Household Chaos and Children's Cognitive and Socio-Emotional Development in Early Childhood: Does Childcare Play a Buffering Role?

Staying self-regulated in the classroom: The role of children's executive functions and situational factors

BACKGROUND

Self-regulation is crucial for children's learning and development. Several studies have explored children's inter-individual differences in self-regulation, but little is known about sources of intra-individual variation.

AIMS

This study addressed the variability of children's self-regulation across typical classroom situations and how this might be associated with children's executive functions (EFs).

SAMPLE

The study included 148 children (54.7% girls; Mage = 56.73 months).

METHODS

Self-regulation was assessed with an observational measure in teacher-led and child-led activities within naturalistic classroom settings. Children's EFs were assessed with direct assessments at the start and end of the school year.

RESULTS

Linear mixed-effect models showed that children demonstrated higher levels of self-regulation in child-led in comparison with teacher-led activities. Children with higher levels of EFs at the start of the school year showed less variation across teacher-led and child-led activities in comparison with children with lower levels of EFs. Regarding other aspects of the classroom context, neither the group size in which the activity took place nor which school subject it was focused on were associated with children's self-regulation. However, in teacher-led activities the type of interaction involved in the activity and the type of task influenced children's self-regulation.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that children who start school with higher levels of EFs are more able to adapt to different situations, highlighting the importance of fostering these skills in early childhood. In turn, children with lower levels of EFs may need additional support from teachers to remain self-regulated across different contexts.

Household chaos and child problem behaviors: A cross-cultural examination of the mediating and moderating role of mindful parenting

Household chaos has been shown to adversely associate with children's behavioral adjustment. However, the mechanism underlying the relationship between household chaos and children's behaviors is not yet fully understood. The current study proposes mindful parenting as an important mediating and moderating factor in the relationship between household chaos and child problem behaviors. This study also examines cultural influences in this process, comparing the UK and Türkiye, considering both mothers' and children's perspectives on mindful parenting. Cross-sectional questionnaires were administered to mothers and their children aged 11-16 years in the UK (n = 90; 53.3% girl) and Türkiye (n = 154; 54.5% girl) in 2021. Mother reports of the Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, as well as mother and child reports of Mindful Parenting Inventories for Parents (MPIP) and Children (MPIC), were used to assess household chaos, child problem behaviors, and mindful parenting, respectively. Multiple-group path analysis revealed that household chaos was a significant indirect predictor of child problem behaviors via mindful parenting in both countries. Furthermore, simple slopes analysis showed that mindful parenting moderated the link between household chaos and child problem behaviors in the UK. Overall, our study sheds light on the importance of micro- and macro-environmental factors and their interactions in children's adjustment.

On executive functioning and childcare: The moderating role of parent-child interactions

Childcare services are widely used by families and thereby exert an important influence on many young children. Yet, little research has examined whether childcare may impact the development of child executive functioning (EF), one of the pillars of cognitive development in early childhood. Furthermore, despite persisting hypotheses that childcare may be particularly beneficial for children who have less access to optimal developmental resources at home, research has yet to address the possibility that putative associations between childcare and EF may vary as a function of family factors. Among a sample of 180 mostly White middle-class families (91 girls), we examined if childcare participation in infancy was related to two aspects of EF (Delay and Conflict) at 3 years, and whether two aspects of maternal parenting behavior (sensitivity and autonomy support) moderated these associations. The results showed positive associations between participation in group-based childcare and Delay EF specifically among children of relatively less autonomy-supportive mothers. These findings suggest that out-of-home childcare services may play a protective role for children exposed to parenting that is less conducive to their executive development. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Little research has considered effects of childcare in infancy on executive functioning (EF). Long-standing hypothesis that childcare is more beneficial for children exposed to less sensitive and supportive parenting. We test interactions between maternal parenting and childcare participation in infancy in relation to EF at age 3 years. We find positive associations between participation in group-based childcare and Delay EF specifically among children of relatively less autonomy-supportive mothers.

Assessing the mediating relationships between psychological factors in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and cognitive disengagement syndrome

This study aims to investigate the predictive and mediating relationships between emotion dysregulation, internalizing disorders, family functionality, loneliness preference, and executive functions (EF) in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and cognitive disengagement syndrome (ADHD + CDS). This study included 176 children and adolescents (92 boys, 84 girls) who were diagnosed with ADHD + CDS according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the Fifth Edition criteria by a fellowship-trained child and adolescent psychiatrist, between ages 8 -12 (M = 10, SD = 1.52) with a convenience sampling method. The solitude scale for children, difficulties in emotion dysregulation scale, Child Behavior Checklist, Barkley Sluggish Cognitive Tempo Scale, Family assessment device, and CNS Vital Signs test were used. The results showed that difficulty in emotion regulation, preference for loneliness, internalizing disorders and CDS symptom severity did not have a mediating effect between family functionality and EF. Still, emotion dysregulation mediates the relationship between EF and internalizing disorders by itself and through loneliness preference. Also, preference for loneliness and emotion dysregulation had a mediating effect between family functionality and internalizing disorders. Finally, it was found that the effect of emotion regulation difficulty, loneliness preference, and internalizing disorders had a mediating role between CDS symptom severity and family functionality. In conclusion, the information obtained from this study on the etiology of CDS may guide future studies.

Annual Research Review: The power of predictability - patterns of signals in early life shape neurodevelopment and mental health trajectories

The global burden of early life adversity (ELA) is profound. The World Health Organization has estimated that ELA accounts for almost 30% of all psychiatric cases. Yet, our ability to identify which individuals exposed to ELA will develop mental illness remains poor and there is a critical need to identify underlying pathways and mechanisms. This review proposes unpredictability as an understudied aspect of ELA that is tractable and presents a conceptual model that includes biologically plausible mechanistic pathways by which unpredictability impacts the developing brain. The model is supported by a synthesis of published and new data illustrating the significant impacts of patterns of signals on child development. We begin with an overview of the existing unpredictability literature, which has focused primarily on longer patterns of unpredictability (e.g. years, months, and days). We then describe our work testing the impact of patterns of parental signals on a moment-to-moment timescale, providing evidence that patterns of these signals during sensitive windows of development influence neurocircuit formation across species and thus may be an evolutionarily conserved process that shapes the developing brain. Next, attention is drawn to emerging themes which provide a framework for future directions of research including the evaluation of functions, such as effortful control, that may be particularly vulnerable to unpredictability, sensitive periods, sex differences, cross-cultural investigations, addressing causality, and unpredictability as a pathway by which other forms of ELA impact development. Finally, we provide suggestions for prevention and intervention, including the introduction of a screening instrument for the identification of children exposed to unpredictable experiences.

Preschoolers' Self-Regulation and Behavior Problems in the Midst of Caregiver Depression and Chaos

OBJECTIVES

Preschoolers' self-regulation is partially developed through home and child care routines. COVID-19-related child care closures increased caregiver depressive symptoms, household chaos, and children's behavior problems. This longitudinal study examined how preschoolers' prepandemic self-regulation was related to behavior problems early in the pandemic, including buffering against the adverse effects of caregiver depressive symptoms and household chaos.

