SARS-CoV-2 and other pathogens in municipal wastewater, landfill leachate, and solid waste: A review about virus surveillance, infectivity, and inactivation

Terrestrial bioassays for assessing the biochemical and toxicological impact of biosolids application derived from wastewater treatment plants

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) are facilities where municipal wastewater undergoes treatment so that its organic load and its pathogenic potential are minimized. Sewage sludge is a by-product of this process and when properly treated is preferentially called "biosolids". These treatments may include some or most of the following: thickening, dewatering, drying, digestion, composting, liming. Nowadays it is almost impossible to landfill biosolids, which however can well be used as crop fertilizers. Continuous or superfluous biosolids fertilization may negatively affect non-target organisms such as soil macro-organisms or even plants. These effects can be depicted through bioassays on terrestrial animals and plants. It has been shown that earthworms have been affected to various degrees on the following endpoints: pollutants' bioaccumulation, viability, reproduction, avoidance behavior, burrowing behavior. Collembola have been affected on viability, reproduction, avoidance behavior. Other terrestrial organisms such as nematodes and diplopods have also shown adverse health effects. Phytotoxicity have been caused by some biosolids regimes as measured through the following endpoints: seed germination, root length, shoot length, shoot biomass, root biomass, chlorophyll content, antioxidant enzyme activity. Very limited statistical correlations between pollutant concentrations and toxicity endpoints have been established such as between juvenile mortality (earthworms) and As or Ba concentration in the biosolids, between juvenile mortality (collembola) and Cd or S concentration in the biosolids, or between phytotoxicity and some extractable metals in leachates or aquatic extracts from the biosolids; more correlations between physicochemical characteristics and toxicity endpoints have been found such as between phytotoxicity and ammonium N in biosolids or their liquid extracts, or between phytotoxicity and salinity. An inverse correlation between earthworm/collembola mortality and stable organic matter has also been found. Basing the appropriateness of biosolids only on chemical analyses for pollutants is not cost-effective. To enable risk characterization and subsequent risk mitigation it is important to apply a battery of bioassays on soil macro-organisms and on plants, utilizing a combination of endpoints and established protocols. Through combined analytical quantification and toxicity testing, safe use of biosolids in agriculture can be achieved.

Tricks and tracks of prevalence, occurrences, treatment technologies, and challenges of mixtures of emerging contaminants in the environment: With special emphasis on microplastic

This paper aims to emphasize the occurrence of various emerging contaminant (EC) mixtures in natural ecosystems and highlights the primary concern arising from the unregulated release into soil and water, along with their impacts on human health. Emerging contaminant mixtures, including pharmaceuticals, personal care products, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls, pesticides, antibiotics, biocides, surfactants, phthalates, enteric viruses, and microplastics (MPs), are considered toxic contaminants with grave implications. MPs play a crucial role in transporting pollutants to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems as they interact with the various components of the soil and water environments. This review summarizes that major emerging contaminants (ECs), like trimethoprim, diclofenac, sulfamethoxazole, and 17α-Ethinylestradiol, pose serious threats to public health and contribute to antimicrobial resistance. In addressing human health concerns and remediation techniques, this review critically evaluates conventional methods for removing ECs from complex matrices. The diverse physiochemical properties of surrounding environments facilitate the partitioning of ECs into sediments and other organic phases, resulting in carcinogenic, teratogenic, and estrogenic effects through active catalytic interactions and mechanisms mediated by aryl hydrocarbon receptors. The proactive toxicity of ECs mixture complexation and, in part, the yet-to-be-identified environmental mixtures of ECs represent a blind spot in current literature, necessitating conceptual frameworks for assessing the toxicity and risks with individual components and mixtures. Lastly, this review concludes with an in-depth exploration of future scopes, knowledge gaps, and challenges, emphasizing the need for a concerted effort in managing ECs and other organic pollutants.

Systematic investigation and modeling prediction of virus inactivation by ozone in wastewater: Decoupling the matrix effects

Water disinfection is undoubtedly regarded as a critical step in ensuring the water safety for human consumption, and ozone is widely used as a highly effective disinfectant for the control of pathogenic microorganisms in water. Although the diminished ozone efficiencies in complex water matrices have been widely reported, the specific extent to which individual components of matrix act on the virus inactivation by ozone remains unclear, and effective methodologies to predict the comprehensive effects of various factors are needed. In this study, the decoupled impact of the intricate water matrix on the ozone inactivation of viruses was systematically investigated and assessed from a simulative perspective. The concept of "equivalent ozone depletion rate constant" (k') was introduced to quantify the influence of different species, and a kinetic model was developed based on the k' values for simulating the ozone inactivation processes in complex matrix. The mechanisms through which diverse species influenced the ozone inactivation effectiveness were identified: 1) competition effects (k' = 105∼107 M-1s-1), including organic matters and reductive ions (SO32-, NO2-, and I-), which were the most influential species inhibiting the virus inactivation; 2) shielding effects (k' = 103∼104 M-1s-1), including Ca2+, Mg2+, and kaolin; 3) insignificant effects (k' = 0∼1 M-1s-1), including Cl-, SO42-, NO3-, NH4+, and Br-; 4) promotion effects (k' = ∼-103 M-1s-1), including CO32- and HCO3-. Prediction of ozone disinfection efficiency and evaluation of species contribution under complex aquatic matrices were successfully realized utilizing the model. The systematic understanding and methodologies developed in this research provide a reliable framework for predicting ozone inactivation efficiency under complex matrix, and a potential tool for accurate disinfectant dosage determination and interfering factors control in actual wastewater treatment processes.

Spike-Seq: An amplicon-based high-throughput sequencing approach for the sensitive detection and characterization of SARS-CoV-2 genetic variations in environmental samples

Ever since the outbreak of COVID-19 disease in Wuhan, China, different variants of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have been identified. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), an approach that has been successfully applied in numerous case studies worldwide, offers a cost-effective and rapid way for monitoring trends of SARS-Cov-2 in the community level without selection bias. Despite being a gold-standard procedure, WBE is a challenging approach due to the sample instability and the moderate efficiency of SARS-CoV-2 concentration in wastewater. In the present study, we introduce Spike-Seq, a custom amplicon-based approach for the S gene sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater samples, which enables not only the accurate identification of the existing Spike-related genetic markers, but also the estimation of their frequency in the investigated samples. The implementation of Spike-Seq involves the combination of nested PCR-based assays that efficiently amplify the entire nucleotide sequence of the S gene and next-generation sequencing, which enables the variant detection and the estimation of their frequency. In the framework of the current work, Spike-Seq was performed to investigate the mutational profile of SARS-CoV-2 in samples from the Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) of Athens, Greece, which originated from multiple timepoints, ranging from March 2021 until July 2022. Our findings demonstrate that Spike-Seq efficiently detected major genetic markers of B.1.1.7 (Alpha), B.1.617.2 (Delta) as well as B.1.1.529 (Omicron) variants in wastewater samples and provided their frequency levels, showing similar variant distributions with the published clinical data from the National Public Health organization. The presented approach can prove to be a useful tool for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 in challenging wastewater samples and the identification of the existing genetic variants of S gene.

Environmental pitfalls and associated human health risks and ecological impacts from landfill leachate contaminants: Current evidence, recommended interventions and future directions

The improper management of solid waste, particularly the dumping of untreated municipal solid waste, poses a growing global challenge in both developed and developing nations. The generation of leachate is one of the significant issues that arise from this practice, and it can have harmful impacts on both the environment and public health. This paper presents an overview of the primary waste types that generate landfill leachate and their characteristics. This includes examining the distribution of waste types in landfills globally and how they have changed over time, which can provide valuable insights into potential pollutants in a given area and their trends. With a lack of specific regulations and growing concerns regarding environmental and health impacts, the paper also focuses on emerging contaminants. Furthermore, the environmental and ecological impacts of leachate, along with associated health risks, are analyzed. The potential applications of landfill leachate, suggested interventions and future directions are also discussed in the manuscript. Finally, this work addresses future research directions in landfill leachate studies, with attention, for the first time to the potentialities that artificial intelligence can offer for landfill leachate management, studies, and applications.

