Gender differences in fetal growth of newborns exposed prenatally to airborne fine particulate matter

Sources of personal PM2.5 exposure during pregnancy in the MADRES cohort

BACKGROUND

Personal exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is impacted by different sources each with different chemical composition. Determining these sources is important for reducing personal exposure and its health risks especially during pregnancy.

OBJECTIVE

Identify main sources and their contributions to the personal PM2.5 exposure in 213 women in the 3rd trimester of pregnancy in Los Angeles, CA.

METHODS

We measured 48-hr integrated personal PM2.5 exposure and analyzed filters for PM2.5 mass, elemental composition, and optical carbon fractions. We used the EPA Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) model to resolve and quantify the major sources of personal PM2.5 exposure. We then investigated bivariate relationships between sources, time-activity patterns, and environmental exposures in activity spaces and residential neighborhoods to further understand sources.

RESULTS

Mean personal PM2.5 mass concentration was 22.3 (SD = 16.6) μg/m3. Twenty-five species and PM2.5 mass were used in PMF with a final R2 of 0.48. We identified six sources (with major species in profiles and % contribution to PM2.5 mass) as follows: secondhand smoking (SHS) (brown carbon, environmental tobacco smoke; 65.3%), fuel oil (nickel, vanadium; 11.7%), crustal (aluminum, calcium, silicon; 11.5%), fresh sea salt (sodium, chlorine; 4.7%), aged sea salt (sodium, magnesium, sulfur; 4.3%), and traffic (black carbon, zinc; 2.6%). SHS was significantly greater in apartments compared to houses. Crustal source was correlated with more occupants in the household. Aged sea salt increased with temperature and outdoor ozone, while fresh sea salt was highest on days with westerly winds from the Pacific Ocean. Traffic was positively correlated with ambient NO2 and traffic-related NOx at residence. Overall, 76.8% of personal PM2.5 mass came from indoor or personal compared to outdoor sources.

IMPACT

We conducted source apportionment of personal PM2.5 samples in pregnancy in Los Angeles, CA. Among identified sources, secondhand smoking contributed the most to the personal exposure. In addition, traffic, crustal, fuel oil, fresh and aged sea salt sources were also identified as main sources. Traffic sources contained markers of combustion and non-exhaust wear emissions. Crustal source was correlated with more occupants in the household. Aged sea salt source increased with temperature and outdoor ozone and fresh sea salt source was highest on days with westerly winds from the Pacific Ocean.

Sex-specific effects of environmental temperature during gestation on fluctuating asymmetry in deciduous teeth

OBJECTIVES

External environmental heat exposure during gestation impacts the physiology of human development in utero, but evidence for these impacts has not yet been explored in dentition. We examined deciduous teeth for fluctuating asymmetry (FA), a measure of developmental instability, together with gestational environmental temperature data drawn from historical weather statistics.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We measured dental casts from the longitudinal Burlington Growth Study, representing 172 participants (ages 3-6 years) with health records. FA was calculated from crown dimensions and intercuspal distances that develop during gestation. Multiple regression separated by sex (nfemale = 81) examined the effects of mean temperatures in each trimester, controlling for birth year.

RESULTS

In females, increased temperatures during the first trimester are significantly associated with an increase in FA (p = 0.03), specifically during the second and third prenatal months (p = 0.03). There is no relationship between temperature and FA for either sex in the second or third trimesters, when enamel is formed.

DISCUSSION

Dental instability may be sensitive to temperature in the first trimester in females during the scaffolding of crown shape and size in the earliest stages of tooth formation. Sexual dimorphism in growth investment strategies may explain the differences in results between males and females. Using enduring dental characteristics, these results advance our understanding of the effects of temperature on fetal physiology within a discrete period.

Meta-analysis of fine particulate matter exposure during pregnancy and birth weight: Exploring sources of heterogeneity

BACKGROUND

Several meta-analyses assessed the relationship between exposure to PM with aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2.5 μm (PM2.5) during pregnancy and birth weight (BW), but results were inconsistent and substantial unexplained heterogeneity was reported. We aimed to investigate the above association and to explore sources of heterogeneity across studies.

METHODS

We systematically reviewed the current worldwide evidence examining the association between PM2.5 and BW. The review protocol was registered on the PROSPERO website (CRD42020188996) and followed PRISMA guidelines. We extracted association measures for BW and low birth weight (LBW, BW < 2500 g) from each study to evaluate pooled summary measures and to explore sources of between-study heterogeneity.

FINDINGS

Of the 2677 articles identified, 84 met the inclusion criteria (~42 M births). Our random effects meta-analyses revealed substantial heterogeneity among included studies (I2 = 98.4 % and I2 = 77.7 %, for BW and LBW respectively). For LBW, the heterogeneity decreased (I2 = 59.7 %) after excluding four outlying studies, with a pooled odds ratio 1.07 (95 % confidence interval, CI: 1.05, 1.09) per a 10-μg/m3 increase in mean PM2.5 exposure over the entire pregnancy. Further subgroup analysis revealed geographic heterogeneity with higher association in Europe (1.34, (1.16, 1.55)) compared to Asia (1.06, (1.03, 1.10)) and US (1.07, (1.04, 1.10)).

CONCLUSION

The association between PM2.5 and birth weight varied depending on several factors. The sources of heterogeneity between studies included modifiers such as study region and period. Hence, it is advisable not to pool summary measures of PM2.5-BW associations and that policy would be informed by local evidence.

Effects of in-utero personal exposure to PM2.5 sources and components on birthweight

In-utero exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and specific sources and components of PM2.5 have been linked with lower birthweight. However, previous results have been mixed, likely due to heterogeneity in sources impacting PM2.5 and due to measurement error from using ambient data. Therefore, we investigated the effect of PM2.5 sources and their high-loading components on birthweight using data from 198 women in the 3rd trimester from the MADRES cohort 48-h personal PM2.5 exposure monitoring sub-study. The mass contributions of six major sources of personal PM2.5 exposure were estimated for 198 pregnant women in the 3rd trimester using the EPA Positive Matrix Factorization v5.0 model, along with their 17 high-loading chemical components using optical carbon and X-ray fluorescence approaches. Single- and multi-pollutant linear regressions evaluated the association between personal PM2.5 sources/components and birthweight, adjusting for gestational age, maternal age, race, infant sex, parity, diabetes status, temperature, maternal education, and smoking history. Participants were predominately Hispanic (81%), with a mean (SD) gestational age of 39.1 (1.5) weeks and age of 28.2 (6.0) years. Mean birthweight was 3295.8 g (484.1) and mean PM2.5 exposure was 21.3 (14.4) µg/m3. A 1 SD increase in the mass contribution of the fresh sea salt source was associated with a 99.2 g decrease in birthweight (95% CI - 197.7, - 0.6), and aged sea salt was associated with a 70.1 g decrease in birthweight (95% CI - 141.7, 1.4). Magnesium, sodium, and chlorine were associated with lower birthweight, which remained after adjusting for PM2.5 mass. This study found evidence that major sources of personal PM2.5 including fresh and aged sea salt were negatively associated with birthweight, with the strongest effect on birthweight from Na and Mg. The effect of crustal and fuel oil sources differed by infant sex with negative associations seen in boys compared to positive associations in girls.

Personal exposure of PM2.5 and metabolic syndrome markers of pregnant women in South Korea: APPO study

We examined the association between exposure to PM2.5, focused on individual exposure level, and metabolic dysfunction during pregnancy. APPO study (Air Pollution on Pregnancy Outcome) was a prospective, multicenter, observational cohort study conducted from January 2021 to March 2023. Individual PM2.5 concentrations were calculated using a time-weighted average model. Metabolic dysfunction during pregnancy was assessed based on a modified definition of metabolic syndrome and its components, accounting for pregnancy-specific criteria. Exposure to PM2.5 during pregnancy was associated with worsened metabolic parameters especially glucose metabolism. In comparison to participants exposed to the low PM2.5 group, those exposed to high PM2.5 levels exhibited increased odds of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) after adjusting for confounding variables in different adjusted models. Specifically, in model 1, the adjusted odds ratio (aOR) was 3.117 with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of 1.234-7.870; in model 2, the aOR was 3.855 with a 95% CI of 1.255-11.844; in model 3, the aOR was 3.404 with a 95% CI of 1.206-9.607; and in model 4, the aOR was 2.741 with a 95% CI of 0.712-10.547. Exposure to higher levels of PM2.5 during pregnancy was associated with a tendency to worsen metabolic dysfunction markers specifically in glucose homeostasis. Further research is needed to investigate the mechanisms underlying the effects of ambient PM2.5 on metabolic dysfunction during pregnancy.

The mediation of the placenta on the association between maternal ambient temperature exposure and birth weight

Studies have indicated that exposure to low and high temperatures during pregnancy negatively affects fetal development. The placenta plays vital functions in fetal development and could also be impacted by suboptimal temperatures. However, whether the placenta mediates the association between suboptimal temperature and birth weight is unknown. Our study aims to evaluate the association between ambient temperature and birth weight as well as the mediation effect of the placenta. A prospective birth cohort study was conducted during 2017-2020 in Guangzhou, China (n = 3349 participants). We defined extreme temperature exposure during the whole pregnancy by using different thresholds, including low temperatures (< 25th, < 15th, < 10th, < 5th percentiles), and high temperatures (> 75th, > 85th, > 90th, > 95th percentiles). Three different approaches (generalized linear model, inverse probability weighting, and doubly robust model) were applied to estimate the effects of low/high temperatures on birth weight and placental indicators, including placental weight, placental volume, and placental-to-birth weight ratio (PFR), respectively. We observed that both low and high ambient temperatures during the whole pregnancy were associated with lower birth weight and negative changes in placental indicators. The estimated lower mean birth weight ranged from -158 g (95 % CI: -192 g, -123 g) to -363 g (95 % CI: -424 g, -301 g) for low temperatures and from -97 g (95 % CI: -135 g, -59 g) to -664 g (95 % CI: -742 g, -585 g) for high temperatures. In mediation analyses, placental weight mediated 28.79 % to 40.47 % and 48.22 % to 54.38 % of the association of low and high temperatures with birth weight, respectively. The findings suggest that placental weight may mediate the association between ambient temperature exposure and birth weight.

The effect of ambient air pollution on birth outcomes in Norway

BACKGROUND

Ambient air pollution can be harmful to the fetus even in countries with relatively low levels of pollution. Most of the established literature estimates the association between air pollution and health rather than causality. In this paper, I examine the causal effects of ambient air pollution on birth outcomes in Norway.

