Isolation and functional characterization of neutrophil-like cells, from goldfish (Carassius auratus L.) kidney

A leukocyte immune-type receptor specific polyclonal antibody recognizes goldfish kidney leukocytes and activates the MAPK pathway in isolated goldfish kidney neutrophil-like cells

Leukocyte immune-type receptors (LITRs) belong to a large family of teleost immunoregulatory receptors that share phylogenetic and syntenic relationships with mammalian Fc receptor-like molecules (FCRLs). Recently, several putative stimulatory Carassius auratus (Ca)-LITR transcripts, including CaLITR3, have been identified in goldfish. CaLITR3 has four extracellular immunoglobulin-like (Ig-like) domains, a transmembrane domain containing a positively charged histidine residue, and a short cytoplasmic tail region. Additionally, the calitr3 transcript is highly expressed by goldfish primary kidney neutrophils (PKNs) and macrophages (PKMs). To further investigate the immunoregulatory potential of CaLITR3 in goldfish myeloid cells, we developed and characterized a CaLITR3-epitope-specific polyclonal antibody (anti-CaL3.D1 pAb). We show that the anti-CaL3.D1 pAb stains various hematopoietic cell types within the goldfish kidney, as well as in PKNs and PKMs. Moreover, cross-linking of the anti-CaL3.D1-pAb on PKN membranes induces phosphorylation of p38 and ERK1/2, critical components of the MAPK pathway involved in controlling a wide variety of innate immune effector responses such as NETosis, respiratory burst, and cytokine release. These findings support the stimulatory potential of CaLITR3 proteins as activators of fish granulocytes and pave the way for a more in-depth examination of the immunoregulatory functions of CaLITRs in goldfish myeloid cells.

Extracellular traps in skin lesions infected with lymphocystis disease virus in black rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii)

The lymphocystis disease (LCD), caused by Lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV), is a benign and self-limiting disease described in a many freshwater and marine fish species. Hypertrophic fibroblasts and extensive aggregation of inflammatory cells are characteristics of LCD. In the present study, small animal imaging and ultrastructural investigations were carried out on the lymphocystis nodules of black rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii) naturally infected with lymphocystis iridovirus, to assess pathology, and the exudate with particular attention to the formation of extracellular traps (ETs) in vivo. Ex vivo were examined by nodules sections and primary cells stimulation. By histopathological analysis, the nodules contained infiltrated inflammatory cells and extensive basophilic fibrillar filaments at the periphery of the hypertrophied fibroblasts. ETs were assessed in nodules samples using indirect immunofluorescence to detect DNA and myeloperoxidase. Moreover, LCDV was able to infect peritoneal cells of black rockfish in vitro and induce the formation of ETs within 4 h. In summary, this study proved that ETs are involved in the response to LCDV infection and may be involved in formation of lymphoid nodules. Taken together, the findings provide a new perspective to determine the impact factors on the growth of nodules.

What can we learn about fish neutrophil and macrophage response to immune challenge from studies in zebrafish

Fish rely, to a high degree, on the innate immune system to protect them against the constant exposure to potential pathogenic invasion from the surrounding water during homeostasis and injury. Zebrafish larvae have emerged as an outstanding model organism for immunity. The cellular component of zebrafish innate immunity is similar to the mammalian innate immune system and has a high degree of sophistication due to the needs of living in an aquatic environment from early embryonic stages of life. Innate immune cells (leukocytes), including neutrophils and macrophages, have major roles in protecting zebrafish against pathogens, as well as being essential for proper wound healing and regeneration. Zebrafish larvae are visually transparent, with unprecedented in vivo microscopy opportunities that, in combination with transgenic immune reporter lines, have permitted visualisation of the functions of these cells when zebrafish are exposed to bacterial, viral and parasitic infections, as well as during injury and healing. Recent findings indicate that leukocytes are even more complex than previously anticipated and are essential for inflammation, infection control, and subsequent wound healing and regeneration.

Molecular and functional characterization of two granulocyte colony stimulating factors in goldfish (Carassius auratus L.)

Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (GCSF) is a member of the hematopoietic growth factor family that acts primarily on neutrophils and neutrophilic precursors to promote cell proliferation and differentiation. Although multiple GCSF genes have been found in teleosts, knowledge of their functions during fish hematopoietic development is still limited. Here, we report for the first time the molecular and functional characterization of two goldfish GCSFs (gfGCSF-a and gfGCSF-b). The open reading frame (ORF) of the gfGCSF-a and gfGCSF-b cDNA transcript consisted respectively of 624 bp and 678 bp with its ORF encoding 207 and 225 amino acids (aa), with a 17 aa signal peptide for each gene and a conserved domain of the IL-6 superfamily. Treatment of goldfish head kidney leukocytes (HKLs) with LPS increased gfGCSF-a and gfGCSF-b mRNA expression levels, also exposure of HKLs to either heat-killed or live A. hydrophila, induced transcriptional upregulation of gfGCSF-a and gfGCSF-b levels. Recombinant gfGCSF-a and gfGCSF-b protein (rgGCSF-a and rgGCSF-b) induced a dose-dependent production of TNFα and IL-1β from goldfish neutrophils. In vitro experiments showed rgGCSF-a and rgGCSF-b differentially promoted the proliferation and differentiation of leukocytes in goldfish. Furthermore, treatment of HKLs with rgGCSF-a showed significant upregulation of mRNA levels of the hematopoietic transcription factor GATA2, Runx1, MafB, and cMyb, while gfGCSF-b induces not only all four transcriptional factors mentioned above but also CEBPα. Our results indicate that goldfish GCSF-a and GCSF-b are important regulators of neutrophil proliferation and differentiation, which could stimulate different stages and lineages of hematopoiesis.

Role of mTORC1 Signaling in Regulating the Immune Function of Granulocytes in Teleost Fish

Granulocytes are crucial innate immune cells that have been extensively studied in teleost fish. Studies in mammals have revealed that mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling acts as a significant immune regulatory hub, influencing granulocyte immune function. To investigate whether mTORC1 signaling also regulates the immune function of granulocytes in teleost fish, we established a model of RAPA inhibition of the mTORC1 signaling pathway using granulocytes from largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Our results demonstrated that inhibition of mTORC1 signaling promoted autophagy and apoptosis of granulocytes while inhibiting cell proliferation. Moreover, inhibition of the mTORC1 signaling pathway enhanced the phagocytosis capacity of granulocytes. Collectively, our findings revealed the evolutionarily conserved role of the mTORC1 signaling pathway in regulating granulocyte responses, thus providing novel insights into the function of granulocytes in teleost fish.

Evaluation of protective effects of heat-inactivated cyprinid herpesvirus-2 (CyHV-2) vaccine against herpesviral hematopoietic necrosis disease (HVHND) in goldfish (Carassius auratus)

Cyprinid herpesvirus-2 (CyHV-2) is an important virus that causes herpesviral hematopoietic necrosis disease (HVHND) leading to huge economic losses in goldfish (Carassius auratus). However, until now no proper prophylactic measure or treatment is available for CyHV-2 infection in goldfish. Hence, in this experiment, we developed a heat-inactivated CyHV-2 vaccine and evaluated its performance in goldfish. Initially, CyHV-2 was propagated in the fantail goldfish fin (FtGF) cell line and the titer of the viral inoculum was 10^7.8 TCID₅₀/ml. Subsequently, various temperatures (40 °C, 50 °C, 60 °C, 70 °C, and 80 °C) were evaluated to achieve the complete inactivation of CyHV-2. Only the viral inoculum inactivated at 80 °C for 1 h did not show any cytopathic effect in the FtGF cell line after five blind passages. Hence the heat-inactivated CyHV-2 vaccine developed at 80 °C was further used for immunization trials in goldfish. The experimental goldfish were intraperitoneally immunized with 300 μL of the heat-inactivated CyHV-2 vaccine. Subsequently, the kidney and spleen tissues were sampled at various time points post-vaccination (6th hr, 2nd day, 4th day, 6th day, 10th day, 16th day, and 30th day) to evaluate the expression of immune genes (IL-12, IL-10, IFN-γ, CD8, and CD4). A significant upregulation of immune genes was observed at various time points in the kidney and spleen tissue of the vaccinated goldfish. Furthermore, in order to study the efficacy of the vaccine, the experimental fish were challenged with CyHV-2 (10^7.8 TCID₅₀/ml) after the 30th day post-vaccination. The survival of the fish in the vaccine group (86.7%) was significantly higher compared to the non-vaccinated group (20%). Moreover, the relative percentage survival of the vaccinated group was 83.34%. In spite of the single dose, the heat-killed vaccine developed in the present study elicited the immune response and offered better protection in goldfish against CyHV-2. However, further large-scale field performance evaluation studies are necessary to develop this vaccine on a commercial scale.