METHODS

A sample of 264 caregivers of preschoolers reported on their children's self-regulation (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool Version Inhibitory Self Control Index) before the pandemic and caregiver depressive symptoms (Center for Epidemiological Studies), household chaos (Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale), and children's behavior problems (Behavior Rating Index for Children) during the pandemic. We used linear mixed models to examine predictors of children's behavior problems, including prepandemic self-regulation, and further examined moderation by pandemic-related caregiver depressive symptoms and household chaos.

RESULTS

Children were 64% non-Hispanic White and 24% non-Hispanic Black, with mean pandemic age 5.9 years. Prepandemic self-regulation significantly predicted early pandemic behavior problems (β = -0.38 [95% confidence interval, -0.69 to -0.07]). This association was moderated by pandemic-related caregiver depressive symptoms and household chaos; the protective association was maintained at high levels of caregiver depressive symptoms or household chaos, although the association diminished when these co-occurred.

CONCLUSION

The protective association between prepandemic self-regulation and subsequent behavior problems suggests longitudinal benefits of preschoolers' inhibitory and emotional control. Despite reduced protection associated with co-occurring caregiver and household challenges, self-regulation continued to demonstrate protection against subsequent behavior problems, even in the midst of a pandemic.

Novel word learning ability in 24-month-olds: The interactive role of mother's work status and education level

Using both online and offline measures, this study investigates how maternal education and work status (stay-at-home, part-time, full-time) are jointly associated with infants' word learning ability and vocabulary size. One hundred 24-month-old infants completed a lab-based mutual exclusivity task, which assesses infants' novel word learning ability. Caregivers reported infants' productive vocabulary size using the MCDIs. There was no evidence for an association between infants' productive vocabulary size and maternal education, maternal work status, or their interaction. However, infants' novel word learning ability was significantly related to both maternal factors and their interaction. The positive association between maternal education and word learning performance was attenuated for infants of part-time and full-time working mothers compared to infants with at home mothers. These findings suggest that using real-time measures with high task demand may better capture developmental differences in infants and expand our understanding of maternal factors contributing to early language development.

Pathways to social well-being of children with intellectual disability: testing the Family Investment Model

BACKGROUND

Social well-being, including prosocial and peer relationship skills, independence and co-operation, is a particularly important developmental outcome in intellectual disability (ID). The present study investigated pathways to social well-being through the early years' family environment, particularly the role of parental investments in mediating the path from family poverty to child social well-being.

METHODS

In line with the Family Investment Model (FIM), we tested whether parental investments between 3 and 5 years of age mediate the impact of family poverty at 9 months of age on children's social well-being at 7 years. Structural equation models were fitted to data from 555 children with ID identified from a UK population-based cohort.

RESULTS

Findings indicated that home learning investments and the structural home environment (though not play) significantly mediated the effect of family poverty on children's social skills, albeit in different directions. While all parental investments reduced in the presence of poverty, the home learning environment appeared to promote social well-being, whereas the structural home environment did not. Sensitivity analyses controlling for co-occurring autism confirmed the pattern of findings. Child gender, ethnicity and parental educational qualifications did not moderate the mediational relationships, suggesting that FIM pathways to social well-being were relevant to all families.

CONCLUSIONS

The FIM provides a helpful framework to map developmental pathways for children with an ID. Parental investments related to home learning, the structural home environment and play are reduced in the presence of poverty although their impact on child social well-being appears to differ.

What's Next? Advances and Challenges in Understanding How Environmental Predictability Shapes the Development of Cognitive Control

Forming predictions about what will happen next in the world happens early in development, without instruction, and across species. Some environments support more accurate predictions. These more predictable environments also support what appear to be positive developmental trajectories, including increases in cognitive control over thoughts and actions. Such consequences of predictable environments have broad-reaching implications for society and have been explained across ecological, psychological, computational, and neural frameworks. However, many challenges remain in understanding the effects of environmental predictability, including adaptive responses to unpredictable environments and the mechanisms underlying the effects of predictable environments on developmental trajectories. Future work addressing different dimensions of predictability -- across time scales, locations, actions, people, and outcomes -- and their interactions will advance the ability to understand, predict, and support developmental trajectories.

Neighborhood disadvantage, household chaos, and personal stressors: exploring early-life contextual factors and current mental health symptoms in college students

OBJECTIVE

Using Bronfenbrenner's socio-ecological model as a frame, we explored the impact of neighborhood disadvantage, household chaos, and personal stressors on current mental health symptoms in college students.

PARTICIPANTS

144 students at a large, public university in the southern U.S.

METHODS

Participants completed measures of demographics, family-of-origin household chaos, stressors, anxiety, and depression, and provided their childhood home ZIP code. Using U.S. Census Data, four structural indicators of neighborhood disadvantage were extracted and appended to each participant's ZIP code.

RESULTS

Hierarchical regression revealed that all three variables predicted anxiety symptoms. However, only household chaos and personal stressors predicted current depressive symptoms. Unexpectedly, greater neighborhood disadvantage predicted lower levels of current anxiety. Mediation analyses demonstrated that personal stressors partially mediated the relationships between household chaos and mental health symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

College administration and counseling centers may wish to consider pre-college factors that influence college students' current anxious and depressive symptoms.

How household chaos affects social withdrawal of rural children: the indirect role of executive function and receptive language ability

Executive function (EF) and receptive language ability play an important role in the relationship between household chaos and social withdrawal. Young children are neglected in household chaos research and suffer from the negative outcomes of households in China. However, few studies have focused on the relationship between household chaos and social withdrawal in young Chinese children and the chain mediating effect of EF and receptive language ability. This study included 922 preschool-age children (62.58 ± 8.03 months) and their primary caregivers and their teachers were recruited from 21 rural preschools in Guangdong Province in China. Our results show a positive direct effect of household chaos and social withdrawal. Furthermore, an indirect sequential effect of household chaos and social withdrawal on EF and receptive language ability was found. Our findings (a) highlight the significance of paying more attention to household chaos and revealing a better understanding of the effect of EF and receptive language ability on households at an early age and (b) indicate that interventions should be provided to improve the home environment when children are young.

Influence of home chaos on preschool migrant children's resilience: A moderated mediation model

Increasing attention has been drawn to the development of preschool migrant children's resilience recently. Resilience refers to the positive internal strengths and qualities of individuals in adverse situations, and is an essential psychological quality for preschool migrant children to cope with adversity. Home chaos as a risk factor, has an important impact on the development of individual's resilience, but the specific mechanisms under which home chaos works have yet to be explored, especially for preschool migrant children. Based on resilience model theory, 3,135 preschool migrant children and their families were surveyed and a moderated mediating effect mode was constructed to test the effect of home chaos on preschool migrant children's resilience. The results showed that after controlling for gender and age, home chaos significantly and negatively predicted preschool migrant children's resilience. Family resilience played a mediating role in the relationship between home chaos and preschool migrant children's resilience. Meanwhile, social support positively moderated the mediating effects of family resilience. The findings of this study suggested that low home chaos was conducive to promoting family resilience, which in turn fostered children's resilience, and that social support could play its protective role in weakening the negative effects of home chaos and this had certain guiding implications for the development of resilience in preschool migrant children.