METHODS

With the large sample size and geographic division of sub-postal codes in Norway, I can control for a rich set of spatio-temporal fixed effects to overcome most of the endogeneity problems caused by the choice of residential area and date of delivery. After controlling for a rich set of spatio-temporal fixed effects, my paper uses the variance in ambient air pollutant concentrations over narrow time intervals and in a small geographic area of Norway to determine how prenatal air pollution exposure affects birth outcomes. My data contain extensive information about parents as well as meteorological conditions that can be used to control for potential confounding factors.

RESULTS

I find that prenatal exposure to ambient nitric oxide in the last trimester causes significant birth weight and birth length loss under the same sub-postcode fixed effects and calendar month fixed effects, whereas other ambient air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide appear to be at safe levels for the fetus in Norway. In addition, the marginal adverse effect of ambient nitric oxide is larger for newborns with disadvantaged parents. Both average concentrations of nitric oxide and occasional high concentration events can adversely affect birth outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal exposure to NO pollution has an adverse effect on birth outcomes. This suggests that government and researchers should pay more attention to examining NO pollution and that health care providers need to advise pregnant women about the risks of air pollution during pregnancy.

Effect of Particulate Matter 2.5 on Fetal Growth in Male and Preterm Infants through Oxidative Stress

Particulate matter 2.5 (PM2.5) levels are associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. In this retrospective cohort study, we examined whether the concentration of indoor PM2.5 affected pregnancy outcomes. Additionally, we evaluated biomarkers of pregnancy-related complications caused by fine dust. We collected clinical information and data based on residential addresses from the Air Korea database to assess PM2.5 exposure levels. As a multicenter prospective cohort study, we measured the indoor PM2.5 concentration and inflammatory and oxidative stress markers. The PM2.5 concentration of the low-birth-weight (LBW) delivery group was 27.21 μg/m3, which was significantly higher than that of the normal-birth-weight (NBW) group (26.23 μg/m3) (p = 0.02). When the newborns were divided by sex, the PM2.5 concentration of the LBW group was 27.89 μg/m3 in male infants, which was significantly higher than that of the NBW group (26.26 μg/m3) (p = 0.01). In the prospective study, 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine significantly increased in the high-concentration group (113.55 ng/mL, compared with 92.20 ng/mL in the low-concentration group); in the high-concentration group, the rates of preterm birth (PTB) and small size for gestational age significantly increased (p < 0.01, p = 0.01). This study showed an association between PM2.5, oxidative stress, and fetal growth, with the PTB group being more vulnerable.

Traffic-Related Air Pollution and Ultrasound Parameters of Fetal Growth in Eastern Massachusetts

Previous studies have examined the association between prenatal nitrogen dioxide (NO2)-a traffic emissions tracer-and fetal growth based on ultrasound measures. Yet, most have used exposure assessment methods with low temporal resolution, which limits the identification of critical exposure windows given that pregnancy is relatively short. Here, we used NO2 data from an ensemble model linked to residential addresses at birth to fit distributed lag models that estimated the association between NO2 exposure (resolved weekly) and ultrasound biometric parameters in a Massachusetts-based cohort of 9,446 singleton births from 2011-2016. Ultrasound biometric parameters examined included biparietal diameter (BPD), head circumference, femur length, and abdominal circumference. All models adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics, time trends, and temperature. We found that higher NO2 was negatively associated with all ultrasound parameters. The critical window differed depending on the parameter and when it was assessed. For example, for BPD measured after week 31, the critical exposure window appeared to be weeks 15-25; 10-parts-per-billion higher NO2 sustained from conception to the time of measurement was associated with a lower mean z score of -0.11 (95% CI: -0.17, -0.05). Our findings indicate that reducing traffic emissions is one potential avenue to improving fetal and offspring health.

Prenatal ambient air pollutants exposure and the risk of stillbirth in Wuhan, central of China

BACKGROUND

The existing studies on the relationships of prenatal ambient air pollutants exposure with stillbirth in the Chinese population are very limited and the results are inconsistent, and the susceptible windows and potential modifiers for air pollutants exposure on stillbirth remain unanswered.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to determine the relationships between exposure to ambient air pollutants and stillbirth, and explored the susceptible windows and potential modifiers for air pollutants exposure on stillbirth.

METHODS

A population-based cohort was established through the Wuhan Maternal and Child Health Management Information System involving 509,057 mother-infant pairs in Wuhan from January 1, 2011 through September 30, 2017. Personal exposure concentrations of fine particles (PM_2.5), inhalable particles (PM₁₀), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), and ozone (O₃) for mothers were estimated based on their residential address during pregnancy using the inverse distance weighted (IDW) method. We used the logistic regression models to determine the associations at different stages of pregnancy with adjustment for confounding factors.

RESULTS

There were 3218 stillbirths and 505,839 live births among the participants. For each 100 μg/m³ of CO and 10 μg/m³ of O₃ increase in the first trimester (conception to 13⁺⁶ weeks), the risk of stillbirth increased by 1.0% (OR = 1.01, 95%CI: 1.00-1.03) and 7.0% (OR = 1.07, 95%CI: 1.05-1.09). In the second trimester (14 weeks-27⁺⁶ weeks), PM_2.5, PM₁₀, CO, and O₃ exposure were closely related to the risk of stillbirth (P＜0.05). In the third trimester (28 weeks to delivery), for each 10 μg/m³ increase in exposure concentrations of PM_2.5, SO₂, and O₃, the risk of stillbirth increased by 3.4%, 5.9%, and 4.0%, respectively. O₃ exposure was positively relevant to the risk of stillbirth (OR = 1.11, 95%CI: 1.08-1.14) in the whole pregnancy. Exposure to NO₂ was not significantly associated with the risk of stillbirth. Stratified analyses also presented a stronger association among mothers with boy infant, living in rural areas, delivering between 2011 and 2013, and those without gestational hypertension and history of stillbirth.

CONCLUSION

This study provides evidence that maternal exposure to PM_2.5, PM₁₀, SO₂, CO, and O₃ were related to the increased risk of stillbirth. Both the second and third trimesters might be vital susceptible windows for stillbirth. Our findings expand the evidence base for the important impacts of air pollution on fetal growth.

Effects of In-Utero Personal Exposure to PM2.5 Sources and Components on Birthweight

Background

In-utero exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and specific sources and components of PM2.5 have been linked with lower birthweight. However, previous results have been mixed, likely due to heterogeneity in sources impacting PM2.5 and due to measurement error from using ambient data. Therefore, we investigated the effect of PM2.5 sources and their high-loading components on birthweight using data from 198 women in the 3rd trimester from the MADRES cohort 48-hour personal PM2.5 exposure monitoring sub-study.

Methods

The mass contributions of six major sources of personal PM2.5 exposure were estimated for 198 pregnant women in the 3rd trimester using the EPA Positive Matrix Factorization v5.0 model, along with their 17 high-loading chemical components using optical carbon and X-ray fluorescence approaches. Single- and multi-pollutant linear regressions were used to evaluate the association between personal PM2.5 sources and birthweight. Additionally, high-loading components were evaluated with birthweight individually and in models further adjusted for PM2.5 mass.

Results

Participants were predominately Hispanic (81%), with a mean (SD) gestational age of 39.1 (1.5) weeks and age of 28.2 (6.0) years. Mean birthweight was 3,295.8g (484.1) and mean PM2.5 exposure was 21.3 (14.4) μg/m3. A 1 SD increase in the mass contribution of the fresh sea salt source was associated with a 99.2g decrease in birthweight (95% CI: -197.7, -0.6), while aged sea salt was associated with lower birthweight (β =-70.1; 95% CI: -141.7, 1.4). Magnesium sodium, and chlorine were associated with lower birthweight, which remained after adjusting for PM2.5 mass.

Conclusions

This study found evidence that major sources of personal PM2.5 including fresh and aged sea salt were negatively associated with birthweight, with the strongest effect on birthweight from Na and Mg. The effect of crustal and fuel oil sources differed by infant sex with negative associations seen in boys compared to positive associations in girls.

Ambient temperature during pregnancy and fetal growth in Eastern Massachusetts, USA

BACKGROUND

Left unabated, rising temperatures pose an escalating threat to human health. The potential effects of hot temperatures on fetal health have been under-explored. Here, we examined the association between prenatal ambient temperature exposure and fetal growth measures in a Massachusetts-based pregnancy cohort.

METHODS

We used ultrasound measurements of biparietal diameter (BPD), head circumference (HC), femur length and abdominal circumference (AC), in addition to birthweight (BW), from 9446 births at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center from 2011 to 2016. Ultrasound scans were classified into three distinct gestational periods: 16-23 weeks, 24-31 weeks, 32+ weeks; and z-scores were created for each fetal growth measure using the INTERGROWTH-21st standards. We fitted distributed lag models to estimate the time-varying association between weekly temperature and fetal growth, adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics, seasonal and long-term trends, humidity and particulate matter (PM2.5).

RESULTS

Higher ambient temperature was associated with smaller fetal growth measures. The critical window of exposure appeared to be Weeks 1-20 for ultrasound parameters, and high temperatures throughout pregnancy were important for BW. Associations were strongest for head parameters (BPD and HC) in early to mid-pregnancy, AC late in pregnancy and BW. For example, a 5ºC higher cumulative temperature exposure was associated with a lower mean AC z-score of -0.26 (95% CI: -0.48, -0.04) among 24-31-Week scans, and a lower mean BW z-score of -0.32 (95% CI: -0.51, -0.12).

CONCLUSION

Higher temperatures were associated with impaired fetal growth. This has major health implications given that extreme temperatures are more common and escalating.

A preliminary analysis of global neonatal disorders burden attributable to PM2.5 from 1990 to 2019

BACKGROUND

Prenatal fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) exposure is related to various neonatal diseases (ND). However, data and studies assessing the neonatal disease burden caused by PM_2.5 at the global level are limited, especially comparing countries with various socioeconomic development levels. We, therefore, assessed three-decades spatiotemporal changes in neonatal disease burden from 1990 at a national level, combined with the socio-demographic index (SDI).

METHODS

We extracted statistics from the Global Burden of Disease Study database for this retrospective study, and analyzed differences in the age-standardized mortality rate (ASMR) of ND and five sub-causes related to PM_2.5 by gender, nationality, and SDI. To describe the trend of ASMR, the Joinpoint model was adopted to predict the annual percentage change (APC) and the average annual percentage changes (AAPCs). We executed the Gaussian process regression model to predict the relevance between SDI and ASMR.