Characterization of Pipefish Immune Cell Populations Through Single-Cell Transcriptomics

Teleost adaptive immune systems have evolved with more flexibility than previously assumed. A particularly enigmatic system to address immune system modifications in the evolutionary past is represented by the Syngnathids, the family of pipefishes, seahorses and seadragons. These small fishes with their unique male pregnancy have lost the spleen as an important immune organ as well as a functional major histocompatibility class II (MHC II) pathway. How these evolutionary changes have impacted immune cell population dynamics have up to this point remained unexplored. Here, we present the first immune cell repertoire characterization of a syngnathid fish (Syngnathus typhle) using single-cell transcriptomics. Gene expression profiles of individual cells extracted from blood and head-kidney clustered in twelve putative cell populations with eight belonging to those with immune function. Upregulated cell marker genes identified in humans and teleosts were used to define cell clusters. While the suggested loss of CD4+ T-cells accompanied the loss of the MHC II pathway was supported, the upregulation of specific subtype markers within the T-cell cluster indicates subpopulations of regulatory T-cells (il2rb) and cytotoxic T-cells (gzma). Utilizing single-cell RNA sequencing this report is the first to characterize immune cell populations in syngnathids and provides a valuable foundation for future cellular classification and experimental work within the lineage.

Potential Applications of Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting (FACS) and Droplet-Based Microfluidics in Promoting the Discovery of Specific Antibodies for Characterizations of Fish Immune Cells

Akin to their mammalian counterparts, teleost fish possess a complex assortment of highly specialized immune cells that are capable of unleashing potent innate immune responses to eradicate or mitigate incoming pathogens, and also differentiate into memory lymphocytes to provide long-term protection. Investigations into specific roles and functions of fish immune cells depend on the precise separation of each cell type. Commonly used techniques, for example, density gradient centrifugation, rely on immune cells to have differing sizes or densities and thus fail to separate between similar cell types (e.g. T and B lymphocytes). Furthermore, a continuously growing database of teleost genomic information has revealed an inventory of cellular markers, indicating the possible presence of immune cell subsets in teleost fish. This further complicates the interpretation of results if subsets of immune cells are not properly separated. Consequently, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against specific cellular markers are required to precisely identify and separate novel subsets of immune cells in fish. In the field of fish immunology, mAbs are largely generated using the hybridoma technology, resulting in the development of mAbs against specific cellular markers in different fish species. Nevertheless, this technology suffers from being labour-intensive, time-consuming and most importantly, the inevitable loss of diversities of antibodies during the fusion of antibody-expressing B lymphocytes and myeloma cells. In light of this, the focus of this review is to discuss the potential applications of fluorescence-activated cell sorting and droplet-based microfluidics, two emerging technologies capable of screening and identifying antigen-specific B lymphocytes in a high-throughput manner, in promoting the development of valuable reagents for fish immunology studies. Our main goal is to encourage the incorporation of alternative technologies into the field of fish immunology to promote the production of specific antibodies in a high-throughput and cost-effective way, which could better allow for the precise separation of fish immune cells and also facilitate the identification of novel immune cell subsets in teleost fish.

Comparative study of peripheral blood cells in two marine fishes (Synechogobius hasta and Sebastes schlegelii): Morphological and cytochemical characterization

The morphology, cell size and relative number of peripheral blood cells in two teleosts, Synechogobius hasta and Sebastes schlegelii, were compared using different staining methods. The results showed significant differences in cell size. The percentage of monocytes in S. hasta was greater than that in S. schlegelii (P < 0.01); however, the opposite results were obtained in the percentage of lymphocytes and thrombocytes. The two fishes shared common cytochemical-staining results, which showed that both erythrocytes were negative for all cytochemical staining; monocytes were strongly positive for PAS and positive for SBB and NAE; lymphocytes were negative for SBB, POX and NAE; neutrophils were positive for SBB and NAE; and thrombocytes were negative for SBB, ALP, POX and NAE. However, species specificity existed in the cytochemical properties. For S. hasta, monocytes were strongly positive for ALP and ACP; lymphocytes were strongly positive for ALP and weakly positive for ACP; neutrophils were strongly positive for ACP and POX; and thrombocytes were weakly positive for PAS and positive for ACP. Unlike S. hasta, monocytes were strongly positive for ACP and positive for ALP in S. schlegelii; lymphocytes were positive for ALP and partially positive for PAS; neutrophils were positive for ACP and POX; and thrombocytes were negative for PAS and ACP. The POX activity of monocytes in S. hasta was greater than that in S. schlegelii (P < 0.05), while the POX activity of neutrophils and the NAE activity of monocytes in S. hasta were significantly greater than those in S. schlegelii (P < 0.01). The results of this study can be used as a reference for the construction of haematological parameters in S. hasta and S. schlegelii for the assessment of fish health and can provide a research basis for fish diseases and immunity.

Neutrophil functions can be regulated by IL-35, which is mainly expressed in IL-15Rα+ cells in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)

IL-35 plays a key role in regulatory T (Treg) and regulatory B (Breg) cell functions in mammals. CD25 has been demonstrated as one of the markers of Treg cells, and CD19⁺CD25^hiCD71^hi cells have been verified as a type of Breg cells in humans. These results indicate that there is a close relationship between IL-35 and CD25⁺ cells. In mammals, CD25 (alias IL-2Rα) has been identified as having high affinity and specificity for IL-2 binding, and is closely linked and structurally related to IL-15Rα, which having high affinity for IL-15 binding. In teleost, IL-15Rα can bind to both IL-2 and IL-15, with higher affinity to IL-15 than IL-2, and has been termed a CD25-like molecule in some research studies. To date, no studies of IL-35 and IL-15Rα have been documented in fish. In this work, five isoforms of IL-15Rα were cloned from grass carp, and a monoclonal antibody to the protein was developed. The results of flow cytometry and quantitative real-time PCR analyses demonstrated that grass carp IL-35 subunit genes EBI3a and IL-12p35 were mainly expressed in IL-15Rα⁺ cells, while the expression levels of IL-10 and TGF-β in IL-15Rα⁺ and IL-15Rα^- cells were insignificant. Recombinant grass carp IL-35 (rgcIL-35) could increase the proportion of IL-15Rα⁺ cells in leukocytes, and a certain proportion of IL-15Rα⁺ cells also appeared in myeloid cell subset II after stimulation with rgcIL-35. Meanwhile, the migration, phagocytic ability, and bactericidal ability of grass carp neutrophils were significantly decreased after stimulation with certain concentrations of rgcIL-35. Moreover, neutrophil apoptosis could be significantly inhibited by rgcIL-35.

Identification of goldfish (Carassius auratus L.) leukocyte immune-type receptors shows alternative splicing as a potential mechanism for receptor diversification

Leukocyte immune-type receptors (LITRs) are a multigene family of teleost immunoregulatory proteins that share structural, phylogenetic, and likely functional relationships with several innate immune receptor proteins in other vertebrates, including mammals. Originally discovered in channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), representative IpLITR-types have been shown to regulate diverse innate immune cell effector responses including phagocytosis, degranulation, and cytokine secretion. To date, IpLITRs have been primarily characterized using mammalian cell line expression systems, therefore many unanswered questions remain regarding their actual regulatory roles in fish immunity. In the present study, we report on the preliminary molecular characterization of five goldfish (Carassius auratus) CaLITR-types and the identification of several putative splice variants of these receptors cloned from various goldfish tissues and primary myeloid cell cultures. In general, CaLITR mRNA transcripts were detected in all goldfish tissues tested, and also in primary kidney macrophage and neutrophil cultures. Specifically, CaLITR1 is a functionally ambiguous receptor with no charged amino acids in its transmembrane (TM) segment and is devoid of tyrosine-based signaling motifs in its short cytoplasmic tail (CYT) region. CaLITR2 is a putative activating receptor-type that contains immunotyrosine-based activation motifs (ITAMs) within its long CYT region, and CaLITR3 has a positively charged TM segment, suggesting that it may recruit intracellular stimulatory adaptor signaling molecules. CaLITR4 and CaLITR5 appear to have diverse signaling capabilities since they contain various immunoregulatory signaling motifs within their CYT regions including putative Nck and STAT recruitment motifs as well as ITAM-like and ITIM sequences. We also identified putative CaLITR splice variants with altered extracellular Ig-like domain compositions and variable CYT regions. Interestingly, this suggests that alternative splicing-mediated diversification of CaLITRs can generate receptor forms with possible variable binding and/or intracellular signaling abilities. Overall, these findings reveal new information about the teleost LITRs and sets the stage for exploring how alternative splicing leads to the functional diversification of this complex multigene immunoregulatory receptor family.