What Mediates the Effect of Family Disruption in the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children’s Prosocial Behavior

Abstract. At the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, unprecedented social distancing rules (including mass school closures) dramatically constrained children’s social lives, jeopardizing human connections that foster prosocial development. This study of 2,516 families of 3–8-year-olds from six countries (China, Sweden, Australia, Italy, the USA, and the United Kingdom) examined whether children’s understanding or feelings about COVID-19 regulations mediated the expected association between COVID-19-related family disruption and children’s prosocial behavior, as indexed by parental ratings. For all six sites, family disruption indirectly predicted reduced prosocial behavior. Negative feelings about COVID-19 regulations mediated this association in all sites except China. Contrariwise, understanding of COVID-19 regulations was not implicated in the link between family disruption and reduced prosocial behavior.

Advancing Educational Research on Children’s Self-Regulation With Observational Measures

Self-regulation is crucial for children’s development and learning. Almost by convention, it is assumed that self-regulation is a relatively stable skill, and little is known about its dynamic nature and context dependency. Traditional measurement approaches such as single direct assessments and adult reports are not well suited to address questions around variations of self-regulation within individuals and influences from social-contextual factors. Measures relying on child observations are uniquely positioned to address these questions and to advance the field by shedding light on self-regulatory variability and incremental growth. In this paper, we review traditional measurement approaches (direct assessments and adult reports) and recently developed observational measures. We discuss which questions observational measures are best suited to address and why traditional measurement approaches fall short. Finally, we share lessons learned based on our experiences using child observations in educational settings and discuss how measurement approaches should be carefully aligned to the research questions.

Examining family processes linked to adolescent problem behaviors in single-mother families: The moderating role of school connectedness

Objective

Previous research has shown that adolescents in single-mother households are at heightened risk for adjustment problems. However, limited studies have investigated the mechanisms leading to adolescent problem behaviors in single-mother households. To address this research gap, this study applied the Family Stress Model to examine how single mothers’ material hardship is linked to adolescent problem behaviors, focusing on the mediating roles of mothers’ depression and mother-adolescent closeness. The moderating role of adolescent school connectedness in the relationships between mother-adolescent closeness and school connectedness and between mothers’ depression and school connectedness was also investigated.

Materials and methods

The study analyzed data from 1,384 adolescents and their single mothers who participated in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study at Wave 6. The associations between study variables were analyzed using structural equation modeling by decomposing the direct, indirect, and total effects of material hardship on adolescent problem behaviors. School connectedness’s interactions with mother-adolescent closeness and mothers’ depression were also examined.

Results

Results showed a significant indirect relationship between material hardship and adolescent problem behaviors through sequential mediation of mothers’ depression and mother-adolescent closeness. Mothers’ depression also significantly mediated the relationship between material hardship and problem behaviors. Lastly, school connectedness moderated the relationship between mother-adolescent closeness and adolescents’ internalizing behaviors. The association between mother-adolescent closeness and adolescents’ internalizing behavior was weaker for adolescents with higher levels of school connectedness.

Conclusion

The results indicate the important indirect effect of economic strain on adolescents’ problems behaviors in single-mother households, which has been less emphasized compared to the effects in earlier childhood. High rates of material hardship and adolescent problem behaviors in single-mother families call for multifaceted interventions focusing on family processes and protective factors, including school environment.

Interactive Effects of Temperament and Family-Related Environmental Confusion on Spoken Language in Children Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to examine the influence of caregivers' reports of family-related environmental confusion-which refers to the level of overstimulation in the family home environment due to auditory and nonauditory (i.e., visual and cognitive) noise-on the relation between child temperament and spoken language outcomes in children who are deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) in comparison to age-matched children with typical hearing (TH).

METHOD

Two groups of families with children between 3 and 7 years of age (TH = 59, DHH = 58) were sequentially recruited from a larger longitudinal study on developmental outcomes in children who are DHH. Caregivers (all TH) completed questionnaires measuring three dimensions of child temperament (i.e., effortful control, negative affectivity, and surgency-extraversion) and family-related environmental confusion. A norm-referenced language measure was administered to children. Testing took place within the families' homes.

RESULTS

For children who are DHH, effortful control was positively related to spoken language outcomes, but only when levels of family-related environmental confusion were low to moderate. Family-related environmental confusion did not interact with temperament to influence spoken language in children with TH.

CONCLUSIONS

Homes with low-to-moderate levels of environmental confusion provide an environment that supports DHH children with better effortful control to harness their self-regulatory skills to achieve better spoken language comprehension than those with lower levels of effortful control. These findings suggest that efforts to minimize chaos and auditory noise in the home create an environment in which DHH children can utilize their self-regulatory skills to achieve optimal spoken language outcomes.

Parents' Perspectives of Family Engagement with Early Childhood Education and Care During the COVID-19 Pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has created significant challenges for Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) services and families, impacting family access to services and their communication and engagement with educators. This study aimed to examine parents' perspectives of family engagement with ECEC services during the pandemic. Primary caregivers in Victoria at the time of recruitment (September-November 2020) were invited to participate. Of the 66 participants who completed an online survey, 25 also took part in semi-structured video call or phone interviews; qualitative findings from these interviews are reported in this paper. Four key themes were conceptualised using a reflexive thematic approach: (1) disruptions to ECEC access and attendance impacting on family routines and relationships, and child development; (2) barriers to family engagement; (3) ECEC educators' support of families and children during the pandemic; and (4) increased parental appreciation of the ECEC profession. Findings revealed that disruptions to ECEC access and routines during the pandemic adversely impacted family engagement, and child learning and social-emotional wellbeing for some families. These were aggravated by other stressors, including increased parental responsibilities in the home, financial and health concerns, and changed work conditions. Findings also demonstrated successful methods used by educators to maintain communication and connections with families. Importantly, parents expressed increasing appreciation of the profession and an increased awareness of the value of family involvement in children's learning. Learnings regarding strategies for effective and alternative ways of engaging families are discussed.