RESULTS

The ND burden associated with PM_2.5 kept rising since 1990, especially in low-middle SDI regions, South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa, and the sex ratio of ASMR was >1 at the global level and all five SDI regions. The leading cause of death was neonatal preterm birth. The global ASMR level of ND was 2.09 per 100,000 population in 2019 and AAPCs was 0.91 (98 % CI: 0.28, 1.55) meanwhile AAPCs decreased with rising SDI levels. The decreasing trend of ASMR in ND was detected in regions with higher SDI, such as North America, Europe, and Australasia.

CONCLUSIONS

In the past three decades, the global burden of ND related to PM_2.5 has ascended considerably in lower SDI regions hence PM_2.5 is still considered a notable environmental hazard factor for newborn diseases.

PM2.5-related neonatal encephalopathy due to birth asphyxia and trauma: a global burden study from 1990 to 2019

Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) may increase the risk of neonatal encephalopathy due to birth asphyxia and trauma. However, little is known about the trends of PM_2.5-related neonatal encephalopathy burden under different levels of social and economic development. We studied the burden of PM_2.5-related neonatal encephalopathy due to birth asphyxia and trauma measured by the age-standardized mortality rate (ASMR) and the age-standardized disability-adjusted life years rate (ASDR), and its trends with the socio-demographic index (SDI) in 192 countries and regions from 1990 to 2019. This is a retrospective study using the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 (GBD2019) database. The age-standardized mortality rate (ASMR) and age-standardized disability-adjusted life years rate (ASDR) are used to measure the burden of PM_2.5-related neonatal encephalopathy in different countries and regions. The mortality rate (per 100 thousand) is used to evaluate the differences of PM_2.5-related neonatal encephalopathy burden in sex and age. The annual percentage changes (APCs) and the average annual percentage changes (AAPCs) are used to reflect the trends of PM_2.5-related neonatal encephalopathy burden over years (1990-2019) and are calculated using a Joinpoint model. The relationship of the socio-demographic index with the ASMR and ASDR is calculated using Gaussian process regression. In summary, the global burden of PM_2.5-related neonatal encephalopathy increased since 1990, especially in boys, early neonates, and regions with low-middle SDI. Globally, the ASMR and ASDR of PM_2.5-related neonatal encephalopathy burden in 2019 were 0.59 (95% CI: 0.40, 0.83) per 100,000 people and 52.59 (95% CI: 35.33, 73.67) per 100,000 people, respectively. From 1990 to 2019, the ASMR and ASDR of PM_2.5-related neonatal encephalopathy increased by 44.39% and 44.19%, respectively. The global average annual percentage changes of ASMR and ASDR were 1.3 (95% CI: 1.0, 1.6). The relationship between the socio-demographic index and the burden of PM_2.5-related neonatal encephalopathy presented negative correlation when the socio-demographic index was more than 0.60. Middle, high-middle, and high SDI regions had decreasing trends of PM_2.5-related neonatal encephalopathy, of which the AAPCs for both ASMR and ASDR ranged from - 0.3 to - 3.1. Besides improving the progress in national policy and the coverage rate of maternal and neonatal health care and facility-based delivery, air pollution control may also be a better way for countries with large and increasing amounts of exposure to PM_2.5 pollution to reduce neonatal encephalopathy. And our results also suggest that low and low-middle SDI countries should appropriately pay more attention to early newborns and boys.

Global, regional, and national burden of ambient and household PM2.5-related neonatal disorders, 1990-2019

Previous studies have shown a relationship between fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) exposure and an increased risk of neonatal disorders. Considering the huge burden of neonatal disorders, we assessed spatiotemporal trends of neonatal disorders burden caused by ambient and household PM_2.5 at the global, regional, and national levels from 1990 to 2019. The number, rate, and population attributable fraction (PAF) of ambient and household PM_2.5-related neonatal disorders disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) in 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2019 were obtained from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 to measure the related neonatal disorders burden by age, sex, subtype, and region. Estimated annual percentage change (EAPC) was estimated to quantify temporal trends. In 2019, approximately a fifth of the global neonatal disorders burden was attributable to PM_2.5 exposure, with 7.54% for ambient PM_2.5 and 13.23% for household PM_2.5. Although the global neonatal disorders burden attributable to household PM_2.5 has decreased substantially in the past 30 years, that attributable to ambient PM_2.5 has increased, especially in lower sociodemographic index (SDI) regions. The highest rate and PAF of ambient PM_2.5-related neonatal disorders DALYs in 2019 were in South Asia and East Asia, respectively, and the fastest increases were in Eastern Sub-Saharan Africa (for rate: EAPC = 2.55, 95% CI: 2.37-2.73) and South Asia (for PAF: EAPC = 3.88, 95% CI: 3.68-4.08). In addition, we found an inverted V-shaped between rates and PAFs of ambient PM_2.5-related neonatal disorders DALYs in 2019, as well as corresponding EAPCs, and SDI, while rates and PAFs of household PM_2.5-related neonatal disorders DALYs in 2019 were highly negatively correlated with SDI. In the past three decades, the global ambient PM_2.5-related neonatal disorders burden largely increased, especially in lower SDI regions. Comparatively, the household PM_2.5-related neonatal disorders burden decreased but still accounted for about two-thirds of the PM_2.5-related neonatal disease burden.

Early-life residential green spaces and traffic exposure in association with young adult body composition: a longitudinal birth cohort study of twins

BACKGROUND

Globally, the rapid increase of obesity is reaching alarming proportions. A new approach to reduce obesity and its comorbidities involves tackling the built environment. Environmental influences seem to play an important role, but the environmental influences in early life on adult body composition have not been thoroughly investigated. This study seeks to fill the research gap by examining early-life exposure to residential green spaces and traffic exposure in association with body composition among a population of young adult twins.

METHODS

As part of the East Flanders Prospective Twin Survey (EFPTS) cohort, this study included 332 twins. Residential addresses of the mothers at time of birth of the twins were geocoded to determine residential green spaces and traffic exposure. To capture body composition, body mass index, waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), waist circumference, skinfold thickness, leptin levels, and fat percentage were measured at adult age. Linear mixed modelling analyses were conducted to investigate early-life environmental exposures in association with body composition, while accounting for potential confounders. In addition, moderator effects of zygosity/chorionicity, sex and socio-economic status were tested.

RESULTS

Each interquartile range (IQR) increase in distance to highway was found associated with an increase of 1.2% in WHR (95%CI 0.2-2.2%). For landcover of green spaces, each IQR increase was associated with 0.8% increase in WHR (95%CI 0.4-1.3%), 1.4% increase in waist circumference (95%CI 0.5-2.2%), and 2.3% increase in body fat (95%CI 0.2-4.4%). Stratified analyses by zygosity/chorionicity type indicated that in monozygotic monochorionic twins, each IQR increase in land cover of green spaces was associated with 1.3% increase in WHR (95%CI 0.5-2.1%). In monozygotic dichorionic twins, each IQR increase in land cover of green spaces was associated with 1.4% increase in waist-circumference (95%CI 0.6-2.2%).

CONCLUSIONS

The built environment in which mothers reside during pregnancy might play a role on body composition among young adult twins. Our study revealed that based on zygosity/chorionicity type differential effects of prenatal exposure to green spaces on body composition at adult age might exist.

Cannabis use in pregnancy and maternal and infant outcomes: A Canadian cross-jurisdictional population-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

With the recent legalization of cannabis in Canada, there is an urgent need to understand the effect of cannabis use in pregnancy. Our population-based study investigated the effects of prenatal cannabis use on maternal and newborn outcomes, and modification by infant sex.

METHODS

The cohort included 1,280,447 singleton births from the British Columbia Perinatal Data Registry, the Better Outcomes Registry & Network Ontario, and the Perinatal Program Newfoundland Labrador from April 1st, 2012 to March 31st, 2019. Logistic regression determined the associations between prenatal cannabis use and low birth weight, small-for-gestational age, large-for-gestational age, spontaneous and medically indicated preterm birth, very preterm birth, stillbirth, major congenital anomalies, caesarean section, gestational diabetes and gestational hypertension. Models were adjusted for other substance use, socio-demographic and-economic characteristics, co-morbidities. Interaction terms were included to investigate modification by infant sex.

RESULTS

The prevalence of cannabis use in our cohort was approximately 2%. Prenatal cannabis use is associated with increased risks of spontaneous and medically indicated preterm birth (1.80[1.68-1.93] and 1.94[1.77-2.12], respectively), very preterm birth (1.73[1.48-2.02]), low birth weight (1.90[1.79-2.03]), small-for-gestational age (1.21[1.16-1.27]) and large-for-gestational age (1.06[1.01-1.12]), any major congenital anomaly (1.71[1.49-1.97]), caesarean section (1.13[1.09-1.17]), and gestational diabetes (1.32[1.23-1.42]). No association was found for stillbirth or gestational hypertension. Only small-for-gestational age (p = 0.03) and spontaneous preterm birth (p = 0.04) showed evidence of modification by infant sex.

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal cannabis use increases the likelihood of preterm birth, low birth weight, small-for-gestational age and major congenital anomalies with prenatally exposed female infants showing evidence of increased susceptibility. Additional measures are needed to inform the public and providers of the inherent risks of cannabis exposure in pregnancy.

In-utero personal exposure to PM2.5 impacted by indoor and outdoor sources and birthweight in the MADRES cohort

BACKGROUND

In-utero exposure to outdoor particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm (PM_2.5) is linked with low birthweight. However, previous results are mixed, likely due to measurement error introduced by estimating personal exposure from ambient data. This study investigated the effect of total personal PM_2.5 exposure on birthweight and whether it differed when it was more heavily impacted by sources of indoor vs outdoor origin in the MADRES cohort study.

METHODS

Personal PM_2.5 exposure was measured in 205 pregnant women in the 3rd trimester using 48 h integrated, filter-based sampling. Linear regression was used to test the association between personal PM_2.5 exposure and birthweight, adjusting for key covariates. Interactions of PM_2.5 with variables representing indoor sources of PM_2.5, home ventilation, or time spent indoors tested whether the effect of total PM_2.5 on birthweight varied when it was more impacted by sources of indoor vs outdoor origin.

