with mitochondrial morphological changes. In this study, the results revealed that regular exercise (RE) decreased the expression of amyloid-β and phosphorylated tau by western blot, and enhanced the spatial learning and exploration ability of AD model mice as assessed by Morris water maze test. Mitochondrial cristae and edges were clear and intact, ATP production in the brain raised, the number of synapses increased, and GLUT1 and GLUT3 expression levels improved in the central nervous system (CNS) in AD model mice after RE. Changes in GLUT1 and GLUT3 expression at the protein level after RE are an important part of energy metabolic adaptation in AD model mice. Learning and memory improvement are highly associated with mitochondrial integrity and sufficient synapses in the CNS. This research suggests that increased brain energy metabolism attributed to RE exhibits promising therapeutic potential for AD.

The Other Side of Alzheimer's Disease: Influence of Metabolic Disorder Features for Novel Diagnostic Biomarkers

Nowadays, the amyloid cascade hypothesis is the dominant model to explain Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. By this hypothesis, the inherited genetic form of AD is discriminated from the sporadic form of AD (SAD) that accounts for 85-90% of total patients. The cause of SAD is still unclear, but several studies have shed light on the involvement of environmental factors and multiple susceptibility genes, such as Apolipoprotein E and other genetic risk factors, which are key mediators in different metabolic pathways (e.g., glucose metabolism, lipid metabolism, energetic metabolism, and inflammation). Furthermore, growing clinical evidence in AD patients highlighted the presence of affected systemic organs and blood similarly to the brain. Collectively, these findings revise the canonical understating of AD pathogenesis and suggest that AD has metabolic disorder features. This review will focus on AD as a metabolic disorder and highlight the contribution of this novel understanding on the identification of new biomarkers for improving an early AD diagnosis.

Caffeic acid improves glucose utilization and maintains tissue ultrastructural morphology while modulating metabolic activities implicated in neurodegenerative disorders in isolated rat brains

Impaired glucose utilization has been implicated in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases. The neuroprotective effect of caffeic acid (CA) was investigated in the isolated rat brain by determining its ability to promote glucose uptake, mitigate redox imbalance, modulate purinergic and cholinergic activities, elemental distribution, and maintain tissue morphology. Isolated rat brains were incubated for 2 hours with glucose, CA and glucose, and metformin and glucose. There was an increased glucose uptake, glutathione level, superoxide dismutase, and catalase activities in brain tissues incubated with CA compared to the controls. Incubation with CA also led to significantly decreased levels of malondialdehyde, nitric oxide, acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase, and ATPase activities. Electron microscopy (scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy) analysis portrayed a maintenance of tissue ultrastructural morphology in 2CA-incubated tissues as indicated by the intact synaptic vesicles, blood vessels, dendritic and neuronal network, mitochondria, and presynaptic membrane. CA also restored altered elemental levels in brain tissues. These results indicate the stimulatory potential of CA on brain glucose utilization with simultaneous neuroprotective activities.