Effectiveness of wastewater treatment plant at the removal of nutrients, pathogenic bacteria, and antibiotic-resistant bacteria in wastewater from hospital source

This study is aimed at assessing the effectiveness of hospital's wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in removing nutrients, pathogenic bacteria, and addressing antibiotic resistance using a case study of a tertiary hospital in Ibadan, Nigeria. During the dry and wet seasons in the month of July and December, respectively, samples were collected, and analyzed using standard guidelines to examine significant physicochemical parameters of the WTTP; to evaluate the removal efficiency of biological oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD), and to examine the prevalence of pathogenic and antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The results of this study showed that during the dry season, certain parameters exceeded acceptable limits, including temperature, total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), phosphate, and nitrate. Although there were reductions in BOD (1555 mg/L to 482 mg/L) and COD levels (3160 mg/L to 972 mg/L), they remained above acceptable limits by World Health Organization. In the wet season, the level of COD (20 mg/L) in the effluent was within acceptable limit, while the BOD (160 mg/L) was above the acceptable limit. The WWTP effectively removed nutrients and reduced the microbial load, as evident from the absence of fecal coliforms in the effluent in both seasons. In respect to BOD removal efficiency, the level of purification of wastewater by the WWTP was 69% during the dry season, while the removal efficiency of COD was 83.54% which showed the efficiency of the WWTP at the removal of COD. However, antibiotic resistance was still present. The study concludes that while the WWTP effectively addressed nutrients and microbial load, additional measures such as tertiary treatment methods like chlorination and UV radiation are necessary to tackle antibiotic resistance. This is crucial to prevent the release of antibiotic-resistant bacteria into the environment, safeguarding human health, animals, plants, and overall environmental well-being.

Changes to Public Health Surveillance Methods Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic: Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

Public health surveillance plays a vital role in informing public health decision-making. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020 caused a widespread shift in public health priorities. Global efforts focused on COVID-19 monitoring and contact tracing. Existing public health programs were interrupted due to physical distancing measures and reallocation of resources. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic intersected with advancements in technologies that have the potential to support public health surveillance efforts.

OBJECTIVE

This scoping review aims to explore emergent public health surveillance methods during the early COVID-19 pandemic to characterize the impact of the pandemic on surveillance methods.

METHODS

A scoping search was conducted in multiple databases and by scanning key government and public health organization websites from March 2020 to January 2022. Published papers and gray literature that described the application of new or revised approaches to public health surveillance were included. Papers that discussed the implications of novel public health surveillance approaches from ethical, legal, security, and equity perspectives were also included. The surveillance subject, method, location, and setting were extracted from each paper to identify trends in surveillance practices. Two public health epidemiologists were invited to provide their perspectives as peer reviewers.

RESULTS

Of the 14,238 unique papers, a total of 241 papers describing novel surveillance methods and changes to surveillance methods are included. Eighty papers were review papers and 161 were single studies. Overall, the literature heavily featured papers detailing surveillance of COVID-19 transmission (n=187). Surveillance of other infectious diseases was also described, including other pathogens (n=12). Other public health topics included vaccines (n=9), mental health (n=11), substance use (n=4), healthy nutrition (n=1), maternal and child health (n=3), antimicrobial resistance (n=2), and misinformation (n=6). The literature was dominated by applications of digital surveillance, for example, by using big data through mobility tracking and infodemiology (n=163). Wastewater surveillance was also heavily represented (n=48). Other papers described adaptations to programs or methods that existed prior to the COVID-19 pandemic (n=9). The scoping search also found 109 papers that discuss the ethical, legal, security, and equity implications of emerging surveillance methods. The peer reviewer public health epidemiologists noted that additional changes likely exist, beyond what has been reported and available for evidence syntheses.

CONCLUSIONS

The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated advancements in surveillance and the adoption of new technologies, especially for digital and wastewater surveillance methods. Given the investments in these systems, further applications for public health surveillance are likely. The literature for surveillance methods was dominated by surveillance of infectious diseases, particularly COVID-19. A substantial amount of literature on the ethical, legal, security, and equity implications of these emerging surveillance methods also points to a need for cautious consideration of potential harm.

Energy balance survey for the design and auto-thermal thermophilic aerobic digestion of algal-based membrane bioreactor for Landfill Leachate Treatment(under organic loading rates): Experimental and simulation-based ANN and NSGA-II

Although algal-based membrane bioreactors (AMBRs) have been demonstrated to be effective in treating wastewater (landfill leachate), there needs to be more research into the effectiveness of these systems. This study aims to determine whether AMBR is effective in treating landfill leachate with hydraulic retention times (HRTs) of 8, 12, 14, 16, 21, and 24 h to maximize AMBR's energy efficiency, microalgal biomass production, and removal efficiency using artificial neural network (ANN) models. Experimental results and simulations indicate that biomass production in bioreactors depends heavily on HRT. A decrease in HRT increases algal (Chlorella vulgaris) biomass productivity. Results also showed that 80% of chemical oxygen demand (COD) was removed from algal biomass by bioreactors. To determine the most efficient way to process the features as mentioned above, nondominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II) techniques were applied. A mesophilic, suspended-thermophilic, and attached-thermophilic organic loading rate (OLR) of 1.28, 1.06, and 2 kg/m3/day was obtained for each method. Compared to suspended-thermophilic growth (3.43 kg/m3.day) and mesophilic growth (1.28 kg/m3.day), attached-thermophilic growth has a critical loading rate of 10.5 kg/m3.day. An energy audit and an assessment of the system's auto-thermality were performed at the end of the calculation using the Monod equation for biomass production rate (Y) and bacteria death constant (Kd). According to the results, a high removal level of COD (at least 4000 mg COD/liter) leads to auto-thermality.

Quantitative SARS-CoV-2 exposure assessment for workers in wastewater treatment plants using Monte-Carlo simulation

Several studies on COVID-19 pandemic have shown that the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) originating from human stool are detected in raw sewage for several days, leading to potential health risks for workers due to the production of bioaerosols and droplets during wastewater treatment process. In this study, data of SARS-CoV-2 concentrations in wastewater were gathered from literatures, and a quantitative microbial risk assessment with Monte Carlo simulation was used to estimate the daily probability of infection risk through exposure to viable infectious viral airborne particles of the workers during four seasons and under six environmental conditions. Inhalation of bioaerosols and direct ingestion of wastewater droplets were selected as exposure pathways. Spearman rank correlation coefficients were used for sensitivity analysis to identify the variables with the greatest influence on the infection risk probability. It was found that the daily probability of infection risk decreased with temperature (T) and relative humidity (RH) increase. The probability of direct droplet ingestion exposure pathway was higher than that of the bioaerosol inhalation pathway. The sensitivity analysis indicated that the most sensitive variable for both exposure pathways was the concentration of SARS-CoV-2 in stool. So, appropriate aeration systems, covering facilities, and effective ventilation are suggested to implement in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to reduce emission concentration. Further to this, the exposure time (t) had a larger variance contribution than T and RH for the bioaerosol inhalation pathway. Implementing measures such as adding more work shifts, mandating personal protective equipment for all workers, and implementing coverage for treatment processes can significantly reduce the risk of infection among workers at WWTPs. These measures are particularly effective during environmental conditions with low temperatures and humidity levels.

Rapid Inactivation of Fungal Spores in Drinking Water by Far-UVC Photolysis of Free Chlorine

Effective and affordable disinfection technology is one key to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6. In this work, we develop a process by integrating Far-UVC irradiation at 222 nm with free chlorine (UV222/chlorine) for rapid inactivation of the chlorine-resistant and opportunistic Aspergillus niger spores in drinking water. The UV222/chlorine process achieves a 5.0-log inactivation of the A. niger spores at a chlorine dosage of 3.0 mg L-1 and a UV fluence of 30 mJ cm-2 in deionized water, tap water, and surface water. The inactivation rate constant of the spores by the UV222/chlorine process is 0.55 min-1, which is 4.6-fold, 5.5-fold, and 1.8-fold, respectively, higher than those of the UV222 alone, chlorination alone, and the conventional UV254/chlorine process under comparable conditions. The more efficient inactivation by the UV222/chlorine process is mainly attributed to the enhanced generation of reactive chlorine species (e.g., 6.7 × 10-15 M of Cl•) instead of hydroxyl radicals from UV222 photolysis of chlorine, which is verified through both experiments and a kinetic model. We further demonstrate that UV222 photolysis damages the membrane integrity and benefits the penetration of chlorine and radicals into cells for inactivation. The merits of the UV222/chlorine process over the UV254/chlorine process also include the more effective inhibition of the photoreactivation of the spores after disinfection and the lower formation of chlorinated disinfection byproducts and toxicity.