Children’s Effortful Control Skills, but Not Their Prosocial Skills, Relate to Their Reactions to Classroom Noise

Environmental noise is one of the main sources of pollution in today’s modern world. Health effects associated with noise depend on both environmental exposure and individuals’ noise sensitivity. However, still little is known as to why some children are more noise sensitive than others. Studies to date have focused on adult populations and have not considered both cognitive and personality factors when explaining noise sensitivity. The current research investigates individual differences in noise sensitivity among elementary school children, with the aim of shedding light on its underlying mechanisms. Study 1 (n = 112) validated a novel questionnaire assessing children’s reactions to classroom noise against two measures of noise sensitivity that are commonly used in adult populations. Study 2 (n = 237) investigated how children’s reactions to classroom noise covaried with their effortful control and prosocial skills, both measured through a teacher report. Prosocial skills were not related to children’s reactions to noise. However, children with lower effortful control skills reported more negative reactions to classroom noise. Given the importance of effortful control skills to succeed at school, children at risk of school difficulty might also be the ones who are particularly vulnerable to noise.

Long-Term Promotive and Protective Effects of Early Childcare Quality on the Social-Emotional Development in Children

The present study aimed to examine the longitudinal promotive and protective role of process quality in regular early childhood education and care (ECEC) centers in the context of early cumulative family risks on children's social-emotional development from early to middle childhood. The sample consisted of 293 (T1; M age = 2.81), 239 (T2; M age = 3.76), and 189 (T3; M age = 9.69) children from 25 childcare centers in Switzerland. Fourteen familial risk factors were subsumed to a family risk score at T1. Parents and teachers reported on children's conduct problems (CP), emotional problems (EP), and prosocial behavior (PB) at T2 and T3. Childcare process quality was assessed at T2 using external observations of teaching and interaction, provisions for learning, and key professional tasks. Results showed that early family risks were positively associated with CP and EP and negatively associated with PB in the long term. High-quality teaching and interaction as well as caregivers' professional behavior in terms of systematic observation, documentation, and planning of children's individual learning processes and needs protected children from the undesirable long-term effects of early family risks on conduct problems, emotional problems, and prosocial behavior from early to middle childhood. The results indicate that a high process quality in ECEC might serve as an essential contextual protective factor in the development of resilience in children at risk.

Sensory processing sensitivity behavior moderates the association between environmental harshness, unpredictability, and child socioemotional functioning

Building on Ellis et al.'s theorization for potent dimensions of environmental adversity, the present work sought to evaluate how environmental harshness and unpredictability might function directly and in interaction with child sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) to shape the development of child socioemotional functioning. Participants were 235 young children (M_age = 2.97 at the first measurement occasion) and their parents, who were followed for two consecutive annual measurement occasions. Child SPS was measured through behavioral observation across multiple tasks within the laboratory setting. Greater environmental unpredictability was significantly associated with the development of children's externalizing problems over a year only for children with high SPS. Follow-up analyses indicated that the unpredictability-x-SPS interaction was consistent with differential susceptibility, such that high SPS children showed greater increases in externalizing problems under high unpredictability, but also lower increases/greater decreases in externalizing problems under low unpredictability. Such association did not apply to children with low SPS.

Socio-Emotional Problems and Learning Skills of Roma and Recently Arrived Refugee Children in German Elementary Schools

Abstract. Background: In Germany, many recently arrived and minority families live in multi-ethnic, high-poverty districts. Multiple risk factors threaten their children’s development. Aims: We examined the socio-emotional problems of these children in relation to their academic learning skills and executive functioning. Method: We compared teacher-rated socio-emotional problems of n = 112 Roma children (90% foreign-born), n = 101 refugee children (all foreign-born), and n = 56 German-born immigrant children (age in months: M = 99.66, SD = 13.61) between groups and to norm data. We related socio-emotional problems to receptive vocabulary, cognitive reasoning, motor skills, and executive functioning in n = 83 refugee and Roma children. Results: Roma children showed higher rates above cut-off than norm data in all subscales, more problems in all subscales but emotional symptoms than immigrant children, and more hyperactivity/inattention and peer problems than refugee children. Refugee children showed higher rates above cut-off than norm data in all subscales and more peer problems than immigrant children. Academic learning skills were overall below average among recently arrived children. Prosocial behavior was positively linked to fine motor skills. Other socio-emotional problems were not linked to academic learning skills and executive functioning. Gross and visuo-motor skills correlated positively with other academic learning skills. Limitations: We analyzed cross-sectional data. We did not include risk factors or non-immigrant German children. Conclusion: The heightened socio-emotional problems and low academic learning skills of refugee and particularly Roma children in high-poverty districts could jeopardize their educational trajectories. Additional support measures could increase their chances for educational participation.

The Impact of Household Chaos and Dietary Intake on Executive Function in Young Children

Children's executive functions (EFs) emerge over time and can be shaped by household environments and dietary intake. However, there is a lack of knowledge about how these factors influence EFs in children aged 18-24 months. This study tested a model exploring the relations between parent-reported dietary intake, household chaos, and child EF. The sample consisted of 294 families participating in the STRONG Kids2 birth cohort study of nutrition and child health. Caregivers completed the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ), the Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale (CHAOS), and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function^®-Preschool Version (BRIEF-P) to assess model variables. Regression analyses revealed a significant and independent association between assorted snacks and processed foods and two EF subscales. There were also significant associations between household chaos and each EF subscale. There was no significant moderation effect. These findings suggest that family households characterized by dysregulation are associated with children's EF difficulties during early childhood and that the role of unhealthy dietary intake in child EF should be explored further. Future longitudinal studies that include multi-method approaches are needed to document the mechanisms through which household chaos impacts child EF over time.

Under the same roof: Parents' COVID-related stress mediates the associations between household crowdedness and young children's problem behaviors during social distancing

During the COVID-19 pandemic, families worldwide are confined in their homes for an extended period of time due to social distancing. Conducted between April and July of 2021, the current study examined the impact of household crowdedness during school closure on parents' COVID-related stress and young children's problem behaviors in Hong Kong, one of the world's most densely populated cities. Parents of 228 young children between 3- to 5-year-old reported their household living condition, parents' COVID-related stress, and their children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors through an online survey. The result revealed that household crowdedness was predictive of parents' COVID-related. Furthermore, parents' COVID-related stress significantly mediated the associations between household crowdedness and children's internalizing and externalizing behaviors, controlling for family socioeconomic status. The study contributed to the growing research on the impact of the physical living environment as part of the ecological systems on family and child functioning. In time of crisis, young children rely on schools to support their development and wellbeing. The current findings caution the decision of school closure.

Effects of household chaos and parental responsiveness on child executive functions: a novel, multi-method approach

Background

Executive functions can be adversely affected by contextual risks in the home environment including chaos and parenting challenges. Furthermore, household chaos negatively influences parenting practices. Few studies, however, have examined the role of parenting in the association between household chaos and child executive functions.

Methods

Using a sample of 128 school-aged children (mean = 61.9 months, SD = 2.0, range 58–68 months) and their mothers, the present study examined direct and indirect effects (via parental responsiveness) of household chaos on child executive functioning. Multi-measures were used including performance-based assessments, behavioural observations, questionnaires, and video-home tours.

Results

Household chaos had both a direct effect on child executive functions (β = − .31, 95% CI [− .58, − .04]) and an indirect effect (β = − .05, 95% [− .13, − .01]) via parental responsiveness. Further, the indirect effect was only significant for household instability.