A fish cytokine related to human IL-3, IL-5, and GM-CSF, induces development of eosinophil/basophil/mast-cell type (EBM) granulocytes

Interleukin-3 (IL-3), IL-5, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) are related cytokines that signal through receptors possessing the β common (βc) chain. As a family, these cytokines combine rather non-specific hematopoietic growth factor properties with a special importance for eosinophils, basophils, and mast cells. In fish the cytokines of this family are called IL-5fam, and the present study, using carp, constitutes their first functional analysis. Carp il-5fam expression was enhanced by stimulation with phytohemagglutinin and killed bacteria. Reminiscent of mammalian IL-3/IL-5/GM-CSF family members, recombinant carp IL-5fam (rcIL-5fam) induced activation of transcription factor STAT5 and efficiently promoted proliferation and colony-formation of eosinophil/basophil/mast-cell type (EBM) granulocytes. Upon addition of recombinant carp βc the growth effect of rcIL-5fam was reduced, suggesting βc participation in the signaling route. In summary, despite differences in individual cytokines and cell populations, fish and mammalian IL-3/IL-5/GM-CSF family members share growth factor functions for non-neutrophil granulocytes.

Invasion of microglia/macrophages and granulocytes into the Mauthner axon myelin sheath following spinal cord injury of the adult goldfish, Carassius auratus

Rapid activation of resident glia occurs after spinal cord injury. Somewhat later, innate and adaptive immune responses occur with the invasion of peripheral immune cells into the wound site. The activation of resident and peripheral immune cells has been postulated to play harmful as well as beneficial roles in the regenerative process. Mauthner cells, large identifiable neurons located in the hindbrain of most fish and amphibians, provided the opportunity to study the morphological relationship between reactive cells and Mauthner axons (M-axons) severed by spinal cord crush or by selective axotomy. After crossing in the hindbrain, the M-axons of adult goldfish, Carassius auratus, extend the length of the spinal cord. Following injury, the M-axon undergoes retrograde degeneration within its myelin sheath creating an axon-free zone (proximal dieback zone). Reactive cells invade the wound site, enter the axon-free dieback zone and are observed in the vicinity of the retracted M-axon tip as early as 3 hr postinjury. Transmission electron microscopy allowed the detection of microglia/macrophages and granulocytes, some of which appear to be neutrophil-like, at each of these locations. We believe that this is the first report of the invasion of such cells within the myelin sheath of an identifiable axon in the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS). We speculate that microglia/macrophages and granulocytes that are attracted within a few hours to the damaged M-axon are part of an inflammatory response that allows phagocytosis of debris and plays a role in the regenerative process. Our results provide the baseline from which to utilize immunohistochemical and genetic approaches to elucidate the role of non-neuronal cells in the regenerative process of a single axon in the vertebrate CNS.

Measuring the Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer) neutrophil respiratory burst activity by the dihydrorhodamine-123 reduction flow cytometry assay in whole blood

The neutrophil oxidative respiratory burst response is a key component of the innate immune system responsible for killing microbial pathogens. Since fish rely on the innate immune system for health, monitoring the respiratory burst activity may be an effective means of gauging fish health status. Here we report that the respiratory burst of Asian seabass neutrophils can be measured in whole blood by the dihydrorhodamine (DHR)-123 reduction assay and flow cytometry. Neutrophils responded to phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) in a concentration dependent manner with significant respiratory burst activity at 100-1000 nM. Other known neutrophil agonists, such as bacterial lipopolysaccharide, tumor necrosis factor, the tripeptide f-met-leu-phe and zymosan, did not induce a significant DHR reduction. Thus, the findings enable us to propose that the DHR-123 flow cytometry whole blood assay, incorporating PMA as a stimulator, would not only facilitate future studies into fish blood neutrophil research but provides a simple, rapid and reliable assay for gauging fish natural immunity status and health.

Paralogs of Common Carp Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor (G-CSF) Have Different Functions Regarding Development, Trafficking and Activation of Neutrophils

Mammalian granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF; CSF3) is a primary cytokine that promotes the development, mobilization, and activation of neutrophils and their precursors. Teleosts have been reported to possess two paralogs as a likely result of the teleost-wide whole genome duplication (WGD) event, but functional divergence of G-CSF paralogs remains poorly understood. Common carp are an allotetraploid species owing to an additional WGD event in the carp lineage and here, we report on genomic synteny, sequence similarity, and phylogeny of four common carp G-CSF paralogs (g-csfa1 and g-csfa2; g-csfb1 and g-csfb2). G-csfa1 and g-csfa2 show differential and relatively high gene expression levels, while g-csfb1 and g-csfb2 show low basal gene expression levels in most tissues. All paralogs are expressed higher in macrophages than in other leukocyte sub-types and are highly up-regulated by treatment of macrophages with mitogens. Recombinant G-CSFa1 and G-CSFb1 both promoted the proliferation of kidney hematopoietic cells, while only G-CSFb1 induced the differentiation of kidney cells along the neutrophil-lineage. Colony-forming unit assays revealed that G-CSFb1 alone stimulates the formation of CFU-G colonies from head- and trunk-kidney whereas the combination of G-CSFa1 and G-CSFb1 stimulates the formation of both CFU-G and CFU-GM colonies. Recombinant G-CSFa1 and G-CSFb1 also exhibit chemotactic activity against kidney neutrophils and up-regulation of cxcr1 mRNA expression was highest in neutrophils after G-CSFb1 stimulation. Furthermore, G-CSFb1 more than G-CSFa1 induced priming of kidney neutrophils through up-regulation of a NADPH-oxidase component p47 phox . In vivo administration of G-CSF paralogs increased the number of circulating blood neutrophils of carp. Our findings demonstrate that gene duplications in teleosts can lead to functional divergence between paralogs and shed light on the sub-functionalization of G-CSF paralogs in cyprinid fish.

Innate immune cell signatures in a BCWD-Resistant line of rainbow trout before and after in vivo challenge with Flavobacterium psychrophilum

Phenotypes of myeloid-lineage cells remain poorly understood in the rainbow trout, and were the focus of this study, including effects of in vivo challenge to Flavobacterium psychrophilum (Fp), the cause of Bacterial Cold Water Disease (BCWD). A genetic line was used that is highly resistant to BCWD (R-line) as well as a susceptible control line (S-line). Using flow cytometry, we describe two Pax5-negative, myeloid-lineage populations: Population 1 consisted of small cells with high SSC and strong staining for Q4E, MPO, Pu1, EBF, and IL- 1β, which we named "neutrophil-like" cell. Population 2 had high Q4E, but weaker MPO, Pu1, EBF, and IL-1β staining. Five days after Fp-challenge, both genetic lines had a reduced abundance of neutrophil-like cells in anterior kidney, PBL, and spleen. Pop. 2 abundance was reduced in anterior kidney, and increased in spleen. S-line fish responded more strongly to Fp-challenge compared to R-line fish. Challenged fish with a higher abundance of neutrophil-like cells had significantly lower Fp-loads after challenge, suggesting that these cells aid in the resistance to BCWD.