RESULTS

In a sample of largely Hispanic (81%) pregnant women, total personal PM_2.5 was not significantly associated with birthweight (β = 38.6 per 1SD increase in PM_2.5; 95% CI:-21.1, 98.2). This association however, differed by home type (single family home: 156.9 (26.9, 287.0), 2-4 attached units:-16.6 (-111.9, 78.7), 5+ units:-62.6 (-184.9, 59.6), missing: 145.4 (-4.1, 294.9), interaction p = 0.028) and by household air conditioner use (none of the time: -27.6 (-101.5, 46.3) vs. some of the time: 139.9 (42.9, 237.0), interaction p = 0.008) Additionally, the effect of personal PM_2.5 on birthweight varied by time spent indoors (none or little of the time: - 45.1 (-208.3, 118.1) vs. most or all of the time: 57.1 (-7.3, 121.6), interaction p = 0.255).

CONCLUSIONS

While no significant association between total personal PM_2.5 exposure and birthweight was found, there was evidence that multi-unit housing (vs. single-family homes), candle and/or incense smoke, and greater outdoor source contributions to personal PM_2.5 were more strongly associated with lower birthweight.

Association of prenatal exposure to ambient air pollution with adverse birth outcomes and effect modification by socioeconomic factors

BACKGROUND

Maternal exposure to air pollution has been associated with birth outcomes; however, few studies examined biologically critical exposure windows shorter than trimesters or potential effect modifiers.

OBJECTIVES

To examine associations of prenatal fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), by trimester and in biologically critical windows, with birth outcomes and assess potential effect modifiers.

METHODS

This study used two pregnancy cohorts (CANDLE and TIDES; N = 2099) in the ECHO PATHWAYS Consortium. PM_2.5 was estimated at the maternal residence using a fine-scale spatiotemporal model, averaged over pregnancy, trimesters, and critical windows (0-2 weeks, 10-12 weeks, and last month of pregnancy). Outcomes were preterm birth (PTB, <37 completed weeks of gestation), small-for-gestational-age (SGA), and continuous birthweight. We fit multivariable adjusted linear regression models for birthweight and Poisson regression models (relative risk, RR) for PTB and SGA. Effect modification by socioeconomic factors (maternal education, household income, neighborhood deprivation) and infant sex were examined using interaction terms.

RESULTS

Overall, 9% of births were PTB, 10.4% were SGA, and mean term birthweight was 3268 g (SD = 558.6). There was no association of PM_2.5 concentration with PTB or SGA. Lower birthweight was associated with higher PM_2.5 averaged over pregnancy (β -114.2, 95%CI -183.2, -45.3), during second (β -52.9, 95%CI -94.7, -11.2) and third (β -45.5, 95%CI -85.9, -5.0) trimesters, and the month prior to delivery (β -30.5, 95%CI -57.6, -3.3). Associations of PM_2.5 with likelihood of SGA and lower birthweight were stronger among male infants (p-interaction ≤0.05) and in those with lower household income (p-interaction = 0.09).

CONCLUSIONS

Findings from this multi city U.S. birth cohort study support previous reports of inverse associations of birthweight with higher PM_2.5 exposure during pregnancy. Findings also suggest possible modification of this association by infant sex and household income.

The effect and its critical window for ambient temperature and humidity in pregnancy on term low birth weight

As common meteorological factors in daily life, there is limited evidence for the effect of ambient temperature and humidity during pregnancy on the risk of term low birth weight. Furthermore, little is known about the interaction of ambient temperature and humidity on TLBW. The objective of the study was to explore the effect of ambient temperature, humidity during pregnancy, and their interaction on the risk of TLBW and, moreover, to identify exposure critical window. We recruited 6640 infants and their mothers to build a birth cohort study in Jinan City, China, from January 2018 to December 2019. The associations between temperature and humidity during pregnancy and TLBW were estimated by generalized additive model, logistic regression model, and interaction analysis, and the critical window was identified by the distributed lag non-linear model. The incidence of TLBW was 1.36% for the infants in the birth cohort. TLBW was related to the low level of temperature and humidity in the whole pregnancy, compared with the moderate level and the adjusted ORs were 4.44 (1.65-11.42) and 6.23 (1.92-21.39), respectively. The indicators of the interaction analysis of temperature and humidity were not statistically significant. For the low level of humidity, the association with TLBW was statistically significant at first to sixth gestational weeks, and the maximum OR in male infants (3.95, 1.70-9.16) was higher than that in females (1.96, 1.06-3.63). For the low level of temperature, we failed to find significant association with TLBW at each gestational week. The low level of temperature and humidity during pregnancy could increase the risk of TLBW. There was no statistical interaction between temperature and humidity on TLBW. Moreover, the early stage of pregnancy was the critical window for humidity exposure, in which the boys had a greater effect.

Exposure to Traffic Density during Pregnancy and Birth Weight in a National Cohort, 2000-2017

The variation on birth weight is associated with several outcomes early on in life and low birth weight (LBW) increases the risk of morbidity and mortality. Some environmental exposures during pregnancy, such as particulate matters and other traffic-related pollutants can have a significant effect on pregnant women and fetuses. The aim of this study is to estimate the effect of exposure to traffic density during pregnancy over birth weight in Spain, from 2000-2017. This was a retrospective, cross-sectional study using the information from Spain Birth Registry Statistics database. The traffic density was measured using the Annual average daily traffic. Multivariate linear regression models using birth weight and traffic density were performed, as well as a logistic regression model to estimated Odds ratios for LBW and GAM models to evaluate the non-linear effect. Our findings showed that increases in traffic density were associated with reduction of birth weight and increases of LBW risk. Moreover, exposure to high and very-high traffic-density during pregnancy were associated with reduction of birth weight and increase on LBW risk comparing with exposure to low number of cars trespassing the neighborhoods. The results of this study agree with previous literature and highlights the need of effective policies for reducing traffic density in residential neighborhoods of cities and towns.

Mother-level random effect in the association between PM2.5 and fetal growth: A population-based pregnancy cohort

BACKGROUND

A growing body of literature reports associations between exposure to particulate matter with diameter ≤2.5 μm (PM_2.5) during pregnancy and birth outcomes. However, findings are inconsistent across studies.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the association between PM_2.5 and birth outcomes of fetal growth in a cohort with high prevalence of siblings by multilevel models accounting for geographical- and mother-level correlations.

METHODS

In Israel, we used Maccabi Healthcare Services data to establish a population-based cohort of 381,265 singleton births reaching 24-42 weeks' gestation and birth weight of 500-5000 g (2004-2015). Daily PM_2.5 predictions from a satellite-based spatiotemporal model were linked to the date of birth and maternal residence. We generated mean PM_2.5 values for the entire pregnancy and for exposure periods during pregnancy. Associations between exposure and birth outcomes were modeled by using multilevel logistic regression with random effects for maternal locality of residence, administrative census area (ACA) and mother.

RESULTS

In fully adjusted models with a mother-level random intercept only, a 10-μg/m³ increase in PM_2.5 over the entire pregnancy was positively associated with term low birth weight (TLBW) (Odds ratio, OR = 1.25, 95% confidence interval, CI: 1.09,1.43) and small for gestational age (SGA) (OR = 1.15, 95% CI: 1.06,1.26). Locality- and ACA-level effects accounted for <0.4% of the variance while mother-level effects explained ∼50% of the variability. Associations varied by exposure period, infants' sex, birth order, and maternal pre-pregnancy BMI.

CONCLUSIONS

Consideration of mother-level variability in a region with high fertility rates provides new insights on the strength of associations between PM_2.5 and birth outcomes.

Adsorption of NO, NO2 and H2O in divalent cation faujasite type zeolites: a density functional theory screening approach

Emissions of diesel exhaust gas in confined work environments are a major health and safety concern, because of exposition to nitrogen oxides (NO_x). Removal of these pollutants from exhaust gas calls for engineering of an optimum sorbent for the selective trapping of NO and NO₂ in the presence of water. To this end, periodic density functional theory calculations along with a recent dispersion correction scheme, namely the Tkatchenko-Scheffler scheme coupled with iterative Hirshfeld partitioning TS/HI, were performed to investigate the interactions between NO, NO₂, H₂O and a series of divalent cation (Be²⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Sr²⁺, Ba²⁺, Fe²⁺, Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺, Pd²⁺, and Pt²⁺) faujasites. This enabled the identification of the optimum zeolites to selectively capture NO_x in the presence of H₂O, with respect to two important criteria, such as thermodynamic affinity and regeneration. Our results revealed that Pt²⁺ and Pd²⁺ containing faujasites are the best candidates for effective capture of both NO and NO₂ molecules, which paves the way towards the use of these sorbents to address this challenging application.

Associations of Ambient Fine Particulate Matter and Its Chemical Constituents with Birth Weight for Gestational Age in China: A Nationwide Survey

This study examined the associations of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and its chemical constituents with risks of small for gestational age (SGA) and large for gestational age (LGA). Based on the China Labor and Delivery Survey, we included 70,206 birth records from 24 provinces in China. Concentrations of PM_2.5 mass and six main constituents were estimated using satellite-based models. Logistic regression analysis was used to examine the associations, adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics and time trends. We found that an interquartile range increase in PM_2.5 exposure during pregnancy was associated with 16% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 3-30%) and 11% (95% CI: 1-22%) higher risk of SGA and LGA, respectively. Elevated risk of SGA was associated with exposure to black carbon [odds ratio (OR) = 1.15, 95% CI: 1.00-1.32], ammonium (OR = 1.12, 95% CI: 1.01-1.25), and sulfate (OR = 1.12, 95% CI: 1.04-1.21); while increased risk of LGA was associated with exposure to black carbon (OR = 1.13, 95% CI: 1.02-1.26), ammonium (OR = 1.13, 95% CI: 1.03-1.24), sulfate (OR = 1.08, 95% CI: 1.01-1.15), and nitrate (OR = 1.14, 95% CI: 1.03-1.27). Our findings provide evidence that PM_2.5 exposure was associated with increased risks of SGA and LGA, and constituents related to emissions from anthropogenic sources may play important roles in these associations.