Conclusion

These findings indicate that parental responsiveness may be compromised by household chaos, with implications for the executive functions of school-aged children. Preventative strategies are needed to improve the stability in the home and strengthen parenting practices.

Executive Functions in Social Context: Implications for Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Supporting Developmental Trajectories

Success in life is linked to executive functions, a collection of cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviors. Executive functions is an umbrella term related to cognitive control, self-control, and more. Variations in executive functioning predict concurrent success in schooling, relationships, and behavior, as well as important life outcomes years later. Such findings may suggest that certain individuals are destined for good executive functioning and success. However, environmental influences on executive function and development have long been recognized. Recent research in this tradition demonstrates the power of social contextual influences on children's engagement of executive functions. Such findings suggest new interpretations of why individuals differ in executive functioning and associated life outcomes, including across cultures and socioeconomic statuses. These findings raise fundamental questions about how best to conceptualize, measure, and support executive functioning across diverse contexts. Future research addressing real-world dynamics and computational mechanisms will elucidate how executive functioning emerges in the world.

Childcare Attendance and Academic Achievement at Age 16 Years

IMPORTANCE

Low school preparedness is linked to high school dropout, poor employment, and negative outcomes. Childcare attendance may increase school readiness and foster academic achievement.

OBJECTIVE

To explore whether childcare attendance was associated with academic achievement at the end of compulsory schooling (age 16 years in the UK), whether maternal education level was a moderator, and the benefit-cost ratio of childcare regarding productivity returns of academic achievement.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

In this cohort study, data were included from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) born from April 1991 to December 1992 and the UK National Pupil Database for examination results. Data on academic achievement at age 16 years were available for 11 843 participants. Data were collected from June 2006 to June 2008, and data were analyzed from September 2019 to May 2020.

EXPOSURES

On average, 3.7%, 5.9%, and 90.4% attended childcare full time, part time, and less than 10 hours per week, respectively. Maternal education was assessed by questionnaire during pregnancy. Analyses included weights for population representativeness and propensity score weights to account for parental selection into childcare.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Academic achievement was defined as no certificate, Level 1 General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE; limited training), or Level 2 GCSE (qualification for academic post-16 education; high school diploma equivalent). Lifetime productivity return estimates were withdrawn from previous economic analysis based on pupil's qualifications.

RESULTS

Of 14 541 children in the ALSPAC study, 8936 children had complete data on childcare attendance, academic achievement, and maternal education levels. Of these, 4499 (50.3%) were male. Attending childcare was associated with higher probabilities of obtaining a Level 1 or 2 GCSE qualification (Level 1: relative risk, 1.41; 95% CI, 1.16-1.73; Level 2: relative risk, 1.62; 95% CI, 1.30-2.01); however, this association was moderated by the child's maternal education level. When children of mothers with low education attended childcare, their probability of no GCSE qualification went from 28.9% (95% CI, 26.8-31.0) to 20.3% (95% CI, 18.0-22.8), whereas children of mothers with higher education had a probability of no qualification of less than 10% regardless of childcare attendance. The benefit-cost ratio for each £1 (US $1.40) invested in full-time childcare attendance for children of mothers with low education was £1.71 (95% CI, 1.03-2.45; US $2.39; 95% CI, 1.44-3.43) for those who reached a Level 2 GCSE qualification.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Promoting universal childcare with facilitated access for children of lower socioeconomic backgrounds deserves to be considered as a way to reduce the intergenerational transmission of low academic achievement.

Promoting better functioning among children exposed to high levels of family adversity: the protective role of childcare attendance

BACKGROUND

Children exposed to early adversity are vulnerable to cognitive impairments and externalizing behaviors. Attending childcare may, however, partly buffer this detrimental effect by providing social and cognitive stimulation in a secure environment. The aims of this study were (a) to determine whether the association between exposure to adversity and later externalizing behaviors is mediated by children's cognitive abilities, and (b) to examine if childcare attendance moderates this mediation-thereby highlighting a protective function of children's childcare attendance.

METHODS

Data come from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Children and Parents (N = 6,149). Exposure to adversity was assessed by maternal reports three times from the second trimester of the mother's pregnancy to the child's fourth year of age. Childcare attendance was assessed on four occasions between eight months and three years of age. Factors explaining differences in childcare attendance were controlled using propensity score weights. Children's cognitive abilities were assessed by the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children at eight years of age, and externalizing behaviors were reported by mothers using the Development and Well-Being Assessment interview at 10, 13, and 15 years of age.

RESULTS

Notably, lower cognitive abilities partly accounted for the higher levels of externalizing behaviors in adolescents exposed to adversity (B indirect effect = 0.02, 95% CI = 0.007-0.03, p < .01). Importantly, childcare attendance moderated this indirect effect. For children exposed to adversity, being in maternal care was associated with lower cognitive abilities which were related to higher levels of externalizing behaviors. On the contrary, for children exposed to adversity, attending childcare was associated with higher cognitive abilities which were linked to lower levels of externalizing behaviors.

CONCLUSIONS

Easily accessible community childcare may be a relatively low-cost public health strategy to prevent the emergence of externalizing behavioral problems in adolescence through its positive effects on cognitive abilities.

Early childhood education and care (ECEC) during COVID-19 boosts growth in language and executive function

High‐quality, centre‐based education and care during the early years benefit cognitive development, especially in children from disadvantaged backgrounds. During the COVID‐19 pandemic and its associated lockdowns, access to early childhood education and care (ECEC) was disrupted. We investigate how this period affected the developmental advantages typically offered by ECEC. Using parent‐report data from 189 families living in the UK, we explore associations between time spent in ECEC by 8‐to‐36‐month‐olds, their socioeconomic background, and their growth in language and executive functions between Spring and Winter 2020. Receptive vocabulary growth was greater in children who continued to attend ECEC during the period, with a stronger positive effect for children from less advantaged backgrounds. The growth of cognitive executive functions (CEFs) was boosted by ECEC attendance during the period, regardless of socioeconomic background. Our findings highlight the importance of high‐quality ECEC for the development of key skills and for levelling socioeconomic inequalities.

Examining the Effects of Changes in Classroom Quality on Within-Child Changes in Achievement and Behavioral Outcomes

This study examines whether changes in classroom quality predict within-child changes in achievement and behavioral problems in elementary school (ages spanning approximately 6-11 years old). Drawing on data from a longitudinal study of children in predominantly low-income, nonurban communities (n = 1,078), we relied on child fixed effects modeling, which controlled for stable factors that could bias the effects of classroom quality. In general, we found that changes in classroom quality had small and statistically nonsignificant effects on achievement and behavior. However, we found that moving into a high-quality classroom, particularly those rated as high in Classroom Organization, had positive effects on achievement and behavior for children with significant exposure to poverty in early life.