Histones and chymotrypsin-like elastases play significant roles in the antimicrobial activity of tongue sole neutrophil extracellular traps

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are a form of extracellular antimicrobial structure of neutrophils observed in higher and lower vertebrates, the latter including the teleost fish tongue sole Cynoglossus semilaevis. However, the antimicrobial mechanism of fish NETs is unknown. In the present study, we examined the potential contribution of histones and elastases to the antibacterial effect of tongue sole NETs. For this purpose, two histones (CsH2B and CsH4) and two elastases (CsEla1 and CsEla2) of tongue sole were investigated. The histones and elastases possess the conserved domain structures characteristic of that of histones H2B/H4 and trypsin-like serine protease, respectively. Recombinant CsH2B, CsH4, CsEla1, and CsEla2 bound a wide range of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, and some of the bound bacteria were inhibited in growth by the bound histones/elastases. CsH2B, CsH4, CsEla1, and CsEla2 were all localized in NETs induced by various stimuli including bacterial pathogen. Treatment of NETs with antibodies targeting CsH2B, CsH4, CsEla1, and CsEla2 significantly reduced the antimicrobial effect of NETs. These results indicate that histones and chymotrypsin-like elastases are fundamental components of teleost NETs that play important roles in the antimicrobial activity of NETs.

Impacts of Low Temperature on the Teleost Immune System

As poikilothermic vertebrates, fish can experience changes in water temperature, and hence body temperature, as a result of seasonal changes, migration, or efflux of large quantities of effluent into a body of water. Temperature shifts outside of the optimal temperature range for an individual fish species can have negative impacts on the physiology of the animal, including the immune system. As a result, acute or chronic exposure to suboptimal temperatures can impair an organisms' ability to defend against pathogens and thus compromise the overall health of the animal. This review focuses on the advances made towards understanding the impacts of suboptimal temperature on the soluble and cellular mediators of the innate and adaptive immune systems of fishes. Although cold stress can result in varying effects in different fish species, acute and chronic suboptimal temperature exposure generally yield suppressive effects, particularly on adaptive immunity. Knowledge of the effects of environmental temperature on fish species is critical for both the optimal management of wild species and the best management practices for aquaculture species.

Neutrophil Extracellular Traps of Cynoglossus semilaevis: Production Characteristics and Antibacterial Effect

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are structures released by neutrophils as a cellular immune defense against microbial invasion. The process of NETs generation, netosis (NETosis), can take place via either a suicidal mechanism, during which the NETs-releasing cells became dead, or a “live” mechanism, during which the NETs-releasing cells remain vital. NETosis has been studied intensively in mammals in recent years, but very little is known about the NETosis in fish. In this study, we examined NETosis in tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis), a species of teleost with important economic values. We found that following stimulation with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) and three common fish bacterial pathogens, abundant NETs structures were released by neutrophils that were most likely in a live state. The released NETs captured, but did not kill, the bacterial pathogens; however, the replication of extracellular, but not intracellular, pathogens was inhibited by NETs to significant extents. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO), and myeloperoxidase (MPO) production were observed to be enhanced in NETosing neutrophils, and blocking the production of these factors by inhibitors significantly decreased NETs production induced by PMA and all three bacteria. Taken together, these results indicate for the first time that in teleost there exists a non-cell death pathway of NETosis that produces NETs with antibacterial effects in a ROS-, NO-, and MPO-dependent manner.

New cell motility model observed in parasitic cnidarian Sphaerospora molnari (Myxozoa:Myxosporea) blood stages in fish

Cellular motility is essential for microscopic parasites, it is used to reach the host, migrate through tissues, or evade host immune reactions. Many cells employ an evolutionary conserved motor protein– actin, to crawl or glide along a substrate. We describe the peculiar movement of Sphaerospora molnari, a myxozoan parasite with proliferating blood stages in its host, common carp. Myxozoa are highly adapted parasitic cnidarians alternately infecting vertebrates and invertebrates. S. molnari blood stages (SMBS) have developed a unique “dancing” behaviour, using the external membrane as a motility effector to rotate and move the cell. SMBS movement is exceptionally fast compared to other myxozoans, non-directional and constant. The movement is based on two cytoplasmic actins that are highly divergent from those of other metazoans. We produced a specific polyclonal actin antibody for the staining and immunolabelling of S. molnari’s microfilaments since we found that neither commercial antibodies nor phalloidin recognised the protein or microfilaments. We show the in situ localization of this actin in the parasite and discuss the importance of this motility for evasion from the cellular host immune response in vitro. This new type of motility holds key insights into the evolution of cellular motility and associated proteins.

Functional characterization of apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC) of the goldfish (Carassius auratus L.)

Quantitative expression analysis of goldfish ASC indicated the highest and lowest mRNA levels in spleen and muscle, respectively. The ASC was differentially expressed in normal goldfish tissues and different immune cell populations. The highest ASC mRNA levels were observed in the spleen and macrophages. We generated a recombinant form of the molecule (rgfASC) and an anti-ASC IgG antibody, and report that treatment of goldfish macrophages with nigericin, an inducer of inflammasome pathway, up-regulated the expression of ASC at both mRNA and protein levels. rgfASC aggregated to form multimers in cross-linking assays, and formed speck-like structures visualized by confocal microscopy. Co-immunoprecipitation assays showed that rgfASC interacted with caspase-1 and receptor-interacting serine/threonine kinase 2 (RIP2). The dual luciferase reporter assay showed that ASC over-expression did not cause the activation of NF-κB directly, but down-regulated RIP2 ability to activate NF-κB. Goldfish ASC was found to interact with both Nod-like receptor and inflammasome signaling pathway molecules, suggesting multifunctional roles for ASC in regulation of different NLR signaling pathways and eventual proinflammatory cytokine production by activated macrophages.

Goldfish (Carassius auratus L.) as a model system to study the growth factors, receptors and transcription factors that govern myelopoiesis in fish

The process of myeloid cell development (myelopoiesis) in fish has mainly been studied in three cyprinid species: zebrafish (Danio rerio), ginbuna carp (Carassius auratus langsdorfii) and goldfish (C. auratus, L.). Our studies on goldfish myelopoiesis have utilized in vitro generated primary kidney macrophage (PKM) cultures and isolated primary kidney neutrophils (PKNs) cultured overnight to study the process of macrophage (monopoiesis) and neutrophil (granulopoiesis) development and the key growth factors, receptors, and transcription factors that govern this process in vitro. The PKM culture system is unique in that all three subpopulations of macrophage development, namely progenitor cells, monocytes, and mature macrophages, are simultaneously present in culture unlike mammalian systems, allowing for the elucidation of the complex mixture of cytokines that regulate progressive and selective macrophage development from progenitor cells to fully functional mature macrophages in vitro. Furthermore, we have been able to extend our investigations to include the development of erythrocytes (erythropoiesis) and thrombocytes (thrombopoiesis) through studies focusing on the progenitor cell population isolated from the goldfish kidney. Herein, we review the in vitro goldfish model systems focusing on the characteristics of cell sub-populations, growth factors and their receptors, and transcription factors that regulate goldfish myelopoiesis.

Biochemical and Functional Insights into the Integrated Regulation of Innate Immune Cell Responses by Teleost Leukocyte Immune-Type Receptors

Across vertebrates, innate immunity consists of a complex assortment of highly specialized cells capable of unleashing potent effector responses designed to destroy or mitigate foreign pathogens. The execution of various innate cellular behaviors such as phagocytosis, degranulation, or cell-mediated cytotoxicity are functionally indistinguishable when being performed by immune cells isolated from humans or teleost fishes; vertebrates that diverged from one another more than 450 million years ago. This suggests that vital components of the vertebrate innate defense machinery are conserved and investigating such processes in a range of model systems provides an important opportunity to identify fundamental features of vertebrate immunity. One characteristic that is highly conserved across vertebrate systems is that cellular immune responses are dependent on specialized immunoregulatory receptors that sense environmental stimuli and initiate intracellular cascades that can elicit appropriate effector responses. A wide variety of immunoregulatory receptor families have been extensively studied in mammals, and many have been identified as cell- and function-specific regulators of a range of innate responses. Although much less is known in fish, the growing database of genomic information has recently allowed for the identification of several immunoregulatory receptor gene families in teleosts. Many of these putative immunoregulatory receptors have yet to be assigned any specific role(s), and much of what is known has been based solely on structural and/or phylogenetic relationships with mammalian receptor families. As an attempt to address some of these shortcomings, this review will focus on our growing understanding of the functional roles played by specific members of the channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) leukocyte immune-type receptors (IpLITRs), which appear to be important regulators of several innate cellular responses via classical as well as unique biochemical signaling networks.