PM2.5-Related Neonatal Infections: A Global Burden Study from 1990 to 2019

Background: Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) may increase the risk of neonatal infections. To show the effects of PM2.5 on neonatal infections as well as the trends of the effect, we studied the burden measured by the age-standardized mortality rate (ASMR) and the age-standardized disability-adjusted life years rate (ASDR) and its trends with the socio-demographic index in 192 countries and regions from 1990 to 2019. Methods: This is a retrospective study that uses the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 database. The age-standardized mortality rate and age-standardized disability-adjusted life years rate are used to measure the burden of PM2.5-related neonatal infections in different countries and regions. The annual percentage changes and the average annual percentage changes are used to reflect the trends over the years (1990–2019) and are calculated using a Joinpoint model. The relationship of the socio-demographic index with the ASMR and ASDR is calculated and described using Gaussian process regression. Results: With the rapid increase in the global annual average of PM2.5, the global burden of PM2.5-related neonatal infections has increased since 1990, especially in early neonates, boys, and low-middle SDI regions. Globally, the ASMR and ASDR of PM2.5-related neonatal infections in 2019 were 0.21 (95% CI: 0.14, 0.31) and 19.06 (95% CI: 12.58, 27.52) per 100,000 people, respectively. From 1990 to 2019, the ASMR and ASDR increased by 72.58% and 73.30%, and their average annual percentage changes were 1.9 (95% CI: 1.3, 2.6) and 2.0 (95% CI: 1.3, 2.6), respectively. When the socio-demographic index was more than 0.60, it was negatively related to the burden of PM2.5-related neonatal infections. Surprisingly, the burden in low SDI regions was lower than it was in low-middle and middle SDI regions, while high-middle and high-SDI regions showed decreasing trends. Interpretation: Boys bore a higher PM2.5-related neonatal burden, with male fetuses being more likely to be affected by prenatal exposure to PM2.5 and having less of a biological survival advantage. Poverty was the root cause of the burden. Higher SDI countries devoted more resources to improving air quality, the coverage of medical services, the accessibility of institutional delivery, and timely referral to reduce the disease burden. The burden in low SDI regions was lower than that in low-middle and middle SDI regions. One reason was that the benefits of medical services were lower than the harm to health caused by environmental pollution in low-middle and middle SDI regions. Moreover, the underreporting of data is more serious in low SDI countries. Conclusions: In the past 30 years, the global burden of PM2.5-related neonatal infections has increased, especially in early neonates, boys, and low-middle SDI regions. The huge difference compared to higher SDI countries means that lower SDI countries have a long way to go to reduce the disease burden. Policy makers should appropriately allocate medical resources to boys and early newborns and pay more attention to data under-reporting in low SDI countries. In addition, it is very necessary to promulgate policies to prevent and control air pollution in countries with large and increasing exposure to PM2.5 pollution.

Associations of perinatal exposure to PM2.5 with gestational weight gain and offspring birth weight

BACKGROUND

PM_2.5 have been associated with weight change in animal models and non-pregnant populations. Evidence of associations between PM_2.5 and gestational weight gain (GWG), an important determinant of course and outcomes of pregnancy, and subsequent birth outcomes is limited.

METHODS

The study was conducted among a subset of participants from the Omega Study, a prospective pregnancy cohort. Exposure to PM_2.5 (μg/m³) was ascertained for participants (N = 855) based on their residential address using a validated national spatiotemporal model. Adjusted multivariable linear regression models were used to estimate associations of trimester-specific and pregnancy-month PM_2.5 exposures with early (<20 weeks gestation), late (≥20 weeks gestation), and total GWG and infant birth weight. Stratified models and product terms were used to examine whether pre-pregnancy BMI (ppBMI) and infant sex modified the associations.

RESULTS

Average monthly PM_2.5 exposure during the first, second, and third trimesters were 7.3 μg/m³, 7.9 μg/m³, and 7.7 μg/m³, respectively. Higher third trimester PM_2.5 exposure was associated with higher late (0.40 kg per 5 μg/m (McDowell et al., 2018); 95%CI: 0.12, 0.67) and total (0.35 kg; 95%CI: 0.01, 0.70) GWG among participants with normal ppBMI. Higher second month PM_2.5 exposure was associated with lower early (-0.70 kg; 95%CI: 1.22, -0.18), late (-0.84 kg; 95% CI: 1.54, -0.14), and total (-1.70 kg; 95%CI: 2.57, -0.82) GWG among participants with overweight/obese ppBMI. Product terms between PM_2.5 and ppBMI were significant for second month PM_2.5 exposure and early (p-value = 0.01) and total GWG (p-value<0.01). Higher third trimester PM_2.5 exposure was associated with higher birth weight, though higher fourth month PM_2.5 exposure was associated with lower birth weight, particularly among those with normal ppBMI and male infants.

CONCLUSIONS

Associations of PM_2.5 with GWG vary by exposure window and ppBMI, while associations of PM_2.5 with birth weight potentially vary by exposure window, ppBMI and infant sex. Further exploration of associations between PM_2.5 and maternal/child health outcomes are needed.

Maternal Exposure to Air Pollution Is Associated with Neonatal Jaundice: A Retrospective Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the association between maternal ambient pollutant exposure and neonatal jaundice in multiple pollutant species and examine sex differences.

STUDY DESIGN

Epidemiologic study: Records of 13 297 newborns (6153 male, 7144 female) born in Taichung, Taiwan were obtained from a national database. Average concentrations of prenatal air pollutants 3 months prior to birth were divided into low, middle, and high levels. Neonatal jaundice phototherapy rates between mothers who suffered varying air pollutant levels were compared. Clinical study: Three hundred seventy-six newborns (189 male, 187 female) born and received jaundice treatment with phototherapy in a hospital in Taichung, Taiwan were recruited. The correlation between prenatal exposure to air pollutants 3 months prior to birth, newborn's serum bilirubin, and serum hemoglobin were calculated.

RESULTS

Epidemiologic study: Male newborns born to mothers exposed to high carbon monoxide (CO), nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and methane (CH₄) levels had higher phototherapy rates. In female newborns, the same was noted for CO and CH₄. Clinical study: Male newborns had a positive correlation between CO, ≤2.5 μm diameter particles, ≤10 μm diameter particles, NO, NO₂, nonmethane hydrocarbon, and CH₄ exposure 3 months prior to birth and serum bilirubin levels. Female newborns had a positive correlation for CH₄. A positive correlation between CO, ≤2.5 μm diameter particles, ≤10 μm diameter particles, NO₂, nonmethane hydrocarbon, CH₄ exposure, and serum hemoglobin levels was noted in male newborns.

CONCLUSION

Maternal exposure to air pollutants may increase neonatal jaundice treatment rates for phototherapy and higher neonatal serum total bilirubin level. Higher hemoglobin levels because of higher pollutant exposures may explain our findings. The association was more obvious in male newborns.

Maternal exposure to ambient PM2.5 and term birth weight: A systematic review and meta-analysis of effect estimates

Effect estimates of prenatal exposure to ambient PM_2.5 on change in grams (β) of birth weight among term births (≥37 weeks of gestation; term birth weight, TBW) vary widely across studies. We present the first systematic review and meta-analysis of evidence regarding these associations. Sixty-two studies met the eligibility criteria for this review, and 31 studies were included in the meta-analysis. Random-effects meta-analysis was used to assess the quantitative relationships. Subgroup analyses were performed to gain insight into heterogeneity derived from exposure assessment methods (grouped by land use regression [LUR]-models, aerosol optical depth [AOD]-based models, interpolation/dispersion/Bayesian models, and data from monitoring stations), study regions, and concentrations of PM_2.5 exposure. The overall pooled estimate involving 23,925,941 newborns showed that TBW was negatively associated with PM_2.5 exposure (per 10 μg/m³ increment) during the entire pregnancy (β = -16.54 g), but with high heterogeneity (I² = 95.6%). The effect estimate in the LUR-models subgroup (β = -16.77 g) was the closest to the overall estimate and with less heterogeneity (I² = 18.3%) than in the other subgroups of AOD-based models (β = -41.58 g; I² = 95.6%), interpolation/dispersion models (β = -10.78 g; I² = 86.6%), and data from monitoring stations (β = -11.53 g; I² = 97.3%). Even PM_2.5 exposure levels of lower than 10 μg/m³ (the WHO air quality guideline value) had adverse effects on TBW. The LUR-models subgroup was the only subgroup that obtained similar significant of negative associations during the three trimesters as the overall trimester-specific analyses. In conclusion, TBW was negatively associated with maternal PM_2.5 exposures during the entire pregnancy and each trimester. More studies based on relatively standardized exposure assessment methods need to be conducted to further understand the precise susceptible exposure time windows and potential mechanisms.

Exposure to PM2.5 during Pregnancy and Fetal Growth in Eastern Massachusetts, USA

BACKGROUND

Prior studies have examined the association between fine particulate matter [PM ≤2.5μm in aerodynamic diameter (PM2.5)] and fetal growth with either limited spatial or temporal resolution.

OBJECTIVES

In this study, we examined the association between PM2.5 exposure during pregnancy and fetal growth measures (ultrasound parameters and birth weight) in a pregnancy cohort using spatiotemporally resolved PM2.5 in Eastern Massachusetts, USA.

METHODS

We used ultrasound measures of biparietal diameter (BPD), head circumference, femur length, and abdominal circumference (AC), in addition to birth weight, from 9,446 pregnancies that were delivered at the Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center from 2011-2016. We used linear mixed-effects models to examine the associations of PM2.5 in two exposure windows (the first 16 wk of pregnancy and the cumulative exposure up until the assessment of fetal growth) with anatomic scans (ultrasound measures at<24 wk), growth scans (ultrasound measures at≥24wk), and birth weight. All models were adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics, long-term trends, and temperature.

RESULTS

Higher PM2.5 exposure in the first 16 wk was associated with smaller fetal growth measures, where associations were particularly strong for BPD, AC, and birth weight. For example, a 5-μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 was associated with a lower mean BPD z-score of -0.19 (95% CI: -0.31, -0.06) before 24 wk, a lower mean AC z-score of -0.15 (95% CI: -0.28, -0.01) after 24 wk, and a lower mean birth weight z-score of -0.11 (95% CI: -0.20, -0.01). Analyses examining the associations with cumulative PM2.5 exposure up until the assessment of fetal growth produced attenuated associations.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher gestational exposure to PM2.5 was associated with smaller fetal growth measures at levels below the current national standards. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP9824.