Tracking the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on viral gastroenteritis through wastewater-based retrospective analyses

The COVID-19 pandemic possibly disrupted the circulation and seasonality of gastroenteritis viruses (e.g., Norovirus (NoV), Sapovirus (SaV), group A rotavirus (ARoV), and Aichivirus (AiV)). Despite the growing application of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), there remains a lack of sufficient investigations into the actual impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the prevalence of gastroenteritis viruses. In this study, we measured NoV GI and GII, SaV, ARoV, and AiV RNA concentrations in 296 influent wastewater samples collected from three wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Sapporo, Japan between October 28, 2018 and January 12, 2023 using the highly sensitive EPISENS™ method. The detection ratios of SaV and ARoV after May 2020 (SaV: 49.8 % (134/269), ARoV: 57.4 % (151/263)) were significantly lower than those before April 2020 (SaV: 93.9 % (31/33), ARoV: 97.0 % (32/33); SaV: p < 3.5×10-7, ARoV: p < 1.5×10-6). Furthermore, despite comparable detection ratios before (88.5 %, 23/26) and during (66.7 %, 80/120) the COVID-19 pandemic (p = 0.032), the concentrations of NoV GII revealed a significant decrease after the onset of the pandemic (p < 1.5×10-7, Cliff's delta = 0.72). NoV GI RNA were sporadically detected (24.7 %, 8/33) before April 2020 and after May 2020 (6.5 %, 17/263), whereas AiV was consistently (100 %, 33/33) detected from wastewater throughout the study period (95.8 %, 252/263). The WBE results demonstrated the significant influence of COVID-19 countermeasures on the circulation of gastroenteritis viruses, with variations observed in the magnitude of their impact across different types of viruses. These epidemiological findings highlight that the hygiene practices implemented to prevent COVID-19 infections may also be effective for controlling the prevalence of gastroenteritis viruses, providing invaluable insights for public health units and the development of effective disease management guidelines.

A review on sterilization methods of environmental decontamination to prevent the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19 virus): A new challenge towards eco-friendly solutions

In recent years, the COVID-19 pandemic is currently wreaking havoc on the planet. SARS-CoV-2, the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus, is the current term for this outbreak. Reports about this novel coronavirus have been presented since the pandemic's breakout, and they have demonstrated that it transmits rapidly from person to person, primarily by droplets in the air. Findings have illustrated that SARS-CoV-2 can survive on surfaces from hours to days. Therefore, it is essential to find practical solutions to reduce the virus's impact on human health and the environment. This work evaluated common sterilization methods that can decontaminate the environment and items. The goal is that healthcare facilities, disease prevention organizations, and local communities can overcome the new challenge of finding eco-friendly solutions. Further, a foundation of information encompassing various sterilization procedures and highlighting their limits to choose the most appropriate method to stop disease-causing viruses in the new context has been presented. The findings of this crucial investigation contribute to gaining insight into the comprehensive sterilization approaches against the coronavirus for human health protection and sustainable environmental development.

Pathogens and antibiotic resistance genes during the landfill leachate treatment process: Occurrence, fate, and impact on groundwater

Landfill leachate is an essential source of pathogens and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in the environment. However, information on the removal behavior of pathogens and ARGs during the leachate treatment and the impact on surrounding groundwater is limited. In this study, we investigated the effects of leachate treatment on the removal of pathogens and ARGs with metagenomic sequencing, as well as the impact of landfill effluent on groundwater. It is shown that the leachate treatment could not completely remove pathogens and ARGs. Twenty-nine additional pathogens and twenty-nine ARGs were newly identified in the landfill effluent. The relative abundance of pathogens and multiple antibiotic resistance genes decreased after ultrafiltration but relative abundance increased after reverse osmosis. In addition, the relative abundances of Acinetobacter baumannii, Erwinia amylovora, Escherichia coli, Fusarium graminearum, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Magnaporthe oryzae, as well as mdtH, VanZ, and blaOXA-53 increased significantly in the landfill effluent compared to the untreated leachate. The relative abundance of some mobile genetic elements (tniA, tniB, tnpA, istA, IS91) in leachate also increased after ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis. The size of pathogens, the size and properties of ARGs and mobile genetic elements, and the materials of ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis membranes may affect the removal effect of pathogens, ARGs and mobile genetic elements in leachate treatment process. Interestingly, the pathogens and ARGs in landfill effluent were transferred to groundwater according to SourceTracker. The ARGs, mobile genetic elements, and pathogens that are difficult to remove in the leachate treatment process, provide a reference for optimizing the leachate treatment process and improving the control of pathogens and ARGs. Furthermore, this study clarifies the effect of landfill leachate sources of pathogens and ARGs in groundwater.

Wastewater-based epidemiology of Campylobacter spp.: A systematic review and meta-analysis of influent, effluent, and removal of wastewater treatment plants

Campylobacter spp. is one of the four leading causes of diarrhoeal diseases worldwide, which are generally mild but can be fatal in children, the elderly, and immunosuppressed persons. The existing disease surveillance for Campylobacter infections is usually based on untimely clinical reports. Wastewater surveillance or wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been developed for the early warning of disease outbreaks and the detection of the emerging new variants of human pathogens, especially after the global pandemic of COVID-19. However, the WBE monitoring of Campylobacter infections in communities is rare due to a few large data gaps. This study is a meta-analysis and systematic review of the prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in various wastewater samples, primarily the influent of wastewater treatment plants. The results showed that the overall prevalence of Campylobacter spp. was 53.26 % in influent wastewater and 52.97 % in all types of wastewater samples. The mean concentration in the influent was 3.31 ± 0.39 log10 gene copies or most probable number (MPN) per 100 mL. The detection method combining culture and PCR yielded the highest positive rate of 90.86 %, while RT-qPCR and qPCR were the two most frequently used quantification methods. In addition, the Campylobacter concentration in influent wastewater showed a seasonal fluctuation, with the highest concentration in the autumn at 3.46 ± 0.41 log10 gene copies or MPN per 100 mL. Based on the isolates of all positive samples, Campylobacter jejuni (62.34 %) was identified as the most prevalent species in wastewater, followed by Campylobacter coli (30.85 %) and Campylobacter lari (4.4 %). These findings provided significant data to further develop and optimize the wastewater surveillance of Campylobacter spp. infections. In addition, large data gaps were found in the decay of Campylobacter spp. in wastewater, indicating insufficient research on the persistence of Campylobacter spp. in wastewater.

Nanoparticles-assisted aptamer biosensing for the detection of environmental pathogens

Given the importance of public health, it is crucial to develop quick, targeted, highly sensitive, and accurate technologies to monitor pathogenic microbes in response to the growing concerns of food and environmental safety. Although conventional approaches for microbiological detection are available, they are laborious, and often skill demanding. Therefore, such approaches are incompetent in the on-site or high-throughput assessment of pathogenic microbes. Numerous efforts have been made to develop biosensors that use nucleic acid aptamer as the biorecognition element, which would avoid the abovementioned limitations. Incorporating nanomaterials (NMs) into aptamer-based biosensors (aptasensors) improves their sensitivity and specificity, opening exciting possibilities for various applications, such as bioanalysis of food and environmental samples. Over the last decade, nanomaterial-conjugated aptasensors have seen a steadily rising demand. To this end, the main goal of this study is to demonstrate the novelty in the design of nanomaterial-conjugated aptasensors and how they can be used to detect different pathogenic microbes in water and food. The intent of this paper is to evaluate the cutting-edge techniques that have appeared in nano-aptasensors throughout the past few years, such as manufacturing procedures, analytical credibility, and sensing mechanisms. Additionally, the fundamental performance parameters of aptasensing techniques (such as detection limits, and sensing ranges response) were also used to evaluate their practical applicability. Finally, it is anticipated that this study will inspire innovative ideas and techniques for the construction and use of aptasensors for monitoring pathogenic microorganisms in food, drinks, recreational water, and wastewater.

Advances, challenges, and prospects in microalgal-bacterial symbiosis system treating heavy metal wastewater

Heavy metal (HM) pollution, particularly in its ionic form in water bodies, is a chronic issue threatening environmental security and human health. The microalgal-bacterial symbiosis (MABS) system, as the basis of water ecosystems, has the potential to treat HM wastewater in a sustainable manner, with the advantages of environmental friendliness and carbon sequestration. However, the differences between laboratory studies and engineering practices, including the complexity of pollutant compositions and extreme environmental conditions, limit the applications of the MABS system. Additionally, the biomass from the MABS system containing HMs requires further disposal or recycling. This review summarized the recent advances of the MABS system treating HM wastewater, including key mechanisms, influence factors related to HM removal, and the tolerance threshold values of the MABS system to HM toxicity. Furthermore, the challenges and prospects of the MABS system in treating actual HM wastewater are analyzed and discussed, and suggestions for biochar preparation from the MABS biomass containing HMs are provided. This review provides a reference point for the MABS system treating HM wastewater and the corresponding challenges faced by future engineering practices.