Neutrophils of Scophthalmus maximus produce extracellular traps that capture bacteria and inhibit bacterial infection

Neutrophils constitute an essential part of the innate immune system. Recently, neutrophils have been found to produce a complex extracellular structure called neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) that capture bacteria, fungi, and parasites. In fish, a few studies on NETs production have been reported, however, the function of fish NETs is unknown. In this study, we examined the ability of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) neutrophils to produce NETs and investigated the effect of turbot NETs on bacterial infection. We found that upon lipopolysaccharides treatment, turbot head kidney neutrophils produced typical NETs structures that contained DNA and histones. Bacteria treatment also induced production of NETs, which in turn entrapped the bacterial cells and inhibited bacterial replication. Furthermore, when introduced into turbot, NETs-trapped bacteria exhibited significantly weakened ability of tissue dissemination and colonization. These results indicate for the first time that teleost NETs possess apparent antibacterial effect both in vitro and in vivo.

Development of an in vitro model system to study the interactions between Mycobacterium marinum and teleost neutrophils

The lack of a reliable mammalian neutrophil in vitro culture system has restricted our ability to examine their precise roles in mycobacterial infections. Previously, we developed the procedures for the isolation and culture of primary kidney-derived neutrophil-like cells from goldfish that are functionally and morphologically similar to mammalian neutrophils. The cultured primary goldfish neutrophils exhibited prolonged viability and functional effector responses. In this study, we demonstrate that when exposed to live or heat-killed Mycobacterium marinum, goldfish neutrophils increased their mRNA levels for several pro-inflammatory cytokines (il-1β1, il-1β2, tnfα-1, tnfα-2) and the cytokine receptors (ifngr1-1, tnfr1, tnfr2). These neutrophils also exhibited chemotaxis toward live mycobacteria, internalized the bacilli, and produced reactive oxygen intermediates (ROI) in response to pathogen exposure. The survival of intracellular mycobacteria was significantly reduced in activated neutrophils, indicating a robust killing response by these teleost granulocytes. We suggest that this goldfish primary neutrophil in vitro model system will provide important information regarding neutrophil-mediated host defense mechanisms against mycobacteria in teleosts as well as in higher vertebrates.

Molecular and functional characterization of goldfish (Carassius auratus L.) Serum Amyloid A

Quantitative expression analysis of goldfish SAA revealed the highest mRNA levels in the kidney, spleen and intestine with lower mRNA levels in muscle and liver. Goldfish SAA was differentially expressed in goldfish immune cells with highest mRNA levels observed in neutrophils. To functionally assess goldfish SAA, recombinant protein (rgSAA) was generated by prokaryotic expression and functionally characterized. Monocytes and macrophages treated with rgSAA exhibited differential gene expression of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. rgSAA induced gene expression of both pro-inflammatory (TNFα1, TNFα2) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10, TGFβ) in monocytes. rgSAA induced IL-1β1 and SAA gene expression in macrophages. rgSAA was chemotactic to macrophages and neutrophils, but not monocytes. rgSAA did not affect respiratory burst induced by heat-killed Aeromonas salmonicida. rgSAA treatment of macrophages down-regulated their production of nitric oxide. rgSAA exhibited antibacterial properties against Escherichia coli in a concentration dependent manner.

Neutrophil Development, Migration, and Function in Teleost Fish

It is now widely recognized that neutrophils are sophisticated cells that are critical to host defense and the maintenance of homeostasis. In addition, concepts such as neutrophil plasticity are helping to define the range of phenotypic profiles available to cells in this group and the physiological conditions that contribute to their differentiation. Herein, we discuss key features of the life of a teleost neutrophil including their development, migration to an inflammatory site, and contributions to pathogen killing and the control of acute inflammation. The potent anti-microbial mechanisms elicited by these cells in bony fish are a testament to their long-standing evolutionary contributions in host defense. In addition, recent insights into their active roles in the control of inflammation prior to induction of apoptosis highlight their importance to the maintenance of host integrity in these early vertebrates. Overall, our goal is to summarize recent progress in our understanding of this cell type in teleost fish, and to provide evolutionary context for the contributions of this hematopoietic lineage in host defense and an efficient return to homeostasis following injury or infection.

The analysis of the acute phase response during the course of Trypanosoma carassii infection in the goldfish (Carassius auratus L.)

The expression of genes encoding the acute phase proteins (APP) during the course of Trypanasoma carassii infection in the goldfish was determined using quantitative PCR. Significant changes in the mRNA levels of ceruloplasmin (Cp), C-reactive protein (CRP), transferrin (Tf), hemopexin (Hx) and serum amyloid A (SAA) were observed in the kidney, liver and spleen at various days post infection (dpi). Of the five acute phase protein genes examined, CRP and SAA exhibited the highest expression in the tissues during the acute infection. Cp and Tf were up-regulated throughout the acute course of infection in the liver. During the chronic phase of the infection, APP expression in the liver was similar to that in the non-infected control fish. At 7 dpi, Cp, Tf and Hx were down-regulated in the spleen, and Cp and Tf kidney, but their mRNA levels gradually returned to those of control non-infected fish. In contrast, during the chronic phase of the infection, there was an up-regulation of Cp, Hx and Tf in the spleen, and Tf and SAA in the kidney. The goldfish CRP was cloned and functionally characterized. CRP was differentially expressed in normal goldfish immune cells, with highest expression in monocytes and lowest expression in mature macrophages. A recombinant goldfish CRP (rgfCRP) was generated using prokaryotic expression. rgfCRP enhanced complement-mediated killing of trypanosomes in vitro, and the lysis increased after addition of immune serum. rgfCRP did not affect the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates by monocytes and macrophages, respectively.

Neutrophil contributions to the induction and regulation of the acute inflammatory response in teleost fish

Neutrophils are essential to the acute inflammatory response, where they serve as the first line of defense against infiltrating pathogens. We report that, on receiving the necessary signals, teleost (Carassius auratus) neutrophils leave the hematopoietic kidney, enter into the circulation, and dominate the initial influx of cells into a site of inflammation. Unlike mammals, teleost neutrophils represent <5% of circulating leukocytes during periods of homeostasis. However, this increases to nearly 50% immediately after intraperitoneal challenge with zymosan, identifying a period of neutrophilia that precedes the peak influx of neutrophils into the challenge site at 18 h after injection). We demonstrate that neutrophils at the site of inflammation alter their phenotype throughout the acute inflammatory response, and contribute to both the induction and the resolution of inflammation. However, neutrophils isolated during the proinflammatory phase (18 h after injection) produced robust respiratory burst responses, released inflammation-associated leukotriene B(4), and induced macrophages to increase reactive oxygen species production. In contrast, neutrophils isolated at 48 h after infection (proresolving phase) displayed low levels of reactive oxygen species, released the proresolving lipid mediator lipoxin A(4), and downregulated reactive oxygen species production in macrophages before the initiation of apoptosis. Lipoxin A(4) was a significant contributor to the uptake of apoptotic cells by teleost macrophages and also played a role, at least in part, in the downregulation of macrophage reactive oxygen species production. Our results highlight the contributions of neutrophils to both the promotion and the regulation of teleost fish inflammation and provide added context for the evolution of this hematopoietic lineage.

X-FISH: Analysis of cellular RNA expression patterns using flow cytometry

Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) is a powerful technique for the detection of RNA or DNA within cells and tissues, which provides a unique link between molecular and cell biology. This technique is broadly applicable across a range of biological systems. While FISH has been previously adapted to flow-based platforms, their use remains limited because of procedural challenges and costs associated with commercial kits. Herein we present a protocol that modifies existing techniques to sensitively and specifically detect and examine RNA expression patterns in primary cells and cell lines using flow cytometry (expression-FISH; X-FISH). As relevant examples, we show how this technique can be used to monitor changes in mRNA expression following activation, how it can be combined with antibody staining to study RNA and protein in the same sample, and how it can help distinguish among subsets in a mixed cell population. X-FISH can integrate multiple probes and can be performed in conjunction with other assays, allowing for informative multiparametric analyses and increased statistical robustness. For non-classical comparative animal models this procedure provides a time saving alternative to de novo production of antibody-based markers. Finally, X-FISH provides an economical solution that is applicable to conventional as well as multi-spectral imaging flow cytometry platforms.