Maternal exposure to indoor PM2.5 and associated adverse birth outcomes in low socio-economic households, Durban, South Africa

The association between in utero exposure to indoor PM_2.5 and birth outcomes is not conclusive. We assessed the association between in utero exposure to indoor PM_2.5 , birth weight, gestational age, low birth weight, and/or preterm delivery. Homes of 800 pregnant women were assessed using a structured walkthrough questionnaire. PM_2.5 measurements were undertaken in 300 of the 800 homes for a period of 24 h. Repeated sampling was conducted in 30 of these homes to determine PM_2.5 predictors that can reduce within-and/or between-home variability. A predictive model was used to estimate PM_2.5 levels in unmeasured homes (n = 500). The mean (SD) for PM_2.5 was 37 µg/m³ (29) with a median of 28µg/m³ . The relationship between PM_2.5 exposure, birth weight, gestational age, low birth weight, and preterm delivery was assessed using multivariate linear and logistic regression models. We explored infant sex as a potential effect modifier, by creating an interaction term between PM_2.5 and infant sex. The odds ratio of low birth weight and preterm delivery was 1.75 (95%CI: 1.47, 2.09) and 1.21 (95%CI: 1.06, 1.39), respectively, per interquartile increase (18 µg/m³ ) in PM_2.5 exposure. The reduction in birth weight and gestational age was 75 g (95%CI: 107.89, 53.15) and 0.29 weeks (95%CI: 0.40, 0.19) per interquartile increase in PM_2.5 exposure. Infant sex was an effect modifier for PM_2.5 on birth weight and gestational age, and the reduction in birth weight and gestational age was 103 g (95%CI: 142.98, 64.40) and 0.38 weeks (95% CI: 0.53, 0.23), respectively, for boys, and 54 g (95%CI: 91.78,15.62) and 0.23 weeks (95%CI:0.37, 0.08), respectively, for girls. Exposure to PM_2.5 is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. To protect the population during their reproductive period, public health policy should focus on indoor PM_2.5 levels.

Lung developmental is altered after inhalation exposure to various concentrations of calcium arsenate

Exposure to dust from active and abandoned mining operations may be a very significant health hazard, especially to sensitive populations. We have previously reported that inhalation of real-world mine tailing dusts during lung development can alter lung function and structure in adult male mice. These real-world dusts contain a mixture of metal(loid)s, including arsenic. To determine whether arsenic in inhaled dust plays a role in altering lung development, we exposed C57Bl/6 mice to a background dust (0 arsenic) or to the background dust containing either 3% or 10% by mass, calcium arsenate. Total level of exposure was kept at 100 μg/m3. Calcium arsenate was selected since arsenate is the predominant species found in mine tailings. We found that inhalation exposure during in utero and postnatal lung development led to significant increases in pulmonary baseline resistance, airway hyper-reactivity, and airway collagen and smooth muscle expression in male C57Bl/6 mice. Responses were dependent on the level of calcium arsenate in the simulated dust. These changes were not associated with increased expression of TGF-β1, a marker of epithelial to mesenchymal transition. However, responses were correlated with decreases in the expression of club cell protein 16 (CC16). Dose-dependent decreases in CC16 expression and increases in collagen around airways was seen for animals exposed in utero only (GD), animals exposed postnatally only (PN) and animals continuously exposed throughout development (GDPN). These data suggest that arsenic inhalation during lung development can decrease CC16 expression leading to functional and structural alterations in the adult lung.

Ambient and household PM2.5 pollution and adverse perinatal outcomes: A meta-regression and analysis of attributable global burden for 204 countries and territories

BACKGROUND

Particulate matter <2.5 micrometer (PM2.5) is associated with adverse perinatal outcomes, but the impact on disease burden mediated by this pathway has not previously been included in the Global Burden of Disease (GBD), Mortality, Injuries, and Risk Factors studies. We estimated the global burden of low birth weight (LBW) and preterm birth (PTB) and impacts on reduced birth weight and gestational age (GA), attributable to ambient and household PM2.5 pollution in 2019.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

We searched PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science for peer-reviewed articles in English. Study quality was assessed using 2 tools: (1) Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality checklist; and (2) National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) risk of bias questions. We conducted a meta-regression (MR) to quantify the risk of PM2.5 on birth weight and GA. The MR, based on a systematic review (SR) of articles published through April 4, 2021, and resulting uncertainty intervals (UIs) accounted for unexplained between-study heterogeneity. Separate nonlinear relationships relating exposure to risk were generated for each outcome and applied in the burden estimation. The MR included 44, 40, and 40 birth weight, LBW, and PTB studies, respectively. Majority of the studies were of retrospective cohort design and primarily from North America, Europe, and Australia. A few recent studies were from China, India, sub-Saharan Africa, and South America. Pooled estimates indicated 22 grams (95% UI: 12, 32) lower birth weight, 11% greater risk of LBW (1.11, 95% UI: 1.07, 1.16), and 12% greater risk of PTB (1.12, 95% UI: 1.06, 1.19), per 10 μg/m3 increment in ambient PM2.5. We estimated a global population-weighted mean lowering of 89 grams (95% UI: 88, 89) of birth weight and 3.4 weeks (95% UI: 3.4, 3.4) of GA in 2019, attributable to total PM2.5. Globally, an estimated 15.6% (95% UI: 15.6, 15.7) of all LBW and 35.7% (95% UI: 35.6, 35.9) of all PTB infants were attributable to total PM2.5, equivalent to 2,761,720 (95% UI: 2,746,713 to 2,776,722) and 5,870,103 (95% UI: 5,848,046 to 5,892,166) infants in 2019, respectively. About one-third of the total PM2.5 burden for LBW and PTB could be attributable to ambient exposure, with household air pollution (HAP) dominating in low-income countries. The findings should be viewed in light of some limitations such as heterogeneity between studies including size, exposure levels, exposure assessment method, and adjustment for confounding. Furthermore, studies did not separate the direct effect of PM2.5 on birth weight from that mediated through GA. As a consequence, the pooled risk estimates in the MR and likewise the global burden may have been underestimated.

CONCLUSIONS

Ambient and household PM2.5 were associated with reduced birth weight and GA, which are, in turn, associated with neonatal and infant mortality, particularly in low- and middle-income countries.

Placental gene networks at the interface between maternal PM2.5 exposure early in gestation and reduced infant birthweight

BACKGROUND

A growing body of evidence links maternal exposure to particulate matter <2.5 μM in diameter (PM2.5) and deviations in fetal growth. Several studies suggest that the placenta plays a critical role in conveying the effects of maternal PM2.5 exposure to the developing fetus. These include observed associations between air pollutants and candidate placental features, such as mitochondrial DNA content, DNA methylation and telomere length. However, gaps remain in delineating the pathways linking the placenta to air pollution-related health effects, including a comprehensive profiling of placental processes impacted by maternal PM2.5 exposure. In this study, we examined alterations in a placental transcriptome-wide network in relation to maternal PM2.5 exposure prior to and during pregnancy and infant birthweight.

METHODS

We evaluated PM2.5 exposure and placental RNA-sequencing data among study participants enrolled in the Rhode Island Child Health Study (RICHS). Daily residential PM2.5 levels were estimated using a hybrid model incorporating land-use regression and satellite remote sensing data. Distributed lag models were implemented to assess the impact on infant birthweight due to PM2.5 weekly averages ranging from 12 weeks prior to gestation until birth. Correlations were assessed between PM2.5 levels averaged across the identified window of susceptibility and a placental transcriptome-wide gene coexpression network previously generated using the WGCNA R package.

RESULTS

We identified a sensitive window spanning 12 weeks prior to and 13 weeks into gestation during which maternal PM2.5 exposure is significantly associated with reduced infant birthweight. Two placental coexpression modules enriched for genes involved in amino acid transport and cellular respiration were correlated with infant birthweight as well as maternal PM2.5 exposure levels averaged across the identified growth restriction window.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that maternal PM2.5 exposure may alter placental programming of fetal growth, with potential implications for downstream health effects, including susceptibility to cardiometabolic health outcomes and viral infections.

Developmental toxicity induced by particulate matter (PM2.5) in zebrafish (Danio rerio) model

Contemporary research in epidemiology has found that being exposed to air pollution at an early stage of life has associations with both acute and chronic conditions of the multi-organs. Nevertheless, the reasons for this have yet to be fully explained. Because of this there is a need for a robust investigation into the damaging toxic influence of diesel particulate matter (PM2.5) on living organisms. This study is aimed to investigate the developmental toxicity of PM2.5 by using zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo/larvae as a disease model and to understand the toxicity effects of PM2.5 on ecological environment more thoroughly. This research demonstrates that being exposed to PM2.5 leads to a significant increase in mortality, effective developmental morphology, reductions in hatching rates and lower heart rates in zebrafish. Additionally, it leads to increases in the length of string heart, area of pericardium, and apoptosis, reduces the number of normal intersegmental vessels (ISVs) and motor neurons in the trunk region and liver formation defects in zebrafish embryos. Investigation employing a scanning electron microscope demonstrates that being exposed to PM2.5 leads to damage in zebrafish larvae skin cell layers. Histological analysis demonstrates that when these larvae are treated with PM2.5 then abnormalities occur in the neurons, liver, heart, gills, brain, and eyes, and remarkable increase in in the cellular/subcellular levels of organelle dissolution. These findings are useful to help us understand the pathophysiological influence of being exposed to PM2.5 on the multi-organ defects of zebrafish. More research into which particular elements that make up diesel pollution contribute to this toxicity is needed so that the dangers to development can be further analysed.

Application of the navigation guide systematic review methodology to evaluate prenatal exposure to particulate matter air pollution and infant birth weight

Low birth weight is an important risk factor for many co-morbidities both in early life as well as in adulthood. Numerous studies report associations between prenatal exposure to particulate matter (PM) air pollution and low birth weight. Previous systematic reviews and meta-analyses report varying effect sizes and significant heterogeneity between studies, but did not systematically evaluate the quality of individual studies or the overall body of evidence. We conducted a new systematic review to determine how prenatal exposure to PM2.5, PM10, and coarse PM (PM2.5-10) by trimester and across pregnancy affects infant birth weight. Using the Navigation Guide methodology, we developed and applied a systematic review protocol [CRD42017058805] that included a comprehensive search of the epidemiological literature, risk of bias (ROB) determination, meta-analysis, and evidence evaluation, all using pre-established criteria. In total, 53 studies met our inclusion criteria, which included evaluation of birth weight as a continuous variable. For PM2.5 and PM10, we restricted meta-analyses to studies determined overall as "low" or "probably low" ROB; none of the studies evaluating coarse PM were rated as "low" or "probably low" risk of bias, so all studies were used. For PM2.5, we observed that for every 10 µg/m3 increase in exposure to PM2.5 in the 2nd or 3rd trimester, respectively, there was an associated 5.69 g decrease (I2: 68%, 95% CI: -10.58, -0.79) or 10.67 g decrease in birth weight (I2: 84%, 95% CI: -20.91, -0.43). Over the entire pregnancy, for every 10 µg/m3 increase in PM2.5 exposure, there was an associated 27.55 g decrease in birth weight (I2: 94%, 95% CI: -48.45, -6.65). However, the quality of evidence for PM2.5 was rated as "low" due to imprecision and/or unexplained heterogeneity among different studies. For PM10, we observed that for every 10 µg/m3 increase in exposure in the 3rd trimester or the entire pregnancy, there was a 6.57 g decrease (I2: 0%, 95% CI: -10.66, -2.48) or 8.65 g decrease in birth weight (I2: 84%, 95% CI: -16.83, -0.48), respectively. The quality of evidence for PM10 was rated as "moderate," as heterogeneity was either absent or could be explained. The quality of evidence for coarse PM was rated as very low/low (for risk of bias and imprecision). Overall, while evidence for PM2.5 and course PM was inadequate primarily due to heterogeneity and risk of bias, respectively, our results support the existence of an inverse association between prenatal PM10 exposure and low birth weight.