Wastewater surveillance of the most common circulating respiratory viruses in Athens: The impact of COVID-19 on their seasonality

Due to governments' actions to contain the spread of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the activity of common circulating respiratory viruses was significantly disrupted after the COVID-19 pandemic and thorough surveillance of respiratory pathogens was considered essential worldwide. Wastewater-based epidemiology has proven to be a valuable tool, that provides complementary information on disease outbreaks and is increasingly used to study the infection dynamics of other viruses, apart from SARS-CoV-2. The aims of the present study were the detection of four commonly circulating respiratory viruses: SARS-CoV-2, influenza A, B and Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV), the evaluation of the COVID-19 pandemic impact on their seasonality and the determination of the possible common trends in the viral load of these viruses in the wastewater of the Attica region. A standardized and validated concentration and extraction protocol was used, generic for all four viruses, followed by Reverse Transcription quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-qPCR) assays. The study proved that there was a prolonged period when all four viruses circulated in the population and an early outbreak of seasonal influenza and RSV in 2022-2023, compared to data from the pre-COVID-19 period. SARS-CoV-2, influenza A and RSV concentrations showed peak levels during December, followed by a slight decline in influenza A concentrations, followed by steady increase of influenza B concentrations in January 2023. SARS-CoV-2 was the dominant virus throughout the whole study period. This is the first study in Greece that investigated the most common circulating viruses simultaneously and in one of the largest timelines, providing crucial information about their infection dynamics during a period when an outbreak of respiratory diseases was declared by the National Public Health Organization. Presented results highlight the establishment of environmental surveillance as a non-invasive and complementary virus outbreak monitoring tool and the importance of influenza A, B and RSV integration into a wastewater-based surveillance system to help in disease management.

The occurrence, ecological risk, and control of disinfection by-products from intensified wastewater disinfection during the COVID-19 pandemic

Increased disinfection of wastewater to preserve its microbiological quality during the coronavirus infectious disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic have inevitably led to increased production of toxic disinfection by-products (DBPs). However, there is limited information on such DBPs (i.e., trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, nitrosamines, and haloacetonitriles). This review focused on the upsurge of chlorine-based disinfectants (such as chlorine, chloramine and chlorine dioxide) in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the global response to COVID-19. The formation and distribution of DBPs in wastewater were then analyzed to understand the impacts of these large-scale usage of disinfectants in WWTPs. In addition, potential ecological risks associated with DBPs derived from wastewater disinfection and its receiving water bodies were summarized. Finally, various approaches for mitigating DBP levels in wastewater and suggestions for further research into the environmental risks of increased wastewater disinfection were provided. Overall, this study presented a comprehensive overview of the formation, distribution, potential ecological risks, and mitigating approaches of DBPs derived from wastewater disinfection that will facilitate appropriate wastewater disinfection techniques selection, potential ecological risk assessment, and removal approaches and regulations consideration.

Time series modelling for wastewater-based epidemiology of COVID-19: A nationwide study in 40 wastewater treatment plants of Belgium, February 2021 to June 2022

BACKGROUND

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been implemented to monitor surges of COVID-19. Yet, multiple factors impede the usefulness of WBE and quantitative adjustment may be required.

AIM

We aimed to model the relationship between WBE data and incident COVID-19 cases, while adjusting for confounders and autocorrelation.

METHODS

This nationwide WBE study includes data from 40 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Belgium (02/2021-06/2022). We applied ARIMA-based modelling to assess the effect of daily flow rate, pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV) concentration, a measure of human faeces in wastewater, and variants (alpha, delta, and omicron strains) on SARS-CoV-2 RNA levels in wastewater. Secondly, adjusted WBE metrics at different lag times were used to predict incident COVID-19 cases. Model selection was based on AICc minimization.

RESULTS

In 33/40 WWTPs, RNA levels were best explained by incident cases, flow rate, and PMMoV. Flow rate and PMMoV were associated with -13.0 % (95 % prediction interval: -26.1 to +0.2 %) and +13.0 % (95 % prediction interval: +5.1 to +21.0 %) change in RNA levels per SD increase, respectively. In 38/40 WWTPs, variants did not explain variability in RNA levels independent of cases. Furthermore, our study shows that RNA levels can lead incident cases by at least one week in 15/40 WWTPs. The median population size of leading WWTPs was 85.1 % larger than that of non‑leading WWTPs. In 17/40 WWTPs, however, RNA levels did not lead or explain incident cases in addition to autocorrelation.

CONCLUSION

This study provides quantitative insights into key determinants of WBE, including the effects of wastewater flow rate, PMMoV, and variants. Substantial inter-WWTP variability was observed in terms of explaining incident cases. These findings are of practical importance to WBE practitioners and show that the early-warning potential of WBE is WWTP-specific and needs validation.

SARS-CoV-2 in the environment: Contamination routes, detection methods, persistence and removal in wastewater treatment plants

The present study reviewed the occurrence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA and the evaluation of virus infectivity in feces and environmental matrices. The detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in feces and wastewater samples, reported in several studies, has generated interest and concern regarding the possible fecal-oral route of SARS-CoV-2 transmission. To date, the presence of viable SARS-CoV-2 in feces of COVID-19 infected people is not clearly confirmed although its isolation from feces of six different patients. Further, there is no documented evidence on the infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater, sludge and environmental water samples, although the viral genome has been detected in these matrices. Decay data revealed that SARS-CoV-2 RNA persisted longer than infectious particle in all aquatic environment, indicating that genome quantification of SARS-CoV-2 does not imply the presence of infective viral particles. In addition, this review also outlined the fate of SARS-CoV-2 RNA during the different steps in the wastewater treatment plant and focusing on the virus elimination along the sludge treatment line. Studies showed complete removal of SARS-CoV-2 during the tertiary treatment. Moreover, thermophilic sludge treatments present high efficiency in SARS-CoV-2 inactivation. Further studies are required to provide more evidence with respect to the inactivation behavior of infectious SARS-CoV-2 in different environmental matrices and to examine factors affecting SARS-CoV-2 persistence.

Moving forward with COVID-19: Future research prospects of wastewater-based epidemiology methodologies and applications

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been demonstrated for its great potential in tracking of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) transmission among populations despite some inherent methodological limitations. These include non-optimized sampling approaches and analytical methods; stability of viruses in sewer systems; partitioning/retention in biofilms; and the singular and inaccurate back-calculation step to predict the number of infected individuals in the community. Future research is expected to (1) standardize best practices in wastewater sampling, analysis and data reporting protocols for the sensitive and reproducible detection of viruses in wastewater; (2) understand the in-sewer viral stability and partitioning under the impacts of dynamic wastewater flow, properties, chemicals, biofilms and sediments; and (3) achieve smart wastewater surveillance with artificial intelligence and big data models. Further specific research is essential in the monitoring of other viral pathogens with pandemic potential and subcatchment applications to maximize the benefits of WBE beyond COVID-19.

The spread of the omicron variant: Identification of knowledge gaps, virus diffusion modelling, and future research needs

The World Health Organization (WHO) recognised variant B.1.1.529 of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) as a variant of concern, termed "Omicron", on November 26, 2021. Its diffusion was attributed to its several mutations, which allow promoting its ability to diffuse worldwide and its capability in immune evasion. As a consequence, some additional serious threats to public health posed the risk to undermine the global efforts made in the last two years to control the pandemic. In the past, several works were devoted to discussing a possible contribution of air pollution to the SARS-CoV-2 spread. However, to the best of the authors' knowledge, there are still no works dealing with the Omicron variant diffusion mechanisms. This work represents a snapshot of what we know right now, in the frame of an analysis of the Omicron variant spread. The paper proposes the use of a single indicator, commercial trade data, to model the virus spread. It is proposed as a surrogate of the interactions occurring between humans (the virus transmission mechanism due to human-to-human contacts) and could be considered for other diseases. It allows also to explain the unexpected increase in infection cases in China, detected at beginning of 2023. The air quality data are also analyzed to evaluate for the first time the role of air particulate matter (PM) as a carrier of the Omicron variant diffusion. Due to emerging concerns associated with other viruses (such as smallpox-like virus diffusion in Europe and America), the proposed approach seems to be promising to model the virus spreading.

Indigenous microbial community governs the survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in constructed wetlands

The survival pattern of Escherichia coli O157:H7 (E. coli O157:H7) and its regulatory factors in natural environments have been widely studied. However, there is little information about the survival of E. coli O157:H7 in artificial environments, especially in wastewater treatment facilities. In this study, a contamination experiment was performed to explore the survival pattern of E. coli O157:H7 and its central control factors in two constructed wetlands (CWs) under different hydraulic loading rates (HLRs). The results showed that the survival time of E. coli O157:H7 was longer in the CW under the higher HLR. Substrate ammonium nitrogen and available phosphorus were the main factors that influenced the survival of E. coli O157:H7 in CWs. Despite the minimal effect of microbial α-diversity, some keystone taxa, such as Aeromonas, Selenomonas, and Paramecium, governed the survival of E. coli O157:H7. In addition, the prokaryotic community had a more significant impact on the survival of E. coli O157:H7 than the eukaryotic community. The biotic properties had a more substantial direct power on the survival of E. coli O157:H7 than the abiotic factors in CWs. Collectively, this study comprehensively disclosed the survival pattern of E. coli O157:H7 in CWs, which is an essential addition to the environmental behavior of E. coli O157:H7, providing a theoretical basis for the prevention and control of biological contamination in wastewater treatment processes.