Teleost soluble CSF-1R modulates cytokine profiles at an inflammatory site, and inhibits neutrophil chemotaxis, phagocytosis, and bacterial killing

Soluble colony stimulating factor-1 receptor (sCSF-1R) is a novel bony fish protein that contributes to the regulation of macrophage proliferation. We recently showed that this soluble receptor is highly upregulated by teleost macrophages in the presence of apoptotic cells. Further, recombinant sCSF-1R inhibited leukocyte infiltration into a challenge site in vivo. Herein, we characterized the mechanisms underlying these changes as a platform to better understand the evolutionary origins of the CSF-1 immune-regulatory axis and inflammation control in teleosts. Using an in vivo model of self-resolving peritonitis, we show that sCSF-1R downregulates chemokine expression and inhibits neutrophil chemotaxis. Soluble CSF-1R also inhibited gene expression of several pro-inflammatory cytokines and promoted the expression of an anti-inflammatory mediator, IL-10. Finally, the phenotype of infiltrating neutrophils changed significantly in the presence of sCSF-1R. Both a reduced capacity for phagocytosis and pathogen killing were observed. Overall, our results implicate sCSF-1R as an important regulator of neutrophil responses in teleosts. It remains unclear whether this represents an inflammation regulatory factor that is unique to this animal group or one that may be evolutionarily conserved and continues to contribute to the regulation of antimicrobial processes at inflammatory sites in higher vertebrates.

Functional characterization of receptor-interacting serine/threonine kinase 2 (RIP2) of the goldfish (Carassius auratus L.)

We report on the functional characterization of RIP2 of the goldfish. Quantitative expression analysis of goldfish RIP2 revealed the greatest mRNA levels in the spleen, monocytes and splenocytes. We generated a recombinant form of the molecule (rgRIP2) and determined that anti-human RIP2 polyclonal antibody specifically recognized recombinant goldfish RIP2 (rgRIP2). Goldfish RIP2 activity was inhibited by the p38 MAPK pathway inhibitor SB203580. Treatment of goldfish macrophages with LPS, PGN, MDP, Poly I:C, heat-killed and live Mycobacterium marinum, and heat-killed Aeromonas salmonicida differentially changed the expression of RIP2 at both mRNA and protein levels. Co-immunoprecipitation assays indicated that RIP2 interacted with Nod1 and Nod2 receptors in eukaryotic cells. The results of dual luciferase reporter assay revealed that RIP2 over-expression caused the activation of the NF-κB signal pathway. In addition, RIP2 was involved in the regulation of the production of TNFα-2 and IL-1β1 in goldfish macrophages exposed to M. marinum.

Isolation and cytochemical characterization of melanomacrophages and melanomacrophage clusters from goldfish (Carassius auratus, L.)

Pigmented or "melano-" macrophages are prominent in lymphoid and non-lymphoid tissues of poikilotherms. Though they have been extensively studied in situ only recently has a means to isolate them from other cell types been established. We provide the first in vitro characterization of isolated melanomacrophage cytochemistry and survival in culture. Unlike non-pigmented tissue macrophages melanomacrophages do not adhere to polystyrene surfaces making them easy to separate from tissue macrophages. In vitro goldfish melanomacrophages are distinguishable from tissue macrophages and neutrophils by being Sudan Black B positive (unlike tissue macrophages) and non-specific esterase positive (unlike neutrophils). Like tissue macrophages they also express acid phosphatase and CSF-1R. As sorted cells melanomacrophages only survive a few days in culture. However in coarsely disaggregated spleen and kidney tissues melanomacrophages survive for at least 3 weeks. Furthermore after 5 days culture disaggregating tissue clumps revealed encapsulated melanomacrophage clusters that remained intact for at least another week. The encapsulated clusters were resilient enough to allow for their isolation for further imaging and isolation of RNA. In some cases the clusters had either melanomacrophages or non-fluorescent cells protruding and in the latter case these could initiate outgrowths onto the plates with subsequent collapse of the cluster. These approaches for the isolation of melanomacrophages and melanomacrophage clusters should allow further study into specific cell and cluster functions.

Molecular and functional characterization of erythropoietin receptor of the goldfish (Carassius auratus L.)

Erythropoietin receptor (EPOR) is a member of the class I cytokine receptor superfamily and signaling through this receptor is important for the proliferation, differentiation and survival of erythrocyte progenitor cells. This study reports on the molecular and functional characterization of goldfish EPOR. The identified goldfish EPOR sequence possesses the conserved EPOR ligand binding domain, the fibronectin domain, the class I cytokine receptor superfamily motif (WSXWS) as well as several intracellular signaling motifs characteristic of other vertebrate EPORs. The expression of epor mRNA in goldfish tissues, cell populations and cells treated with recombinant goldfish EPO (rgEPO) were evaluated by quantitative PCR revealing that goldfish epor mRNA is transcribed in both erythropoietic tissues (blood, kidney and spleen) and non-hematopoietic tissues (brain, heart and gill), as well as in immature erythrocytes. Recombinant goldfish EPOR (rgEPOR), consisting of its extracellular domain, dose-dependently inhibited proliferation of progenitor cells induced by rgEPO. In vitro binding studies indicated that rgEPO exists as monomer, dimer and/or trimmer and that rgEPOR exists as monomer and/or homodimer, and when incubated together, formed a ligand-receptor complex. Our results demonstrate that goldfish EPO/EPOR signaling has been highly conserved throughout vertebrate evolution as a required mechanism for erythrocyte development.

Sex-response differences of immunological and histopathological biomarkers in gill of Prochilodus argenteus from a polluted river in southeast Brazil

The fish gill is in direct and standing contact with the immediate external environment and, therefore, is highly vulnerable to aquatic pollutants. In this study, Prochilodus argenteus were caught at two different points in São Francisco river. The first point is located near Três Marias dam, while the second is placed downstream the Abaeté river. Chemical approaches showed the presence of metals contamination in the first point. Thus, the main goal of this study was to investigate the possible toxic effects of these contaminants and the likely use of biomarkers on fish gills. Biometric data of length and weight of fish were obtained in order to calculate the condition factor as an organismal biomarker. The histological changes in gills and alterations in mucous and rodlet cells occurrence were detected microscopically and evaluated with quantitative analyses. Myeloperoxidase (MPO) and Eosinophil Peroxidase (EPO) were also assessed in fish gill. The analysis of the water and sediment samples revealed the presence of metals at the two points. As and Cd were detected at higher concentrations at point 1. The presence of lamellar cell hyperplasia, lamellar fusion, lamellar edema and inflammatory foci varied according to the point. Additionally, mucous and rodlet cells and MPO and EPO activities showed variability according to the environmental conditions. Furthermore, with exception of lamellar hyperplasia and eosinophil peroxidase activity, all others parameters showed sex-variation responses. At the first point, male fish showed a chronical inflammation in gills due to the lowest activity of MPO and EPO, as well as low occurrence of inflammatory foci and glycoprotein secretion by mucous cells, while female fish presented an opposite pattern of response to the same environmental conditions. Therefore, we suggest the use of such biomarkers in future monitoring of aquatic systems, taking into account the sex-variation responses.

The effect of β-glucan on formation and functionality of neutrophil extracellular traps in carp (Cyprinus carpio L.)

The formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) has been characterised as a novel antimicrobial host defence strategy of neutrophils besides phagocytosis and degranulation, which may lead to entrapment and subsequent immobilisation and/or killing of bacterial pathogens. Here we studied the effect of the feed additive β-glucan, namely MacroGard(®), on the formation and functionality of NETs in carp. Therefore, common carp (Cyprinus carpio) head kidney and kidney cells were isolated and treated with or without β-glucan over time. The formation of NETs was analysed by immunofluorescence microscopy and revealed a distinct increase of NET-formation with β-glucan. Furthermore the subsequent entrapment of Aeromonas hydrophila, an important fish pathogen, was increased after stimulating the cells with β-glucan. However, β-glucan did not lead to a stimulation of antimicrobial activity of neutrophils against A. hydrophila. In conclusion, the data underline the fact that the feed additive β-glucan is able to modulate carp neutrophil functions.