Association between exposure to air pollution during intrauterine life and cephalic circumference of the newborn

It has been observed that air pollution can affect newborn health due to the negative effects of pollutants on pregnancy development. However, few studies have evaluated the impact of maternal exposure to urban air pollution on head circumference (HC) at birth. Reduced head growth during pregnancy may be associated with neurocognitive deficits in childhood. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the association between maternal exposure to air pollution and HC at birth and to provide context with a systematic review to investigate this association. This was a prospective study of low-risk pregnant women living in São Paulo, Brazil. Exposure to pollutants, namely, nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and ozone (O₃), was measured during each trimester using passive personal samplers. We measured newborn HC until 24 h after birth. We used multiple linear regression models to evaluate the association between pollutants and HC while controlling for known determinants of pregnancy. To perform the systematic review, four different electronic databases were searched through November 2018: CENTRAL, EMBASE, LILACS, and MEDLINE. We selected longitudinal or transversal designs associating air pollution and HC at birth. Two reviewers evaluated the inclusion criteria and risk of bias and extracted data from the included papers. Thirteen studies were selected for the systematic review. We evaluated 391 patients, and we did not observe a significant association between air pollution and HC. Regarding the systematic review, 13 studies were selected for the systematic review, 8 studies showed an inverse association between maternal exposure to pollutants and HC, 4 showed no association, and one observed a direct association. In the city of São Paulo, maternal exposure to pollutants was not significantly associated with HC at birth. The systematic review suggested an inverse association between air pollution and HC at birth.

Maternal Urinary Metal and Metalloid Concentrations in Association with Oxidative Stress Biomarkers

Metal exposure has been associated with a wide range of adverse birth outcomes and oxidative stress is a leading hypothesis of the mechanism of action of metal toxicity. We assessed the relationship between maternal exposure to essential and non-essential metals and metalloids in pregnancy and oxidative stress markers, and sought to identify windows of vulnerability and effect modification by fetal sex. In our analysis of 215 women from the PROTECT birth cohort study, we measured 14 essential and non-essential metals in urine samples at three time points during pregnancy. The oxidative stress marker 8-iso-prostaglandin F2α (8-iso-PGF2α) and its metabolite 2,3-dinor-5,6-dihydro-15-15-F2t-IsoP, as well as prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α), were also measured in the same urine samples. Using linear mixed models, we examined the main effects of metals on markers of oxidative stress as well as the visit-specific and fetal sex-specific effects. After adjustment for covariates, we found that a few urinary metal concentrations, most notably cesium (Cs) and copper (Cu), were associated with higher 8-iso-PGF2α with effect estimates ranging from 7.3 to 14.9% for each interquartile range, increase in the metal concentration. The effect estimates were generally in the same direction at the three visits and a few were significant only among women carrying a male fetus. Our data show that higher urinary metal concentrations were associated with elevated biomarkers of oxidative stress. Our results also indicate a potential vulnerability of women carrying a male fetus.

Trimester effects of source-specific PM10 on birth weight outcomes in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC)

BACKGROUND

Evidence suggests that exposure to particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than 10 μm (PM10) is associated with reduced birth weight, but information is limited on the sources of PM10 and exposure misclassification from assigning exposures to place of residence at birth.

METHODS

Trimester and source-specific PM10 exposures (PM10 from road source, local non-road source, and total source) in pregnancy were estimated using dispersion models and a full maternal residential history for 12,020 births from the Avon longitudinal study of parents and children (ALSPAC) cohort in 1990-1992 in the Bristol area. Information on birth outcomes were obtained from birth records. Maternal sociodemographic and lifestyle factors were obtained from questionnaires. We used linear regression models for continuous outcomes (birth weight, head circumference (HC), and birth length (BL) and logistic regression models for binary outcomes (preterm birth (PTB), term low birth weight (TLBW) and small for gestational age (SGA)). Sensitivity analysis was performed using multiple imputation for missing covariate data.

RESULTS

After adjustment, interquartile range increases in source specific PM10 from traffic were associated with 17 to 18% increased odds of TLBW in all pregnancy periods. We also found odds of TLBW increased by 40% (OR: 1.40, 95%CI: 1.12, 1.75) and odds of SGA increased by 18% (OR: 1.18, 95%CI: 1.05, 1.32) per IQR (6.54 μg/m3) increase of total PM10 exposure in the third trimester.

CONCLUSION

This study adds to evidence that maternal PM10 exposures affect birth weight, with particular concern in relation to exposures to PM10 from road transport sources; results for total PM10 suggest greatest effect in the third trimester. Effect size estimates relate to exposures in the 1990s and are higher than those for recent studies - this may relate to reduced exposure misclassification through use of full residential history information, changes in air pollution toxicity over time and/or residual confounding.

Associations of birth outcomes with air pollution and land use characteristics in the Greater Taipei Area

BACKGROUND

Understanding the effects of environmental factors on birth outcomes is crucial for public health because newborns' birth size affects their likelihood of childhood survival, risk of perinatal morbidity, and subsequent health and growth. Therefore, we investigated the associations of birth outcomes with prenatal air pollutant exposure and residential land use characteristics in the Greater Taipei Area.

METHODS

Participants were selected from the Longitudinal Examination across Prenatal and Postpartum Health in Taiwan study, which is an ongoing prospective study launched in July 2011. Parental sociodemographic data and medical histories were collected using standardized questionnaires. Mean air pollutant levels during each trimester were estimated using the spatial interpolation technique (Ordinary Kriging). Land use types surrounding participants' homes were evaluated within a designated radius of their residential addresses. We used multiple regressions to examine relationships between birth outcomes (i.e., birth weight, height, and head circumference) and environmental factors after adjustment for parental characteristics.

RESULTS

A total of 436 pregnant women-infant pairs were included. Birth weight was negatively associated with commercial land and greenhouse areas near the residence. Living near greenhouse areas negatively affected birth height, but higher greenness level within 100 m of the residence had a positive effect. Birth head circumference was only associated with sociodemographic factors in the multivariate model.

CONCLUSION

Land use types near the homes of pregnant women, but not exposure to air pollutants, were significantly associated with birth weight and height in the Greater Taipei Area. Increased greenness level was positively associated with birth height, and living near commercial or greenhouse areas had adverse effects on birth outcomes. Living in a healthy neighborhood is critical for the birth outcomes of infants and presumably their health in early childhood.

Exposure assessment of indoor particulate matter during pregnancy: a narrative review of the literature

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this review was to summarize the evidence of the exposure assessment approaches of indoor particulate matter (PM) during pregnancy and to recommend future focus areas.

CONTENT

Exposure to indoor PM during pregnancy is associated with adverse birth outcomes. However, many questions remain about the consistency of the findings and the magnitude of this effect. This may be due to the exposure assessment methods used and the challenges of characterizing exposure during pregnancy. Exposure is unlikely to remain constant over the nine-month period. Pregnant females' mobility and activities vary - for example, employment status may be random among females, but among those employed, activities are likely to be greater in the early pregnancy than closer to the delivery of the child.

SUMMARY

Forty three studies that used one of the five categories of indoor PM exposure assessment (self-reported, personal air monitoring, household air monitoring, exposure models and integrated approaches) were assessed. Our results indicate that each of these exposure assessment approaches has unique characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses. While questionnaires and interviews are based on self-report and recall, they were a major component in the reviewed exposure assessment studies. These studies predominantly used large sample sizes. Precision and detail were observed in studies that used integrated approaches (i. e. questionnaires, measurements and exposure models).

OUTLOOK

Given the limitations presented by these studies, exposure misclassification remains possible because of personal, within and between household variability, seasonal changes, and spatiotemporal variability during pregnancy. Therefore, using integrated approaches (i. e. questionnaire, measurements and exposure models) may provide better estimates of PM levels across trimesters. This may provide precision for exposure estimates in the exposure-response relationship.

Recent Progress in the Abatement of Hazardous Pollutants Using Photocatalytic TiO2-Based Building Materials

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been extensively investigated in interdisciplinary research (such as catalysis, energy, environment, health, etc.) owing to its attractive physico-chemical properties, abundant nature, chemical/environmental stability, low-cost manufacturing, low toxicity, etc. Over time, TiO2-incorporated building/construction materials have been utilized for mitigating potential problems related to the environment and human health issues. However, there are challenges with regards to photocatalytic efficiency improvements, lab to industrial scaling up, and commercial product production. Several innovative approaches/strategies have been evolved towards TiO2 modification with the focus of improving its photocatalytic efficiency. Taking these aspects into consideration, research has focused on the utilization of many of these advanced TiO2 materials towards the development of construction materials such as concrete, mortar, pavements, paints, etc. This topical review focuses explicitly on capturing and highlighting research advancements in the last five years (mainly) (2014-2019) on the utilization of various modified TiO2 materials for the development of practical photocatalytic building materials (PBM). We briefly summarize the prospective applications of TiO2-based building materials (cement, mortar, concretes, paints, coating, etc.) with relevance to the removal of outdoor/indoor NOx and volatile organic compounds, self-cleaning of the surfaces, etc. As a concluding remark, we outline the challenges and make recommendations for the future outlook of further investigations and developments in this prosperous area.

Term birthweight and critical windows of prenatal exposure to average meteorological conditions and meteorological variability

BACKGROUND

Heat stress during pregnancy may limit fetal growth, with ramifications throughout the life course. However, critical exposure windows are unknown, and effects of meteorological variability have not been investigated.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to identify sensitive windows for the associations of mean and variability of temperature and humidity with term birthweight.

METHODS

We analyzed data from two French mother-child cohorts, EDEN and PELAGIE (n = 4771), recruited in 2002-2006. Temperature exposure was assessed using a satellite-based model with daily 1-km² resolution, and relative humidity exposure data were obtained from Météo France monitors. Distributed lag models were constructed using weekly means and standard deviation (SD, to quantify variability) from the first 37 gestational weeks. Analyses were then stratified by sex. Results for each exposure were adjusted for the other exposures, gestational age at birth, season and year of conception, cohort and recruitment center, and individual confounders.