SARS-CoV-2 surveillance-based on municipal solid waste leachate in Brazil

Municipal solid waste leachate-based epidemiology is an alternative viral tracking tool that applies fresh truck leachate as an early warning of public health emergencies. This study aimed to investigate the potential of SARS-CoV-2 surveillance based on solid waste fresh truck leachate. Twenty truck leachate samples were ultracentrifugated, nucleic acid extracted, and real-time RT-qPCR SARS-CoV-2 N1/N2 applied. Viral isolation, variant of concern (N1/N2) inference, and whole genome sequencing were also performed. SARS-CoV-2 was detected on 40% (8/20) of samples, with a concentration from 2.89 to 6.96 RNA Log₁₀ 100 mL^-1. The attempt to isolate SARS-CoV-2 and recover the whole genome was not successful; however, positive samples were characterized as possible pre-variant of concern (pre-VOC), VOC Alpha (B.1.1.7) and variant of interest Zeta (P.2). This approach revealed an alternative tool to infer SARS-CoV-2 in the environment and may help the management of local surveillance, health, and social policies.

Harnessing and bioprospecting botanical-based herbal medicines against potential drug targets for COVID-19: a review coupled molecular docking studies

Since the end of February 2020, the world has come to a standstill due to the virus SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2). Since then, the global scientific community has explored various remedies and treatments against this virus, including natural products that have always been a choice because of their many benefits. Various known phytochemicals are well documented for their antiviral properties. Research is being carried out to discover new natural plant products or existing ones as a treatment measure for this disease. The three important targets in this regard are-papain like protease (PLpro), spike protein, and 3 chymotrypsin like proteases (3CLpro). Various docking studies are also being elucidated to identify the phytochemicals that modulate crucial proteins of the virus. The paper is simultaneously a comprehensive review that covers recent advances in the domain of the effect of various botanically derived natural products as an alternative treatment approach against Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Furthermore, the docking analyses revealed that rutin (inhibitor of the major protease of SARS-CoV-2), gallocatechin (e.g., interacting with 03 hydrogen bonds with a spike-like protein), lycorine (showing the best binding affinity with amino acids GLN498, THR500 and GLY446 of the spike-like protein), and quercetrin (inhabiting at its residues ASP216, PHE219, and ILE259) are promising inhibitors of SARS‑CoV‑2.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

In-sewer decay and partitioning of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli and implications for their wastewater surveillance

Campylobacter jejuni and coli are two main pathogenic species inducing diarrhoeal diseases in humans, which are responsible for the loss of 33 million lives each year. Current Campylobacter infections are mainly monitored by clinical surveillance which is often limited to individuals seeking treatment, resulting in under-reporting of disease prevalence and untimely indicators of community outbreaks. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been developed and employed for the wastewater surveillance of pathogenic viruses and bacteria. Monitoring the temporal changes of pathogen concentration in wastewater allows the early detection of disease outbreaks in a community. However, studies investigating the WBE back-estimation of Campylobacter spp. are rare. Essential factors including the analytical recovery efficiency, the decay rate, the effect of in-sewer transport, and the correlation between the wastewater concentration and the infections in communities are lacking to support wastewater surveillance. This study carried out experiments to investigate the recovery of Campylobacter jejuni and coli from wastewater and the decay under different simulated sewer reactor conditions. It was found that the recovery of Campylobacter spp. from wastewater varied with their concentrations in wastewater and depended on the detection limit of quantification methods. The concentration reduction of Campylobacter. jejuni and coli in sewers followed a two-phase reduction model, and the faster concentration reduction during the first phase is mainly due to their partitioning onto sewer biofilms. The total decay of Campylobacter. jejuni and coli varied in different types of sewer reactors, i.e. rising main vs. gravity sewer. In addition, the sensitivity analysis for WBE back-estimation of Campylobacter suggested that the first-phase decay rate constant (k₁) and the turning time point (t₁) are determining factors and their impacts increased with the hydraulic retention time of wastewater.

Constructed wetlands as hotspots of antibiotic resistance genes and pathogens: Evidence from metagenomic analysis in Chinese rural areas

In rural China, many constructed wetlands (CWs) have been developed to treat rural wastewater sustainably. However, due to the scarce information on those rural CWs, it is difficult to analyze the biological contaminants within those systems, such as antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and pathogens. Based on the data collected from two pilot-scale, one-year-observed CWs, for the first time, this study explored the accumulation of ARGs and pathogens using the metagenomic sequencing approach and SourceTracker analysis under different hydraulic loading rates. The Shannon index of ARGs in the effluent surpassed the level found in the influent. The DESeq2 analysis showed that up to 21.49% of the total pathogen species had increased relative abundance in the effluent compared with the influent. By combining the contribution of substrate and rhizosphere, the CW became a more influencing factor for ARGs and pathogens contamination than the influent. The network analysis revealed a critical but latent fact that the development of antibiotic-resistant pathogens is highly likely to be triggered by the co-occurrence of ARGs and pathogens. Collectively, from the aspect of biological risk, our study showed that CWs alone might not be an ideal solution for improving wastewater treatment in rural China.

Dependency of sanitation infrastructure on the discharge of faecal coliform and SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA in wastewater from COVID and non-COVID hospitals in Dhaka, Bangladesh

The detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) RNA in wastewater can be used as an indicator of the presence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in specific catchment areas. We conducted a hospital-based study to explore wastewater management in healthcare facilities and analyzed SARS-CoV-2 RNA in the hospital wastewater in Dhaka city during the Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak between September 2020-January 2021. We selected three COVID-hospitals, two non-COVID-hospitals, and one non-COVID-hospital with COVID wards, conducted spot-checks of the sanitation systems (i.e., toilets, drainage, and septic-tank), and collected 90 untreated wastewater effluent samples (68 from COVID and 22 from non-COVID hospitals). E. coli was detected using a membrane filtration technique and reported as colony forming unit (CFU). SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected using the iTaq Universal Probes One-Step kit for RT-qPCR amplification of the SARS-CoV-2 ORF1ab and N gene targets and quantified for SARS-CoV-2 genome equivalent copies (GEC) per mL of sample. None of the six hospitals had a primary wastewater treatment facility; two COVID hospitals had functional septic tanks, and the rest of the hospitals had either broken onsite systems or no containment of wastewater. Overall, 100 % of wastewater samples were positive with a high concentration of E. coli (mean = 7.0 log₁₀ CFU/100 mL). Overall, 67 % (60/90) samples were positive for SARS-CoV-2. The highest SARS-CoV-2 concentrations (median: 141 GEC/mL; range: 13-18,214) were detected in wastewater from COVID-hospitals, and in non-COVID-hospitals, the median SARS-CoV-2 concentration was 108 GEC/mL (range: 30-1829). Our results indicate that high concentrations of E. coli and SARS-CoV-2 were discharged through the hospital wastewater (both COVID and non-COVID) without treatment into the ambient water bodies. Although there is no evidence for transmission of SARS-CoV-2 via wastewater, this study highlights the significant risk posed by wastewater from health care facilities in Dhaka for the many other diseases that are spread via faecal oral route. Hospitals in low-income settings could function as sentinel sites to monitor outbreaks through wastewater-based epidemiological surveillance systems. Hospitals should aim to adopt the appropriate wastewater treatment technologies to reduce the discharge of pathogens into the environment and mitigate environmental exposures.