Identification and functional characterization of the goldfish (Carassius auratus L.) high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) chromatin-binding protein

We report on the identification and functional characterization of HMGB1 of the goldfish. Quantitative analysis indicated the highest expression of goldfish HMGB1 in the brain, with lower mRNA levels in spleen, intestine, kidney, gill and heart. HMGB1 was also differentially expressed in goldfish immune cell populations with highest mRNA levels present in splenocytes and neutrophils. We generated and functionally characterized the recombinant HMGB1 (rgHMGB1). The rgHMGB1 primed the respiratory burst response in monocytes and induced nitric oxide production of primary goldfish macrophages. Treatment of goldfish macrophages with heat-killed Mycobacterium marinum and Aeromonas salmonicida elevated the expression of HMGB1 and resulted in higher HMGB1 protein levels. The rgHMGB1 induced a dose-dependent production of TNFα-2 and IL-1β1 of goldfish macrophages. Furthermore, the dual luciferase reporter assay revealed that goldfish HMGB1 induced the activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway. Our results indicate that goldfish HMGB1 is a critical regulatory cytokine of inflammatory and antimicrobial response of the goldfish.

Helper function of CD4⁺ lymphocytes in antiviral immunity in ginbuna crucian carp, Carassius auratus langsdorfii

Although many recent studies have suggested that CD4(+) helper T cell (Th-cell) functions are well conserved among teleost fishes and mammals, there is little evidence that CD4(+) Th-cells in fish are actually involved in both humoral and cell-mediated immunity during a secondary immune response. In the present study, adoptive transfer using clonal ginbuna crucian carp and crucian carp hematopoietic necrosis virus (CHNV) was used to investigate the functions of CD4(+) cells during humoral and cell-mediated immunity. With regard to humoral immunity, transplanting CHNV-sensitized donor cells, containing CD4(+) cells, into naive fish induced more rapid and stronger antibody production than by transplanting non-sensitized donor cells or sensitized donor cells lacking CD4(+) cells. During cell-mediated immunity, no significant differences were found in recipients that received sensitized cells regardless of whether the donor cells contained CD4(+) cells, although recipients that received both sensitized donor cells (with and without CD4(+) cells) exhibited more efficient cell-mediated cytotoxicity than those that received non-sensitized donor cells. These findings suggest that inducing a secondary antibody response requires CD4(+) cell help, and secondary cell-mediated immunity can be induced both by CD4(+) cells and leukocytes other than CD4(+) cells.

Effects of polymer-coated metal oxide nanoparticles on goldfish (Carassius auratus L.) neutrophil viability and function

Exposure effects from polyacrylic acid (PAA) metal-oxide nanoparticles (TiO2, CeO2, Fe2O3, ZnO) on fish neutrophil viability and effector functions (degranulation, respiratory burst, inflammatory gene expression) were investigated using primary kidney goldfish (Carassius auratus L.) neutrophils as a model. Several studies have reported cytotoxic effects of NPs but there are limited reports on their potential to perturb the innate immune system of aquatic organisms. PAA-TiO2 significantly decreased neutrophil viability in a time and dose-dependent manner at all measured time points (0-48 h) and concentrations (0-200 µg/mL). Maximum viability decreased by (mean ± SEM): 67.1 ± 3.3%, 78.4 ± 4.2% and 74.9 ± 5.0% when exposed to 50, 100 and 200 µg/mL for 48 h, respectively. PAA-ZnO also significantly decreased neutrophil viability but only at 48 h exposures at higher concentrations. Neutrophil degranulation increased by approximately 3% after 30 min and by 8% after 4 h when exposed to sublethal doses (10 µg/mL) of PAA-CeO2 or PAA-Fe2O3. All PAA-NPs induced an increase in neutrophil respiratory burst when exposed to 10 µg/mL for 30 and 60 min, however, PAA-Fe2O3 was the only NP where the response was significant. Lastly, NPs altered the expression of a number of pro-inflammatory and immune genes, where PAA-TiO2 most significantly increased the mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory genes (il-1b, ifng) in neutrophils by 3 and 2.5 times, respectively. Together, these data demonstrate that goldfish neutrophils can be negatively affected from exposures to PAA-coated NPs and are functionally responsive to specific core-material properties at sublethal doses. These changes could perturb the innate response and affect the ability of fish to respond to pathogens.

Expressions of transcription factors in goldfish (Carassius auratus L.) macrophages and their progenitors

The development of macrophages is a highly regulated process requiring coordination amongst transcription factors. The presence/absence, relative levels, antagonism, or synergy of all transcription factors involved is critical to directing lineage cell fate and differentiation. While relative levels of many key myeloid transcription factors have been determined in mammalian macrophage differentiation, a similar set of studies have yet to be conducted in a teleost system. In this study, we report on the mRNA levels of transcription factors (cebpa, cjun, cmyb, egr1, gata1, gata2, gata3, lmo2, mafb, pax5, pu.1 and runx1) in sorted goldfish progenitor cells, monocytes, and macrophages from primary kidney macrophage cultures. The mRNA levels of runx1 and pu.1 were significantly higher, gata3 and pax5 mRNA levels were lower, in monocytes compared to progenitors, and the mRNA levels of cjun, egr1, gata2, gata3, mafb and pax5 were significantly decreased in macrophages compared to progenitor cells. The relative mRNA levels of the interferon regulatory factor family of transcription factors, irf1, irf2, irf5, irf7, irf8 and irf9 in sorted progenitors, monocytes and macrophages were also measured. In contrast to other irf family transcription factors examined, irf8 mRNA levels were increased in monocytes compared to progenitors by greater than three-fold, suggesting that irf8 is important for monopoiesis. Lastly, we show the differential regulation of myeloid transcription factor mRNA levels in sorted progenitor cells from 1, 2, or 3-day old cultures in response to the recombinant goldfish growth factors, rgCSF-1 and rgKITLA.

A NET Outcome

Neutrophils constitute a critical part of innate immunity and are well known for their ability to phagocytose and kill invading microorganisms. The microbicidal processes employed by neutrophils are highly effective at killing most ingested bacteria and fungi. However, an alternative non-phagocytic antimicrobial mechanism of neutrophils has been proposed whereby microorganisms are eliminated by neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). NETs are comprised of DNA, histones, and antimicrobial proteins extruded by neutrophils during NETosis, a cell death pathway reported to be distinct from apoptosis, phagocytosis-induced cell death, and necrosis. Although multiple laboratories have reported NETs using various stimuli in vitro, the molecular mechanisms involved in this process have yet to be definitively elucidated, and many questions regarding the formation and putative role or function of NETs in innate host defense remain unanswered. It is with these questions in mind that we provide some reflection and perspective on NETs and NETosis.

Fish and mammalian phagocytes differentially regulate pro-inflammatory and homeostatic responses in vivo

Phagocytosis is a cellular mechanism that is important to the early induction of antimicrobial responses and the regulation of adaptive immunity. At an inflammatory site, phagocytes serve as central regulators for both pro-inflammatory and homeostatic anti-inflammatory processes. However, it remains unclear if this is a recent evolutionary development or whether the capacity to balance between these two seemingly contradictory processes is a feature already displayed in lower vertebrates. In this study, we used murine (C57BL/6) and teleost fish (C. auratus) in vitro and in vivo models to assess the evolutionary conservation of this dichotomy at a site of inflammation. At the level of the macrophage, we found that teleost fish already displayed divergent pro-inflammatory and homeostatic responses following internalization of zymosan or apoptotic bodies, respectively, and that these were consistent with those of mice. However, fish and mice displayed significant differences in vivo with regards to the level of responsiveness to zymosan and apoptotic bodies, the identity of infiltrating leukocytes, their rate of infiltration, and the kinetics and strength of resulting antimicrobial responses. Unlike macrophages, significant differences were identified between teleost and murine neutrophilic responses. We report for the first time that activated murine, but not teleost neutrophils, possess the capacity to internalize apoptotic bodies. This internalization translates into reduction of neutrophil ROS production. This may play an important part in the recently identified anti-inflammatory activity that mammalian neutrophils display during the resolution phase of inflammation. Our observations are consistent with continued honing of inflammatory control mechanisms from fish to mammals, and provide added insights into the evolutionary path that has resulted in the integrated, multilayered responses that are characteristic of higher vertebrates.