RESULTS

There was no evidence of association between term birthweight and mean temperature. We identified a critical window in weeks 6-20 for temperature variability (cumulative change in term birthweight of -54.2 g [95% CI: -102, -6] for a 1 °C increase in SD of temperature for each week in that window). Upon stratification by sex of the infant, the relationship remained for boys (weeks 1-21, cumulative change: -125 g [95% CI: -228, -21]). For mean humidity, there was a critical window in weeks 26-37, with a cumulative change of -28 g (95% CI: -49, -7) associated with a 5% increase in humidity for each week. The critical window was longer and had a stronger association in boys (weeks 29-37; -37 g, 95% CI: -63, -11) than girls (week 14; -1.8 g, 95% CI: -3.6, -0.1).

DISCUSSION

Weekly temperature variability and mean humidity during critical exposure windows were associated with decreased term birthweight, especially in boys.

Predictors of urban household variability of indoor PM2.5 in low socio-economic communities

In epidemiological studies, levels of PM2.5 need to be estimated over time and space. Because of logistical constraints, very few studies have been conducted to assess the variability within and across homes and the predictors of this variability. This study evaluated within- and between-home variability of indoor PM2.5 and identified predictors for PM2.5 in homes of mothers participating in the urban Mother and Child in the Environment birth cohort study in Durban, South Africa. Thirty homes were selected from 300 homes that were previously sampled for PM2.5. Two measurements of PM2.5 levels were conducted in each home within a 1 week interval in both warm and cold seasons (four samplings per home) using Airmetrics MiniVol samplers. A linear mixed-effect model was used to evaluate within- and between-home variability and to identify fixed effects (predictors) that result in reduced variability. The PM2.5 levels in the 30 homes ranged from 2 to 303 μg m-3. The within-home variability accounted for 94% of the total variability in the log-transformed PM2.5 levels for the 30 homes. The fixed effects extracted from the repeated samplings in the present study were used to improve a previously developed multivariable linear regression model for 300 homes, and thereby increased the R2 from 0.50 to 0.54. Inclusion of fixed-effects in multivariable linear regression models resulted in a reasonably robust model that can be used to predict PM2.5 levels in unmeasured homes of the cohort.

The Impact of Mother's Living Environment Exposure on Genome Damage, Immunological Status, and Sex Hormone Levels in Newborns

Background: The aim of this study was to compare for the first time IL-6 (Interleukin 6), testosterone (T) and estradiol (E) levels, their ratio (E/T), micronucleus (MN), and nuclear bridge (NB) frequency between newborns with regard to their mother’s residency and diet. Our results should enable an assessment of the possible environmental endocrine effects and interaction between biomarkers, pointing to possible associated health risks. Methods: Fifty full-term newborns of both sexes, whose mothers were healthy and not occupationally exposed to any known carcinogen, were analyzed. All of the mothers filled in a detailed questionnaire. Results: The results showed significantly higher levels of E in newborns of mothers with agricultural residency than those born by mothers with urban residency. Significantly, lower levels of E were measured in newborns of mothers who drank milk and carbonated beverages more frequently. Testosterone was significantly higher in boys of mothers with agricultural residency than from mothers with urban residency. Residence and other parameters had no impact on the difference in MN frequency. IL-6 levels were higher in newborns of mothers with agricultural residency. NB levels were significantly associated with E. A significant association between E levels and IL-6 was found. Conclusion: Our results were the first to show a significant impact of the mother’s agricultural residency and diet on their newborns’ sex hormone and IL-6 levels and their association.

Sex difference in bronchopulmonary dysplasia of offspring in response to maternal PM2.5 exposure

The adverse effects of fine particulate matters (PM_2.5) on respiratory diseases start in utero. In order to investigate whether maternal PM_2.5 exposure could lead to bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) in offspring, PM_2.5 was collected in Taiyuan, Shanxi, China during the annual heating period. Mice were mated and gestation day 0 (GD0) was considered the day on which a vaginal plug was observed. The plug-positive mice received 3 mg/kg b.w. PM_2.5 by oropharyngeal aspiration every other day starting on GD0 and throughout the gestation period. Offspring were sacrificed at postnatal days (PNDs) 1, 7, 14 and 21. We assessed some typical BPD-like symptoms in offspring. The results showed that maternal PM_2.5 exposure caused low birth weight, hypoalveolarization, decreased angiogenesis, suppressed production of secretory and surfactant proteins, and increased inflammation in the lungs of male offspring. However, maternal PM_2.5 exposure induced only hypoalveolarization and inflammation in the lungs of female offspring. Furthermore, these alterations were reversed during postnatal development. Our results demonstrated that maternal exposure to PM_2.5 caused reversible BPD-related consequences in offspring, and male offspring were more sensitive than females. However, these alterations were reversed during postnatal development.

Prenatal Ambient Particulate Matter Exposure and Longitudinal Weight Growth Trajectories in Early Childhood

Air pollution exposure during pregnancy has been associated with impaired fetal growth and postnatal weight gain, but few studies have examined the effect on weight growth trajectories. We examine the association between validated 1 km² resolution particulate matter (PM_2.5) concentrations, averaged over pregnancy, and sex-specific growth trajectories from birth to age six of participants in the Boston-based Children's HealthWatch cohort (4797 participants, 84,283 measures). We compared weight trajectories, predicted using polynomial splines in mixed models, between prenatal PM_2.5 above or below the median (9.5 µg/m³), and examined birth weight as an effect modifier. Females exposed to average prenatal PM_2.5 ≥ 9.5 µg/m³ had higher weights compared to females exposed to < 9.5 µg/m³ throughout the study period (0.16 kg at 24 months, 0.61 kg at 60 months). In males, higher prenatal PM_2.5 exposure was associated with significantly lower weights after 24 months of age, with differences increasing with time (-0.17 at 24 months, -0.72 kg at 60 months). Associations were more pronounced among low birth weight (<2500 g) females, but did not differ by birth weight status in males. Our findings demonstrate the complex association between air pollution exposures and childhood weight trajectories and emphasize the importance of sex-stratified analyses.

Early-life exposure to traffic-related air pollution and child anthropometry

BACKGROUND

Early-life exposure to traffic-related air pollution may decrease fetal growth and increase childhood obesity risk. Our objective was to evaluate the relationship of early-life exposure to traffic-related air pollution with birthweight in term newborns and obesity at age 7-8 years in two prospective birth cohorts in Cincinnati, OH (the Health Outcomes and Measures of the Environment (HOME) Study and Cincinnati Childhood Allergy and Air Pollution Study (CCAAPS)).

METHODS

We estimated elemental carbon attributable to traffic (ECAT) exposure at residential addresses during pregnancy with a validated land use regression model. We assessed birthweight among term infants using birth records or parent report (HOME Study n= 333 and CCAAPS n=590). We measured children's weight and height at 7-8 years, and calculated age- and sex-specific BMI z-scores (HOME Study n= 198 and CCAAPS n=459). Using multivariable linear regression, we estimated the difference in term birthweight and BMI z-score per interquartile range (IQR) increase in ECAT concentrations in each cohort separately and in the pooled sample.

RESULTS

In adjusted models, ECAT exposure was not associated with lower birthweight (pooled sample β: 30g; 95% CI: -6, 66), or with higher BMI z-score (pooled sample β: -0.04; 95% CI: -0.15, 0.08). Infant sex modified the association between ECAT and birthweight (p=0.05). Among male newborns, higher ECAT concentrations were associated with higher birthweight (β: 61g; 95% CI: 9, 113), but we observed no association among female newborns (β: -9g; 95% CI: -58, 41).

CONCLUSIONS

In contrast to some prior studies, early-life traffic-related air pollution exposure was not associated with lower birthweight or increased childhood adiposity in these two cohorts.

The role of sex in particle-induced inflammation and injury

The use of engineered nanomaterials within various applications such as medicine, electronics, and cosmetics has been steadily increasing; therefore, the rate of occupational and environmental exposures has also increased. Inhalation is an important route of exposure to nanomaterials and has been shown to cause various respiratory diseases in animal models. Human lung disease frequently presents with a sex/gender-bias in prevalence or severity, but investigation of potential sex-differences in the adverse health outcomes associated with nanoparticle inhalation is greatly lacking. Only ~20% of basic research in the general sciences use both male and female animals and a substantial percentage of these do not address differences between sexes within their analyses. This has prevented researchers from fully understanding the impact of sex-based variables on health and disease, particularly the pathologies resulting from the inhalation of particles. The mechanisms responsible for sex-differences in respiratory disease remain unclear, but could be related to a number of variables including sex-differences in hormone signaling, lung physiology, or respiratory immune function. By incorporating sex-based analysis into respiratory nanotoxicology and utilizing human data from other relevant particles (e.g., asbestos, silica, particulate matter), we can improve our understanding of sex as a biological variable in nanoparticle exposures. This article is categorized under: Toxicology and Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine > Toxicology of Nanomaterials.

The associations of air pollution exposure during pregnancy with fetal growth and anthropometric measurements at birth: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Fetal growth has been demonstrated to be an important predictor of perinatal and postnatal health. Although the effects of maternal exposure to air pollution during pregnancy on fetal growth have been investigated using ultrasound in many previous studies, the results were inconsistent and disputable. We aimed to qualitatively and quantitatively investigate the associations of air pollution exposure during different periods of pregnancy with fetal growth and anthropometric measurements at birth. We searched for all studies investigating the associations of air pollution exposure during pregnancy with fetal growth and birth anthropometric measurements in English and Chinese databases published before July 31, 2017. A random-effects model was employed in the meta-analysis to estimate the pooled effects of each 10 μg/m³ increment in air pollutant exposure. The ACROBAT-NRSI tool was applied to assess the quality of each included study, and the GRADE tool was employed to assess the overall quality of the meta-analysis. Maternal PM_2.5 exposure (10 μg/m³) during the entire pregnancy was negatively associated with head circumference at birth (β = - 0.30 cm, 95% CI - 0.49, - 0.10), and NO₂ exposure during the entire pregnancy was significantly linked to shorter length at birth (β = - 0.03 cm, 95% CI - 0.05, - 0.02). Maternal exposure to higher NO₂ and PM_2.5 during pregnancy may impair neonatal head circumference and length development, respectively. More studies are needed to confirm the effects of NO₂ and PM_2.5 and to identify the sources and major toxic components of PMs.