Evaluation of pre-treated healthcare wastes during COVID-19 pandemic reveals pathogenic microbiota, antibiotics residues, and antibiotic resistance genes against beta-lactams

The disposal of healthcare waste without prior elimination of pathogens and hazardous contaminants has negative effects on the environment and public health. This study aimed to profile the complete microbial community and correlate it with the antibiotic compounds identified in microwave pre-treated healthcare wastes collected from three different waste operators in Peninsular Malaysia. The bacterial and fungal compositions were determined via amplicon sequencing by targeting the full-length 16S rRNA gene and partial 18S with full-length ITS1-ITS2 regions, respectively. The antibiotic compounds were characterized using high-throughput spectrometry. There was significant variation in bacterial and fungal composition in three groups of samples, with alpha- (p-value = 0.04) and beta-diversity (p-values <0.006 and < 0.002), respectively. FC samples were found to acquire more pathogenic microorganisms than FA and FV samples. Paenibacillus and unclassified Bacilli genera were shared among three groups of samples, meanwhile, antibiotic-resistant bacteria Proteus mirabilis, Enterococcus faecium, and Enterococcus faecalis were found in modest quantities. A total of 19 antibiotic compounds were discovered and linked with the microbial abundance detected in the healthcare waste samples. The principal component analysis demonstrated a positive antibiotic-bacteria correlation for genera Pseudomonas, Aerococcus, Comamonas, and Vagococcus, while the other bacteria were negatively linked with antibiotics. Nevertheless, deep bioinformatic analysis confirmed the presence of bla_TEM-1 and penP which are associated with the production of class A beta-lactamase and beta-lactam resistance pathways. Microorganisms and contaminants, which serve as putative indicators in healthcare waste treatment evaluation revealed the ineffectiveness of microbial inactivation using the microwave sterilization method. Our findings suggested that the occurrence of clinically relevant microorganisms, antibiotic contaminants, and associated antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) represent environmental and human health hazards when released into landfills via ARGs transmission.

Biotechnological methods to remove microplastics: a review

Microplastics pollution is major threat to ecosystems and is impacting abiotic and biotic components. Microplastics are diverse and highly complex contaminants that transport other contaminants and microbes. Current methods to remove microplastics include biodegradation, incineration, landfilling, and recycling. Here we review microplastics with focus on sources, toxicity, and biodegradation. We discuss the role of algae, fungi, bacteria in the biodegradation, and we present biotechnological methods to enhance degradation, e.g., gene editing tools and bioinformatics.

Spatial distribution of fecal pollution indicators in sewage sludge flocs and their removal and inactivation as revealed by qPCR/viability-qPCR during potassium ferrate treatment

Sludge reuse and utilization is one of important routines of disseminating fecal pollution to surface water and groundwater. However, it remains unclear the spatial distribution of fecal pollution indicators in sludge flocs and their reductions during sludge treatment processes. In this study, the abundances of fecal pollution indicators including cross-assembly phage (crAssphage), JC and BK polyomavirus (JCPyV, BKPyV), human adenovirus (HAdV), the human-specific HF183 Bacteroides (HF183) and Escherichia coli (EC) in soluble extracellular polymeric substances (S-EPS), loosely-bound EPS (LB-EPS), tightly-bound EPS (TB-EPS), and pellets of sludge flocs were determined, and the effect of potassium ferrate (PF) treatment on their removal and inactivation was investigated by using both qPCR and viability-qPCR. Results showed that all investigated indicators were detected in each fraction of sludge flocs. The PF treatment led to a great migration of indicators from sludge pellets to sludge EPS and some extent of their inactivation in each fraction of sludge flocs. The overall reductions of human fecal indicators in sludge determined by qPCR were 0-1.30 logs, which were 0-2 orders of magnitude lower than those of 0.69-2.39 logs detected by viability-qPCR, implying their inactivation by PF treatment to potentially alleviate the associated human health risks.

Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in the workplace: Key findings from a rapid review of the literature

At the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, the primary route of transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus was not well understood. Research gathered from other respiratory infectious diseases, including other coronaviruses, was the basis for the initial perceptions for transmission of SARS-CoV-2. To better understand transmission of SARS-CoV-2, a rapid literature review was conducted from literature generated March 19, 2020, through September 23, 2021. 18,616 unique results were identified from literature databases and screened. Of these, 279 key articles were reviewed and abstracted covering critical topics such as environmental/workplace monitoring, sampling and analytical method evaluation, and the ability of the virus to remain intact and infectious during sampling. This paper describes the results of the rapid literature review, which evaluated pathways that contribute to transmission as well as the strengths and limitations of current sampling approaches. This review also evaluates how different factors, including environmental conditions and surface characteristics, could impact the transmission potential of SARS-CoV-2. A continual rapid review in the midst of a pandemic proved particularly useful for quickly understanding the transmission parameters of the virus and enabled us to comprehensively assess literature, respond to workplace questions, and evaluate our understanding as the science evolved. Air and surface sampling with the accompanying analytical methods were not generally effective in recovering SARS-CoV-2 viable virus or RNA in many likely contaminated environments. In light of these findings, the development of validated sampling and analysis methods is critical for determining worker exposure to SARS-CoV-2 and to assess the impact of mitigation efforts.

Environmental challenges of COVID-19 pandemic: resilience and sustainability - A review

The emergence of novel respiratory disease (COVID-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2 has become a public health emergency worldwide and perturbed the global economy and ecosystem services. Many studies have reported the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in different environmental compartments, its transmission via environmental routes, and potential environmental challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. None of these studies have comprehensively reviewed the bidirectional relationship between the COVID-19 pandemic and the environment. For the first time, we explored the relationship between the environment and the SARS-CoV-2 virus/COVID-19 and how they affect each other. Supporting evidence presented here clearly demonstrates the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in soil and water, denoting the role of the environment in the COVID-19 transmission process. However, most studies fail to determine if the viral genomes they have discovered are infectious, which could be affected by the environmental factors in which they are found.The potential environmental impact of the pandemic, including water pollution, chemical contamination, increased generation of non-biodegradable waste, and single-use plastics have received the most attention. For the most part, efficient measures have been used to address the current environmental challenges from COVID-19, including using environmentally friendly disinfection technologies and employing measures to reduce the production of plastic wastes, such as the reuse and recycling of plastics. Developing sustainable solutions to counter the environmental challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic should be included in national preparedness strategies. In conclusion, combating the pandemic and accomplishing public health goals should be balanced with environmentally sustainable measures, as the two are closely intertwined.

Microbial strategies for degradation of microplastics generated from COVID-19 healthcare waste

COVID-19 pandemic has led to the generation of massive plastic wastes, comprising of onetime useable gloves, masks, tissues, and other personal protective equipment (PPE). Recommendations for the employ of single-use disposable masks made up of various polymeric materials like polyethylene, polyurethane, polyacrylonitrile, and polypropylene, polystyrene, can have significant aftermath on environmental, human as well as animal health. Improper disposal and handling of healthcare wastes and lack of proper management practices are creating serious health hazards and an extra challenge for the local authorities designated for management of solid waste. Most of the COVID-19 medical wastes generated are now being treated by incineration which generates microplastic particles (MPs), dioxin, furans, and various toxic metals, such as cadmium and lead. Moreover, natural degradation and mechanical abrasion of these wastes can lead to the generation of MPs which cause a serious health risk to living beings. It is a major threat to aquatic lives and gets into foods subsequently jeopardizing global food safety. Moreover, the presence of plastic is also considered a threat owing to the increased carbon emission and poses a profound danger to the global food chain. Degradation of MPs by axenic and mixed culture microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, microalgae etc. can be considered an eco-sustainable technique for the mitigation of the microplastic menace. This review primarily deals with the increase in microplastic pollution due to increased use of PPE along with different disinfection methods using chemicals, steam, microwave, autoclave, and incineration which are presently being employed for the treatment of COVID-19 pandemic-related wastes. The biological treatment of the MPs by diverse groups of fungi and bacteria can be an alternative option for the mitigation of microplastic wastes generated from COVID-19 healthcare waste.

EMDS-7: Environmental microorganism image dataset seventh version for multiple object detection evaluation

Nowadays, the detection of environmental microorganism indicators is essential for us to assess the degree of pollution, but the traditional detection methods consume a lot of manpower and material resources. Therefore, it is necessary for us to make microbial data sets to be used in artificial intelligence. The Environmental Microorganism Image Dataset Seventh Version (EMDS-7) is a microscopic image data set that is applied in the field of multi-object detection of artificial intelligence. This method reduces the chemicals, manpower and equipment used in the process of detecting microorganisms. EMDS-7 including the original Environmental Microorganism (EM) images and the corresponding object labeling files in ".XML" format file. The EMDS-7 data set consists of 41 types of EMs, which has a total of 2,65 images and 13,216 labeled objects. The EMDS-7 database mainly focuses on the object detection. In order to prove the effectiveness of EMDS-7, we select the most commonly used deep learning methods (Faster-Region Convolutional Neural Network (Faster-RCNN), YOLOv3, YOLOv4, SSD, and RetinaNet) and evaluation indices for testing and evaluation. EMDS-7 is freely published for non-commercial purpose at: https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/EMDS-7_DataSet/16869571.