Histophilus somni causes extracellular trap formation by bovine neutrophils and macrophages

Histophilus somni (formerly Haemophilus somnus) is a Gram-negative pleomorphic coccobacillus that causes respiratory, reproductive, cardiac and neuronal diseases in cattle. H. somni is a member of the bovine respiratory disease complex that causes severe bronchopneumonia in cattle. Previously, it has been reported that bovine neutrophils and macrophages have limited ability to phagocytose and kill H. somni. Recently, it was discovered that bovine neutrophils and macrophages produce extracellular traps in response to Mannheimia haemolytica, another member of the bovine respiratory disease complex. In this study, we demonstrate that H. somni also causes extracellular trap production by bovine neutrophils in a dose- and time-dependent manner, which did not coincide with the release of lactate dehydrogenase, a marker for necrosis. Neutrophil extracellular traps were produced in response to outer membrane vesicles, but not lipooligosacchride alone. Using scanning electron microscopy and confocal microscopy, we observed H. somni cells trapped within a web-like structure. Further analyses demonstrated that bovine neutrophils trapped and killed H. somni in a DNA-dependent manner. Treatment of DNA extracellular traps with DNase I freed H. somni cells and diminished bacterial death. Treatment of bovine monocyte-derived macrophages with H. somni cells also caused macrophage extracellular trap formation. These findings suggest that extracellular traps may play a role in the host response to H. somni infection in cattle.

Identification and expression analysis of major histocompatibility complex IIB gene in orange-spotted grouper Epinephelus coioides

In this study, complementary DNA (cDNA) and DNA sequences of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class IIB genes (mhcIIB) were cloned from orange-spotted grouper Epinephelus coioides. The gene structure of E. coioides mhcIIB consists of five exons and four introns, and its deduced amino acid sequence length is 249 amino acids, including a signal peptide, a peptide-binding region, an IGC1 domain, a transmembrane region and a cytoplasmic tail. A phylogenetic study showed that E. coioides mhcIIB shared 32.0-79.1% identity with those of other teleosts and mammals. Real-time reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR was performed to detect the class IIB gene expression in eight different tissues. To characterize the relationship between E. coioides mhcIIB gene and pathogens, in vivo and in vitro studies were performed. Challenge of Cryptocaryon irritans revealed that class IIB genes were down-regulated after 24 and 48 h of challenge, and their expression was later restored at 72 h. Stimulation of isolated E. coioides leukocytes with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (PolyI:C) significantly increased peripheral blood and spleen mhcIIB expression, while head kidney mhcIIB expression remained constant.

Colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor protein expression is a specific marker for goldfish (Carassius auratus L.) macrophage progenitors and their differentiated cell types

Signaling through the colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R) mediates the proliferation, differentiation, and activation of macrophages and their progenitors. In this study we report on the use of an anti-goldfish CSF-1R antibody to specifically recognize a population of CSF-1R positive cells from goldfish tissues. Furthermore, using our previously characterized primary kidney macrophage culture system, we show that CSF-1R positive cells include monocytes, macrophages, and their progenitor cells. Freshly isolated progenitor cells had a higher median florescent intensity ratio than those progenitor cells cultured for up to four days. The decrease in CSF-1R expression on the progenitor cells coincides with the appearance and development of monocytes and macrophages. Monocytes were consistently CSF-1R+ and maintained the high level of CSF-1R expression as they developed into macrophages. Like that of mammalian systems, CSF-1R is expressed on all macrophage sub-populations (progenitors, monocytes, macrophages), and CSF-1R expression increases with macrophage development in teleosts.

Characterization of granulocyte colony stimulating factor receptor of the goldfish (Carassius auratus L.)

Granulocyte colony stimulating factor receptor (GCSFR) is a member of the class I cytokine receptor superfamily and signaling through this receptor is important for the proliferation, differentiation and activation of neutrophils and their precursors. In this study we report on the cloning and molecular characterization of goldfish GCSFR. The identified goldfish GCSFR sequence possesses the conserved Ig-like domain, the cytokine receptor homology domain (CRH), three fibronectin domains as well as several intracellular signaling motifs characteristic of other vertebrate GCSFRs. Goldfish gcsfr mRNA was highly expressed in kidney and spleen, and in primary kidney neutrophils. The neutrophils have significantly higher mRNA levels of the transcription factors pu.1 and cebpα, and down-regulated levels of transcription factors important for macrophage development such as egr1 and cjun, compared to progenitor cells from the kidney. The gcsfr mRNA was present in the kidney progenitor cells, albeit at much lower levels compared to the neutrophils, and the expression of gcsfr in progenitor cells was not affected by duration of cultivation. Furthermore, gcsfr mRNA levels were up-regulated in neutrophils after treatment with heat-killed Aeromonas salmonicida A449 or with mitogens. Our results indicate that GCSFR may be a useful marker for fish neutrophils.

Examination of the stimulatory signaling potential of a channel catfish leukocyte immune-type receptor and associated adaptor

Expressed by various subsets of myeloid and lymphoid immune cells, channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) leukocyte immune-type receptors (IpLITRs) are predicted to play a key role in the initiation and termination of teleost cellular effector responses. These type I transmembrane proteins belong to the immunoglobulin superfamily and display features of immunoregulatory receptors with inhibitory and/or stimulatory signaling potential. Expanding on our previous work, which demonstrated that putative stimulatory IpLITR-types associated with the catfish adaptor proteins IpFcRγ and FcRγ-L, this study focuses on the functional significance of this immune receptor-adaptor signaling complex. Specifically, we generated an epitope-tagged chimeric receptor construct by fusing the extracellular domain of IpLITR 2.6b with the transmembrane region and cytoplasmic tail of IpFcRγ-L. This chimera was stably expressed in a rat basophilic leukemia (RBL) cell line, RBL-2H3, and following cross-linking of the surface receptor with an anti-hemagglutinin monoclonal antibody or opsonized microspheres, the chimeric teleost receptor induced cellular degranulation and phagocytic responses, respectively. Site-directed mutagenesis of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif encoded within the cytoplasmic tail of the chimera confirmed that these functional responses were dependent on the phosphorylated tyrosines within this motif. Using a combination of phospho-specific antibodies and pharmacological inhibitors, we also demonstrate that the IpLITR/IpFcRγ-L-induced degranulation response requires the activity of Src homology 2 domain containing protein tyrosine phosphatases, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, protein kinase C, and mitogen-activated protein kinases but appears independent of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase and p38 MAP kinase pathways. In addition to this first look at stimulatory IpLITR-mediated signaling and its influence on cellular effector responses, the advantage of generating RBL-2H3 cells stably expressing a functional IpLITR-adaptor chimera will be discussed.

Histological damage and inflammatory response elicited by Monobothrium wageneri (Cestoda) in the intestine of Tinca tinca (Cyprinidae)

BACKGROUND

Among the European cyprinids, tench, Tinca tinca (L.), and the pathological effects their cestodes may effect, have received very little or no attention. Most literature relating to Monobothrium wageneri Nybelin, 1922, a common intestinal cestode of tench, for example, has focused on aspects of its morphology rather than on aspects of the host-parasite interaction.

RESULTS

Immunopathological and ultrastructural studies were conducted on the intestines of 28 tench, collected from Lake Piediluco, of which 16 specimens harboured tight clusters of numerous M. wageneri attached to the intestinal wall. The infection was associated with the degeneration of the mucosal layer and the formation of raised inflammatory swelling surrounding the worms. At the site of infection, the number of granulocytes in the intestine of T. tinca was significantly higher than the number determined 1 cm away from the site of infection or the number found in uninfected fish. Using transmission electron microscopy, mast cells and neutrophils were frequently observed in close proximity to, and inside, the intestinal capillaries; often these cells were in contact with the cestode tegument. At the host-parasite interface, no secretion from the parasite's tegument was observed. Intense degranulation of the mast cells was seen within the submucosa and lamina muscularis, most noticeably at sites close to the tegument of the scolex. In some instances, rodlet cells were encountered in the submucosa. In histological sections, hyperplasia of the mucous cells, notably those giving an alcian blue positive reaction, were evident in the intestinal tissues close to the swelling surrounding the worms. Enhanced mucus secretion was recorded in the intestines of infected tench.

CONCLUSIONS

The pathological changes and the inflammatory cellular response induced by the caryophyllidean monozoic tapeworm M. wageneri within the intestinal tract of an Italian population of wild tench is reported for the first time.