Household Chaos, Parental Responses to Emotion, and Child Emotion Regulation in Middle Childhood

Parents' responses to children's negative emotional states play a key role in the socialization of emotion regulation skills in childhood. Much of the prior research on child ER has focused on early development using cross-sectional designs. The current study addresses these gaps by using a longitudinal design to examine individual differences of ER at two times points in middle childhood. We examined the development of children's ER by testing hypotheses about the interplay of parent response to emotions and household chaos in the prediction of individual differences in children's ER. Participants were the mothers of children at 6 and 9 years of age among 224 families in a socioeconomically diverse sample that was part of an ongoing longitudinal study. Mothers completed questionnaires regarding themselves, their children, and their home environment. Mothers' reports of better child ER at both time points were positively associated with mothers' more supportive responses and negatively associated with mothers' less non-supportive responses, as well as lower household chaos. Chaos statistically moderated the link between non-supportive parental responses to emotion and child ER, but only at 6 years of age. The strength of the link between child ER and non-supportive parental responses to emotions was strong only at lower levels of household chaos. At the beginning of middle childhood, family processes linking parent responses to child emotions and children's developing ER may not function at higher levels of household chaos.

Results of the 3 Pillars Study (3PS), a relationship-based programme targeting parent-child interactions, healthy lifestyle behaviours, and the home environment in parents of preschool-aged children: A pilot randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Early childhood is a critical period for the development of obesity, with new approaches to prevent obesity in this age group needed. We designed and piloted the 3 Pillars Study (3PS), a healthy lifestyle programme informed by attachment theory for parents of preschool-aged children.

METHODS

A 2-arm, randomised controlled pilot study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of 3PS, a 6-week programme involving a half-day workshop plus 6-week access to a study website. The programme was designed to promote routines around healthy lifestyle behaviours, including sleep, limited screen use, and family meals, within the context of positive, reciprocal parent-child interactions. Parents (n = 54) of children aged 2-4 years who regularly exceeded screen use recommendations (≥1 hour per day), were randomised to the 3PS programme (n = 27) or a wait-list control group (n = 27). Child screen time at 6 weeks was the primary endpoint. Frequency of family meals, parent feeding practices, diet quality, sleep, Child Routine Inventory (to assess predictability of commonly occurring routines), and household chaos were also assessed. Study data were collected online at baseline, 6 weeks, and 12 weeks via REDCap.

RESULTS

No group differences were observed for changes from baseline in screen time (primary endpoint), feeding behaviour scores, Child Routine Inventory scores, or total night time sleep duration at 6 and 12 weeks, although all measures improved in the hypothesised direction in the 3PS group. Compared with controls, the intervention group demonstrated significant improvements from baseline in household chaos scores (i.e. a reduction in chaos) and a number of measures of sleep outcomes, indicating improved sleep continuity. The programme was highly acceptable to parents.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A relational approach appears promising as a novel way to promote healthy lifestyle behaviours associated with the prevention of childhood obesity in children aged 2-4 years. A larger study is warranted.

Effects of maternal depression and prenatal SSRI exposure on executive functions and susceptibility to household chaos in 6-year-old children: prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Maternal depressed mood during pregnancy may shape a child's adaptation to their environment and engagement in goal-directed behaviour such as executive functions. Whether everyday household context also alters executive functions in children with prenatal selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressant exposure remains to be determined.

AIMS

To examine the impact of prenatal depressed maternal mood and SSRI exposure on child executive functions and to determine whether these exposures shape a susceptibility to household chaos.

METHOD

A prospective cohort study of mothers and their children (118 mother-children dyads (47 SSRI-exposed, 71 non-exposed)) followed from the second trimester to 6 years. Regression models examined relationships between maternal depressed mood and household chaos on maternal report of child executive functions. Competitive-confirmatory regression models examined whether children were susceptible to household chaos or were positively influenced by less chaos.

RESULTS

Prenatal SSRI exposure, third-trimester maternal depressed mood and household chaos in a three-way interaction were associated with executive functions within a model of differential susceptibility. When household chaos was low, children of non-prenatally depressed mothers had better executive function than children of prenatally depressed mothers, regardless of whether the mothers were SSRI-treated. However, when household chaos was high, SSRI-exposed children of mothers who were not depressed during pregnancy had poorer executive functions at 6 years of age compared with SSRI-exposed children whose mothers were symptomatic during pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

The impact of household chaos depended on whether mothers were prenatally depressed and whether mothers were SSRI-treated.

Socioeconomic status and sleep in adolescence: The role of family chaos

Low socioeconomic status (SES) has been associated with poor sleep in youth, yet mechanisms underlying this association are not well-understood. The present study examined greater chaos as a mediator of associations between low SES and 2 indices of poor sleep. Two hundred fifty-two adolescents (53% girls; 66% White/European American, 34% Black/African American) participated in the 3-wave longitudinal study. The sample was socioeconomically diverse. At age 16, parents reported on 2 indices of SES: family income and perceived economic well-being. Adolescents reported on chaos within their family at age 17 and on 2 key sleep-wake processes-sleep quality and daytime sleepiness-at age 18. Family chaos functioned as a mediating or intervening variable in longitudinal associations between lower SES and both poorer sleep quality and greater daytime sleepiness. The findings suggest the potential utility of targeting family level processes that exemplify chaos, such as unpredictability, noise, and interruptions, to improve sleep among adolescents. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Children's Microsystems and Their Relationship to Stress and Executive Functioning

Microsystems are described as contexts formed by a subject, their roles, their interactions, and a specific physical space and time, such as housing and the school environment. Although several studies suggest the importance of studying this type of environment and its repercussion on children's development, in a Latin American context, few studies integrate the interaction of two primary settings in the development of executive functioning. The present study explores the effects of the quality of housing and school environments on the perception of stress, decision making, and planning among children. A total of 114 children (43% girls and 57% boys, M age = 10.57) from a primary school located in a community classified as poor participated in the study. The following was measured: the environmental quality of classrooms, housing, stress, and executive functioning of children. The results reveal a model linking environmental quality levels in children's homes and schools and executive functioning. We also obtain a mediating role of stress between microsystems and performance, finding a deficit in executive performance when children experienced higher levels of stress as a result of poor environmental quality both in their homes and in their schools.

Poverty, Caregiving, and HPA-Axis Activity in Early Childhood

The association between poverty and the activity of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis in early childhood is well established. Both ecological and transactional theories suggest that one way in which poverty may influence children's HPA-axis activity is through its effects on parents' behaviors, and over the past three decades a substantial literature has accumulated indicating that variations in these behaviors are associated with individual differences in young children's HPA-axis activity. More recent research suggests that non-parental caregiving behaviors are associated with HPA-axis activity in early childhood as well. Here we systematically review the literature on the association between both parental and non-parental caregiving behaviors in the context of poverty and the activity of the HPA-axis in early childhood. We conclude by noting commonalities across these two literatures and their implications for future research.