Wastewater Surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 at a Canadian University Campus and the Impact of Wastewater Characteristics on Viral RNA Detection

Because of the increased population density, high-risk behavior of young students, and lower vaccination rates, university campuses are considered hot spots for COVID-19 transmission. This study monitored the SARS-CoV-2 RNA levels in the wastewater of a Canadian university campus for a year to provide actionable information to safely manage COVID-19 on campus. Wastewater samples were collected from the campus sewer and residence buildings to identify changes, peaks, and hotspots and search for associations with campus events, social gatherings, long weekends, and holidays. Furthermore, the impact of wastewater parameters (total solids, volatile solids, temperature, pH, turbidity, and UV absorbance) on SARS-CoV-2 detection was investigated, and the efficiency of ultrafiltration and centrifugation concentration methods were compared. RT-qPCR was used for detecting SARS-CoV-2 RNA. Wastewater signals largely correlated positively with the clinically confirmed COVID-19 cases on campus. Long weekends and holidays were often followed by increased viral signals, and the implementation of lockdowns quickly decreased the case numbers. In spite of online teaching and restricted access to campus, the university represented a microcosm of the city and mirrored the same trends. Results indicated that the centrifugation concentration method was more sensitive for wastewater with high solids content and that the ultrafiltration concentration method was more sensitive for wastewater with low solids content. Wastewater characteristics collected from the buildings and the campus sewer were different. Statistical analysis was performed to manifest the observations. Overall, wastewater surveillance provided actionable information and was also able to bring high-risk factors and events to the attention of decision-makers, enabling timely corrective measures.

A safe haven of SARS-CoV-2 in the environment: Prevalence and potential transmission risks in the effluent, sludge, and biosolids

The novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, which has caused millions of death globally is recognized to be unstable and recalcitrant in the environment, especially in the way it has been evolving to form new and highly transmissible variants. Of particular concerns are human-environment interactions and the handling and reusing the environmental materials, such as effluents, sludge, or biosolids laden with the SARS-CoV-2 without adequate treatments, thereby suggesting potential transmission and health risks. This study assesses the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in effluents, sludge, and biosolids. Further, we evaluate the environmental, ecological, and health risks of reusing these environmental materials by wastewater/sludge workers and farmers. A systematic review of literature from the Scopus database resulted in a total of 21 articles (11 for effluents, 8 for sludge, and 2 for biosolids) that met the criteria for meta-analysis, which are then subdivided into 30 meta-analyzed studies. The prevalence of SAR-CoV-2 RNA in effluent and sludge based on random-effect models are 27.51 and 10^12.25, respectively, with a 95% CI between 6.14 and 48.89 for the effluent, and 10^4.78 and 10^19.71 for the sludge. However, the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in the biosolids based on the fixed-effect model is 30.59, with a 95% CI between 10.10 and 51.08. The prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in environmental materials indicates the inefficiency in some of the treatment systems currently deployed to inactivate and remove the novel virus, which could be a potential health risk concern to vulnerable wastewater workers in particular, and the environmental and ecological issues for the population at large. This timely review portends the associated risks in handling and reusing environmental materials without proper and adequate treatments.

Quantifying the spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of medical waste generation during the outbreak of public health emergencies

Based on the medical waste quantity and patient data during the corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China, this study used scenario analysis to quantitatively analyze the temporal and spatial evolution of medical waste generation during the pandemics. First, the results show that the estimated medical waste per capita reached 15.4 kg/day if only patients were considered in Scenario 1, while the figures were reduced to 3.2 kg/day in Scenario 2 and 2.5 kg/day in Scenario 3 when the effects of both the patient type and the number of medical staffs were considered. The estimated results also demonstrated that the per capita medical waste related to the epidemic showed the characteristics of a U-shaped and trailing phenomenon over time. Then, the amount of medical waste related to the COVID-19 generated that generated due to COVID-19 was estimated in Hubei, Heilongjiang, Zhejiang, Henan and Hunan provinces under Scenario 2 and Scenario 3. The results indicated that the spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of five provinces show the significant differences, and the patient type has a remarkable influence on the generation of medical waste. Finally, a novel decomposition-ensemble approach was designed to make a better short-term forecasting effect for future medical waste generation in different provinces.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10163-022-01523-5.

Wastewater Surveillance for Infectious Disease: A Systematic Review

Wastewater surveillance for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been shown to be a valuable source of information regarding SARS-CoV-2 transmission and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases. Although the method has been used for several decades to track other infectious diseases, there has not been a comprehensive review outlining all of the pathogens that have been surveilled through wastewater. Herein we identify the infectious diseases that have been previously studied via wastewater surveillance prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. Infectious diseases and pathogens were identified in 100 studies of wastewater surveillance across 38 countries, as were themes of how wastewater surveillance and other measures of disease transmission were linked. Twenty-five separate pathogen families were identified in the included studies, with the majority of studies examining pathogens from the family Picornaviridae, including polio and nonpolio enteroviruses. Most studies of wastewater surveillance did not link what was found in the wastewater to other measures of disease transmission. Among those studies that did, the value reported varied by study. Wastewater surveillance should be considered as a potential public health tool for many infectious diseases. Wastewater surveillance studies can be improved by incorporating other measures of disease transmission at the population-level including disease incidence and hospitalizations.

An opinion on Wastewater-Based Epidemiological Monitoring (WBEM) with Clinical Diagnostic Test (CDT) for detecting high-prevalence areas of community COVID-19 Infections

Wastewater-Based Epidemiological Monitoring (WBEM) is an efficient surveillance tool during the COVID-19 pandemic as it meets all requirements of a complete monitoring system including early warning, tracking the current trend, prevalence of the disease, detection of genetic diversity as well asthe up-surging SARS-CoV-2 new variants with mutations from the wastewater samples. Subsequently, Clinical Diagnostic Test is widely acknowledged as the global gold standard method for disease monitoring, despite several drawbacks such as high diagnosis cost, reporting bias, and the difficulty of tracking asymptomatic patients (silent spreaders of the COVID-19 infection who manifest nosymptoms of the disease). In this current reviewand opinion-based study, we first propose a combined approach) for detecting COVID-19 infection in communities using wastewater and clinical sample testing, which may be feasible and effective as an emerging public health tool for the long-term nationwide surveillance system. The viral concentrations in wastewater samples can be used as indicatorsto monitor ongoing SARS-CoV-2 trends, predict asymptomatic carriers, and detect COVID-19 hotspot areas, while clinical sampleshelp in detecting mostlysymptomaticindividuals for isolating positive cases in communities and validate WBEM protocol for mass vaccination including booster doses for COVID-19.

Municipal solid waste, an overlooked route of transmission for the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2: a review

Municipal solid waste could potentially transmit human pathogens during the collection, transport, handling, and disposal of waste. Workers and residents living in the vicinity of municipal solid waste collection or disposal sites are particularly susceptible, especially unprotected workers and waste pickers. Recent evidence suggests that municipal solid waste-mediated transmission can spread the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) to humans. Such risks, however, have received little attention from public health authorities so far and may present an under-investigated transmission route for SARS-CoV-2 and other infectious agents during pandemics. In this review, we provide a retrospective analysis of the challenges, practices, and policies on municipal solid waste management during the current pandemic, and scrutinize the recent case reports on the municipal solid waste-mediated transmission of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). We found abrupt changes in quantity and composition of municipal solid wastes during the COVID-19. We detail pathways of exposure to SARS-CoV-2 and other pathogens carried on municipal solid wastes. We disclose evidence of pathogenic transmission by municipal solid waste to humans and animals. Assessments of current policies, gaps, and voluntary actions taken on municipal solid waste handling and disposal in the current pandemic are presented. We propose risk mitigation strategies and research priorities to alleviate the risk for humans and vectors exposed to municipal solid wastes.

Wastewater-Based Epidemiology: Detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in Different Stages of Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Santa Fe, Argentina

The COVID-19 pandemic affected human life at every level. In this study, we analyzed genetic markers (N and ORF1ab, RNA genes) of SARS-CoV-2 in domestic wastewaters (DWW) in San Justo City (Santa Fe, Argentina), using reverse transcription-quantitative real-time PCR. Out of the 30 analyzed samples, 30% were positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA. Of the total positive samples, 77% correspond to untreated DWW, 23% to pre-chlorination, and no SARS-CoV-2 RNA was registered at the post-chlorination sampling site. The viral loads of N and OFR1ab genes decreased significantly along the treatment process, and the increase in the number of viral copies of the N gene could anticipate, by 6 days, the number of clinical cases in the population. The concentration of chlorine recommended by the WHO (≥ 0.5 mg L^-1 after at least 30 min of contact time at pH 8.0) successfully removed SARS-CoV-2 RNA from DWW. The efficiency of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) confirms the need to control and increase DWW treatment systems on a regional and global scale. This work could contribute to building a network for WBE to monitor SARS-CoV-2 in wastewaters during the pandemic waves and the epidemic remission phase.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11270-022-05772-w.

Review of Method and a New Tool for Decline and Inactive SARS-CoV-2 in Wastewater Treatment

Following the recent outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, monitoring sewage has become crucial, according to reports that the virus was detected in sewage. Currently, various methods are discussed for understanding the SARS-CoV-2 using wastewater surveillance. This paper first introduces the fundamental knowledge of primary, secondary, and tertiary water treatment on SARS-CoV-2. Next, a thorough overview is presented to summarize the recent developments and breakthroughs in removing SARS-CoV-2 using solar water disinfection (SODIS) and UV (UVA (315–400 nm), UVB (280-315 nm), and UVC (100–280 nm)) process. In addition, Due to the fact that the distilled water can be exposed to sunlight if there is no heating source, it can be disinfected using solar water disinfection (SODIS). SODIS, on the other hand, is a well-known method of reducing pathogens in contaminated water; moreover, UVC can inactivate SARS-CoV-2 when the wavelength is between 100 to 280 nanometers. High temperatures (more than 56°C) and UVC are essential for eliminating SARS-CoV-2; however, the SODIS systems use UVA and work at lower temperatures (less than45°C). Therefore, using SODIS methods for wastewater treatment (or providing drinking water) is not appropriate during a situation like the ongoing pandemic. Finally, a wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) tracking tool for SARS-CoV-2 can be used to detect its presence in wastewater.

Solid waste composition and COVID-19-induced changes in an inland water ecosystem in Turkey

The composition and abundance of solid waste and the effect of COVID-19 measures were studied in an inland water ecosystem in Turkey. Solid waste items were collected annually for 5 years from 2017 to 2021 from seven stations located in Borçka Dam Lake (B1-B4) and Murgul Stream (M1-M3) in the Artvin Province. The highest densities by number and weight were recorded at M3 in 2020 (5.72 items/m²) and M1 in 2020 (0.39 kg/m²), respectively. However, no significant difference in density was recorded (p < 0.05) between the years. Plastic was the most abundant waste material by number of items in all the stations with a percentage contribution varying between 25.47 and 88.89%. There was a considerable increase in medical items during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020-2021. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and ANOSIM results revealed visually and statistically significant differences in solid waste composition between the years and stations. The dissimilarity between the years was driven by plastic and medical waste. The main sources of solid waste were river transportation (22.93%), improper disposal (20.74%), aquaculture activities (16.42%), and recreational and tourism activities (14.72%). The results of our study can be a baseline for transportation models, local administrations, and non-governmental organizations. Besides, the current waste management measures in Turkey are not effective in preventing waste accumulation in inland aquatic systems such as the Borçka Dam Lake and Murgul Stream. Furthermore, these findings indicate that the COVID-19 pandemic influenced solid waste composition and increased its abundance in the study area.

Solid waste composition and COVID-19-induced changes in an inland water ecosystem in Turkey

The composition and abundance of solid waste and the effect of COVID-19 measures were studied in an inland water ecosystem in Turkey. Solid waste items were collected annually for 5 years from 2017 to 2021 from seven stations located in Borçka Dam Lake (B1-B4) and Murgul Stream (M1-M3) in the Artvin Province. The highest densities by number and weight were recorded at M3 in 2020 (5.72 items/m²) and M1 in 2020 (0.39 kg/m²), respectively. However, no significant difference in density was recorded (p < 0.05) between the years. Plastic was the most abundant waste material by number of items in all the stations with a percentage contribution varying between 25.47 and 88.89%. There was a considerable increase in medical items during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020-2021. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and ANOSIM results revealed visually and statistically significant differences in solid waste composition between the years and stations. The dissimilarity between the years was driven by plastic and medical waste. The main sources of solid waste were river transportation (22.93%), improper disposal (20.74%), aquaculture activities (16.42%), and recreational and tourism activities (14.72%). The results of our study can be a baseline for transportation models, local administrations, and non-governmental organizations. Besides, the current waste management measures in Turkey are not effective in preventing waste accumulation in inland aquatic systems such as the Borçka Dam Lake and Murgul Stream. Furthermore, these findings indicate that the COVID-19 pandemic influenced solid waste composition and increased its abundance in the study area.

Changes in water use and wastewater generation influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic: A case study of China

This paper examines and projects the water use and wastewater generation during and after the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) in China, and discussed the water use/wastewater generation pattern changes among different sectors. Existing studies on the impact of pandemic spread-prevention measures on water consumption and wastewater treatment during the pandemic are reviewed. The water use and wastewater discharge in China through the COVID-19 period are then projected and analyzed using Multivariate Linear Regression. The projection is carried out for years 2019-2023 and covers an (estimated) full process of pre-pandemic, pandemic outbreak, and recovery phase and provides essential information for determining the complete phase impact of the COVID-19. Two scenarios, i.e. the recovery scenario and the business as usual scenario, are set to investigate the water use and wastewater generation characteristics after the pandemic. The results imply that in both scenarios, the water use in China shows a V-shaped trend from 2019 to 2023 and reached a low point in 2020 of 5,813✕10⁸ m³. The wastewater discharge shows an increasing trend throughout the COVID period in both scenarios. The results are also compared with the water consumption and wastewater generation during the SARS-CoV-1 period. The implication for policymakers is the possible increase of water use and wastewater discharge in the post COVID period and the necessity to ensure the water supply and control of water pollution and wastewater discharge.

SARS-CoV-2 shedding sources in wastewater and implications for wastewater-based epidemiology

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approach for COVID-19 surveillance is largely based on the assumption of SARS-CoV-2 RNA shedding into sewers by infected individuals. Recent studies found that SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentration in wastewater (C_RNA) could not be accounted by the fecal shedding alone. This study aimed to determine potential major shedding sources based on literature data of C_RNA, along with the COVID-19 prevalence in the catchment area through a systematic literature review. Theoretical C_RNA under a certain prevalence was estimated using Monte Carlo simulations, with eight scenarios accommodating feces alone, and both feces and sputum as shedding sources. With feces alone, none of the WBE data was in the confidence interval of theoretical C_RNA estimated with the mean feces shedding magnitude and probability, and 63% of C_RNA in WBE reports were higher than the maximum theoretical concentration. With both sputum and feces, 91% of the WBE data were below the simulated maximum C_RNA in wastewater. The inclusion of sputum as a major shedding source led to more comparable theoretical C_RNA to the literature WBE data. Sputum discharging behavior of patients also resulted in great fluctuations of C_RNA under a certain prevalence. Thus, sputum is a potential critical shedding source for COVID-19 WBE surveillance.

Antimicrobial Resistance in the COVID-19 Landscape: Is There an Opportunity for Anti-Infective Antibodies and Antimicrobial Peptides?

Although COVID-19 has captured most of the public health attention, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has not disappeared. To prevent the escape of resistant microorganisms in animals or environmental reservoirs a "one health approach" is desirable. In this context of COVID-19, AMR has probably been affected by the inappropriate or over-use of antibiotics. The increased use of antimicrobials and biocides for disinfection may have enhanced the prevalence of AMR. Antibiotics have been used empirically in patients with COVID-19 to avoid or prevent bacterial coinfection or superinfections. On the other hand, the measures to prevent the transmission of COVID-19 could have reduced the risk of the emergence of multidrug-resistant microorganisms. Since we do not currently have a sterilizing vaccine against SARS-CoV-2, the virus may still multiply in the organism and new mutations may occur. As a consequence, there is a risk of the appearance of new variants. Nature-derived anti-infective agents, such as antibodies and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), are very promising in the fight against infectious diseases, because they are less likely to develop resistance, even though further investigation is still required.

Game of transmissions (GoT) of SARS-CoV-2: Second wave of COVID-19 is here in India

Corona virus disease (COVID-19) pandemic had taken the humankind by surprise, yet the world laid out a historical battle against all the odds. Laboratory findings have never been so rapidly made available to common public and authorities. Experimental data on COVID-19 from across the globe was directly made accessible worldwide. The second wave of the pandemic in India caused unprecedented havoc and it can be stated that all the knowledge of the game of transmission of COVID-19 acquired and shared was not played with right precision and preparations. Rapid spread of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in the second phase made us rethink if the choice of information given to the common people pertaining to the selective transmission restriction pathways with pressing concern on lethality were inadequate. Most of the governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) including the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended droplet-based and airborne transmission restrictions as the major steps to control rapid spread of the virus. While, no caution was advised for other plausible pathways like sewage, wastewater-based and non-ventilated indoor air-based transmissions, which are still unknown or not well investigated, and are equally dangerous. The main focus of this article is to analyse the past development about SARS-CoV-2 transmission pathway related recommendation(s) provided by WHO and track the trajectory to alert all the concerning stakeholders and policymakers to rethink and to collect adequate scientific data before they recommend or neglect any specific or all the possible transmission pathways to control the spread of infectious agents further.