Magnitude and Chronicity of Environmental Smoke Exposure Across Infancy and Early Childhood in a Sample of Low-Income Children

INTRODUCTION

Infants and young children may be at an increased risk for second- and thirdhand exposure to tobacco smoke because of increased respiration rate and exposure to surface residue. However, relatively fewer studies have examined biomarkers of exposure (cotinine) in children under age 4 years. This study examines the magnitude and chronicity of exposure across early childhood among children from low-income families in order to better characterize contextual risk factors associated with exposure.

METHODS

A total of 1292 families were recruited in six nonurban counties of Pennsylvania and North Carolina. Cotinine was assayed from infant saliva at 6, 15, 24, and 48 months of age (N = 1218), and categorized as low (≤0.45 ng/mL), moderate (0.46-12 ng/mL), or high (≥12 ng/mL) at each time point. Categories were highly correlated across time. Latent class analysis was used to summarize patterns of exposure categories across time.

RESULTS

Magnitude of exposure in this sample was high, with approximately 12% of infants registering cotinine values at least 12 ng/mL, consistent with active smoking in adults. Greater exposure was associated with lower income, less education, more residential instability, and more instability in adult occupants in the home, whereas time spent in center-based day care was associated with lower exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

Young children from low-income, nonurban communities appear to bear a higher burden of secondhand smoke exposure than previous studies have reported. Results contribute to understanding populations at greater risk, as well as specific, potentially malleable, environmental factors that may be examined as direct contributors to exposure.

IMPLICATIONS

Results suggest that infants from low-income, nonurban families have higher risk for environmental smoke exposure than data from nationally representative samples. Predictors of exposure offer insights into specific factors that may be targeted for risk reduction efforts, specifically conditions of children's physical space. In addition to considering the increases in risk when an adult smoker lives in a child's home, families should also attend to the possible risk embedded within the home itself, such as residual smoke from previous occupants. For high-risk children, day care appears to mitigate the magnitude of exposure by providing extended time in a smoke-free environment.

The relationship between household chaos and child, parent, and family outcomes: a systematic scoping review

BACKGROUND

Household chaos, represented by the level of disorganisation or environmental confusion in the home, has been associated with a range of adverse child and family outcomes. This review aims to (1) identify how household chaos is measured, (2) chart study details of household chaos literature, and (3) map the existing literature with respect to the relationship between household chaos and child, parent, and family outcomes. We expect that this review will highlight the need to consider the importance of household chaos in child well-being research, particularly in those families where children may be more vulnerable to the adverse effects of household chaos.

METHODS

We searched five electronic databases (last updated September 1st 2018) in addition to Google Scholar, and identified publications via a 3-stage screening process, which was conducted by two researchers. Published studies were included if they investigated the association between household chaos and child, parent, or family outcomes. Research that investigated household chaos as a mediator or moderator, or that investigated how the relationship between household chaos and the outcome of interest was mediated or moderated, were also included.

RESULTS

One hundred twelve studies in 111 publications were included. The majority were conducted in the United States (n = 71), and used either cross-sectional (n = 60) or longitudinal (n = 49) study designs. Outcomes of interest were categorised into seven categories: (1) cognitive and academic (n = 16), (2) socio-emotional and behavioural (n = 60), (3) communication (n = 6), (4) parenting, family, and household functioning (n = 21), (5) parent outcomes (n = 6), (6) hormone (n = 8), and (7) physical health and health behaviours (n = 19). There was consistent evidence for significant correlations between household chaos and adverse outcomes across all seven categories in diverse populations with respect to age, disease status, and socio-economic status (SES).

CONCLUSION

There is consistent evidence for associations between household chaos and a number of adverse child, parent, and family-level outcomes. Household chaos may also help describe variations in outcomes between low SES and child development.

Maternal depressive symptoms and children's cognitive development: Does early childcare and child's sex matter?

BACKGROUND

Maternal depressive symptoms (MDS) have been associated with poorer child cognitive development. Some studies have shown that childcare attendance moderates associations between MDS and child behavior problems, but we do not know if this is the case for children's cognitive development. Furthermore, few studies have evaluated whether associations between MDS and child cognitive development differ for boys and girls at school entry.

METHODS

This study used data from a population-based cohort study (n = 1364) comprising well-validated measures of children's cognitive development including academic readiness and language development in kindergarten and reading and mathematics achievement in first grade. Information on MDS was collected repeatedly from the child's age of 5 months to 5 years and on childcare from 5 months to 4.5 years. Moderation analyses were conducted to evaluate the differential associations of MDS with children's outcomes depending on the type of childcare attended and the child's sex.

RESULTS

Childcare type or child's sex did not moderate associations between MDS and children's cognitive outcomes except for MDS being associated with lower scores on reading achievement in first grade for girls with a very small effect size (sr2 = .003). Childcare attendance was associated with higher scores for children's cognitive development, however these associations disappeared after adjusting for covariates including child, mother and family characteristics. Regardless of MDS and childcare type, boys had, even after adjusting for covariates, lower scores on academic readiness (sr2 = .029) and higher scores on mathematics achievement (sr2 = .004).

CONCLUSIONS

Children's cognitive development at school entry was more strongly associated with maternal education, children's age in kindergarten and number of months of schooling in first grade than MDS. Contrary to associations between MDS and child behavior problems, childcare attendance did not moderate associations between MDS and children's cognitive development at school entry.

The association between home chaos and academic achievement: The moderating role of sleep

The goal of this study was to understand the role young children's sleep plays in the association between their family environment and academic achievement (AA) by examining sleep as a moderator between home chaos (chaos) and children's AA. We examined this question in a sample of 103 kindergarteners and 1st graders. In the fall, parents reported on levels of chaos in their home. To measure sleep, early in the spring, children wore actigraphs for 5 consecutive school nights. Later in the spring, children completed standardized tests of achievement. Sleep duration, but not sleep efficiency, moderated relations between chaos and AA. Specifically, children with longer sleep durations (26% of the sample), compared to children with average or lower sleep durations, had significant negative associations between chaos and achievement, indicating that children in higher chaos homes had lower academic achievement. The findings enhance scholars' understanding of the relation between chaos and AA as well as highlight an important bioregulatory factor in the association between home family environment and children's academic outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Prenatal Risk Predicts Preschooler Executive Function: A Cascade Model

Little research has considered whether prenatal experience contributes to executive function (EF) development above and beyond postnatal experience. This study tests direct, mediated, and moderated associations between prenatal risk factors and preschool EF and IQ in a longitudinal sample of 1,292 children from the Family Life Project. A composite of prenatal risk factors (i.e., low birth weight, prematurity, maternal emotional problems, maternal prepregnancy obesity, and obstetric complications) significantly predicted EF and IQ at age 3, above quality of the postnatal environment. This relationship was indirect, mediated through infant general cognitive abilities. Quality of the postnatal home and child-care environments did not moderate the cascade model. These findings highlight the role of prenatal experience as a contributor to individual differences in cognitive development.

Chaos, danger, and maternal parenting in families: Links with adolescent adjustment in low- and middle-income countries

The current longitudinal study is the first comparative investigation across low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) to test the hypothesis that harsher and less affectionate maternal parenting (child age 14 years, on average) statistically mediates the prediction from prior household chaos and neighborhood danger (at 13 years) to subsequent adolescent maladjustment (externalizing, internalizing, and school performance problems at 15 years). The sample included 511 urban families in six LMICs: China, Colombia, Jordan, Kenya, the Philippines, and Thailand. Multigroup structural equation modeling showed consistent associations between chaos, danger, affectionate and harsh parenting, and adolescent adjustment problems. There was some support for the hypothesis, with nearly all countries showing a modest indirect effect of maternal hostility (but not affection) for adolescent externalizing, internalizing, and scholastic problems. Results provide further evidence that chaotic home and dangerous neighborhood environments increase risk for adolescent maladjustment in LMIC contexts, via harsher maternal parenting.

Promotion of Family Routines and Positive Parent-Child Interactions for Obesity Prevention: Protocol for the 3 Pillars Study Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

Childhood obesity is a challenging public health issue, with 30% of children aged 2 to 4 years classified as being overweight or obese in New Zealand. This is concerning, given that up to 90% of obese 3-year-old children are overweight or obese by the time they reach adolescence. Interventions that target this age range often fail to demonstrate long-term effectiveness and primarily focus on traditional weight-related behaviors, including diet and physical activity. However, research suggests that targeting nontraditional weight-related behaviors, such as sleep, screen time, and family meals, may be a more effective approach in this age group, given the immense challenges in changing traditional weight-related behaviors in the long term.

Objective

The aim of the proposed study was to develop and pilot the 3 Pillars Study (3PS), a 6-week program for parents of New Zealand toddlers and preschoolers aged 2 to 4 years to promote positive parent-child interactions during 3 family routines, specifically adequate sleep, regular family meals, and restricted screen time.

Methods

Screen time at the end of the 6-week program is the primary endpoint. The effects of the program on screen time, frequency of family meals, parent feeding practices, diet quality, and sleep duration will be piloted using a randomized controlled trial, with outcomes compared between the active intervention group and a wait-list control group at 6 weeks (at the end of the program) and 12 weeks (at final follow-up). We aim to recruit 50 participants (25 per arm). Eligibility criteria include parents of children aged 2 to 4 years who are currently exceeding screen use recommendations (ie, greater than 1 hour of screen time per day). The 3PS program involves a half-day workshop, run by a community worker trained to deliver the program content, and 6-week access to a study website that contains in-depth information about the program. All participants will also receive a study pack, which includes resources to encourage engagement in the 3 family routines promoted by the program. Study data will be collected in REDCap. All statistical analyses will be performed using SAS version 9.4 and have been specified a priori in a statistical analysis plan prepared by the study statistician.

Results

Trial recruitment opened in July 2018. Final follow-up was completed in December 2018, with trial findings expected to be available in early 2019.

Conclusions

Findings from this pilot study will provide relevant data to inform the design of a larger effectiveness study of the 3PS program.

Trial Registration

Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Register ACTRN12618000823279; https://www.anzctr.org. au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=375004 (Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation.org/773CALeTK)

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/12792

Risks for Child Cognitive Development in Rural Contexts

While poverty all over the world is more typical and extreme in rural contexts, interventions to improve cognition in low socioeconomic status (SES) children are for the most part based on studies conducted in urban populations. This paper investigate how poverty and rural or urban settings affect child cognitive performance. Executive functions and non-verbal intelligence performance, as well as individual and environmental information was obtained from 131 5-year-old children. For the same level of SES, children in rural settings performed consistently worse than children in urban settings. These differences could be accounted mostly by the months of past preschool attendance and the father's completed level of education. These results should inform policies and programs for children living in rural poverty worldwide, and specially in Latin America.

Attachment, household chaos, and children's health

INTRODUCTION

Despite growing interest in the links between sociocontextual factors and children's behavioral functioning, few studies have investigated how such factors, in combination, relate to health outcomes or vary across mental and physical well-being. We evaluated the direct and interactive associations of parental attachment and household chaos with preschool-age children's mental and physical health.

METHOD

Ninety-four parents completed questionnaires about their attachment styles, disorganization and confusion in the home, and their children's health functioning.

RESULTS

Attachment avoidance and anxiety in parents predicted poorer mental health in children, particularly in highly chaotic homes. Moreover, parental attachment anxiety, but not avoidance, predicted poorer reported physical health in children and, in conjunction with chaotic homes, more hospitalizations.

DISCUSSION

The results help illuminate how multiple domains in children's immediate environment jointly influence their physical and mental health and how these influences may vary across domains of functioning. Findings have implications for targeting interventions to have impact across facets of children's health. (PsycINFO Database Record

Chaotic home environment is associated with reduced infant processing speed under high task demands

Early adversity has profound long-term consequences for child development across domains. The effects of early adversity on structural and functional brain development were shown for infants under 12 months of life. However, the causal mechanisms of these effects remain relatively unexplored. Using a visual habituation task we investigated whether chaotic home environment may affect processing speed in 5.5 month-old infants (n=71). We found detrimental effects of chaos on processing speed for complex but not for simple visual stimuli. No effects of socio-economic status on infant processing speed were found although the sample was predominantly middle class. Our results indicate that chaotic early environment may adversely affect processing speed in early infancy, but only when greater cognitive resources need to be deployed. The study highlights an attractive avenue for research on the mechanisms linking home environment with the development of attention control.

Neuroscience of Childhood Poverty: Evidence of Impacts and Mechanisms as Vehicles of Dialog With Ethics

Several studies have identified associations between poverty and development of self-regulation during childhood, which is broadly defined as those skills involved in cognitive, emotional, and stress self-regulation. These skills are influenced by different individual and contextual factors at multiple levels of analysis (i.e., individual, family, social, and cultural). Available evidence suggests that the influences of those biological, psychosocial, and sociocultural factors on emotional and cognitive development can vary according to the type, number, accumulation of risks, and co-occurrence of adverse circumstances that are related to poverty, the time in which these factors exert their influences, and the individual susceptibility to them. Complementary, during the past three decades, several experimental interventions that were aimed at optimizing development of self-regulation of children who live in poverty have been designed, implemented, and evaluated. Their results suggest that it is possible to optimize different aspects of cognitive performance and that it would be possible to transfer some aspects of these gains to other cognitive domains and academic achievement. We suggest that it is an important task for ethics, notably but not exclusively neuroethics, to engage in this interdisciplinary research domain to contribute analyses of key concepts, arguments, and interpretations. The specific evidence that neuroscience brings to the analyses of poverty and its implications needs to be spelled out in detail and clarified conceptually, notably in terms of causes of and attitudes toward poverty, implications of poverty for brain development, and for the possibilities to reduce and reverse these effects.