Camel's milk alleviates alcohol-induced liver injury in rats

The molecular basis of the immunomodulatory effects of natural products: A comprehensive review

BACKGROUND

Natural products (NPs) have long been recognized for their potential to modulate the immune system, offering a natural and holistic approach to enhancing immune function. In recent years, the immunomodulation effects of various natural products have attained significant attention.

PURPOSE

This article provides an overview of the role of natural products in immunomodulation, exploring their mechanisms of action, common types of NPs with immunomodulation properties, clinical applications, as well as considerations for their safety and efficacy.

METHODS

Extensive research has been conducted to compile important discoveries on the immunomodulatory properties of NPs through thorough searches of multiple databases such as PubMed, Science Direct, and Scopus up until January 2024.

RESULTS

By decreasing the levels of Th2 cytokines and pro-inflammatory cytokines, the results suggested that NPs have the ability to modulate the immune system. Therefore, NPs alleviate inflammation in various disorders such as asthma and cancer. Furthermore, the observed increase in CD4 cells and IFN-ɣ/IL4 levels, along with an increased IFN-c/IL4 ratio, indicates a stimulatory effect of NPs on Th1 activity in various inflammatory conditions. Therefore, NPs regulate the immune system by inhibiting T-cells and decreasing the growth of young B-cell lymphoma cells.

CONCLUSION

Reviewing studies indicated that NPs have the potential to serve as immunomodulatory candidates for treating disorders characterized by immune dysregulation. However, additional experimental and clinical studies are necessary before these agents can be implemented in clinical settings.

Invited review: Camel milk-derived bioactive peptides and diabetes-Molecular view and perspectives

In dairy science, camel milk (CM) constitutes a center of interest for scientists due to its known beneficial effect on diabetes as demonstrated in many in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies and trials. Overall, CM had positive effects on various parameters related to glucose transport and metabolism as well as the structural and functional properties of the pancreatic β-cells and insulin secretion. Thus, CM consumption may help manage diabetes; however, such a recommendation will become rationale and clinically conceivable only if the exact molecular mechanisms and pathways involved at the cellular levels are well understood. Moreover, the application of CM as an alternative antidiabetic tool may first require the identification of the exact bioactive molecules behind such antidiabetic properties. In this review, we describe the advances in our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms reported to be involved in the beneficial effects of CM in managing diabetes using different in vitro and in vivo models. This mainly includes the effects of CM on the different molecular pathways controlling (1) insulin receptor signaling and glucose uptake, (2) the pancreatic β-cell structure and function, and (3) the activity of key metabolic enzymes in glucose metabolism. Moreover, we described the current status of the identification of CM-derived bioactive peptides and their structure-activity relationship study and characterization in the context of molecular markers related to diabetes. Such an overview will not only enrich our scientific knowledge of the plausible mode of action of CM in diabetes but should ultimately rationalize the claim of the potential application of CM against diabetes. This will pave the way toward new directions and ideas for developing a new generation of antidiabetic products taking benefits from the chemical composition of CM.

Ameliorative effects of camel milk and silymarin upon aflatoxin B1 induced hepatic injury in rats

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) poses a major risk to both human and animal health because it contaminates food, feed, and grains. These dangerous effects can be mitigated using natural components. The purpose of this study was to examine the ameliorative effects of camel milk and silymarin supplementation upon aflatoxin B1 induced hepatic injury in rats. This improvement was assessed by measuring leukocytic and deferential counts, serum biochemical parameters, and gene expression of Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF-α), antioxidant gene (NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1)), and base excision repair genes (APE1 and OGG1) in the liver tissue, in addition to liver histopathology. Sixty mature males Wister white rats were used to perform the present study; the rats were distributed in six groups (ten rats/group). The control group (without any treatment) received saline by gavage. The camel milk group received 1 ml of camel milk/kg body weight. The silymarin group received 1 ml of silymarin suspension solution at a dose of 20 mg of silymarin/kg of b.wt. The aflatoxin group received an aflatoxin-contaminated diet at a dose of 1.4 mg of aflatoxin /kg of diet and received saline. The camel milk + aflatoxin group received the same previous oral doses of camel milk and an aflatoxin-contaminated diet at the same time. The silymarin + aflatoxin group received the same previous doses of silymarin orally and an aflatoxin-contaminated diet at the same time. The obtained data indicated the deleterious effect of aflatoxin B1 on the leukocytic count, activity of AST and ALT, serum proteins, ferritin, alpha-fetoprotein, carcinoembryonic antigen, liver pathology, and the expression of the studied genes. However, these deleterious effects were mitigated by camel milk and silymarin supplementation. Thus, we could conclude that the ingestion of camel milk and silymarin mitigated the negative effects of AFB1 on the hematology, activity of AST and ALT, serum proteins, ferritin, alpha-fetoprotein, carcinoembryonic antigen, liver pathology, and gene expression in the rat model.

Effects of Raw and Pasteurized Camel Milk on Metabolic Responses in Pigs Fed a High-Fat Diet

Simple Summary

Camel milk (CM) contains insulin-like peptides and is high in vitamin C, vitamin E, and antioxidants. Previous studies in diabetic mice and humans have demonstrated a positive impact of CM consumption on glycemic balance, potentially greater than that observed for the consumption of bovine milk. Thus, CM may be a viable therapeutic treatment for diabetic humans, although the mode of action of these effects are not yet understood. This experiment used a high-fat diet as a monogastric model to examine the effect of CM consumption (raw or pasteurized) on some key blood metabolic markers and examined responses to an in vitro glucose tolerance test. While the results are preliminary given the low number of animals, this experiment suggested that CM can improve glycemic control, potentially via a tighter control of insulin effectiveness and/or uptake.

Abstract

Evidence suggests that camel milk (CM) can have insulin-like actions, although the mode of action is not understood. Using the pig as a monogastric model, this pilot experiment examined the effects of CM consumption on metabolic responses to an in vitro glucose tolerance test (IVGTT). Twenty female Large White × Landrace pigs were individually housed for 6 wks and randomly allocated to one of the following four diets (fed ad libitum; n = 5): control (Con); high fat (HF; ~16% fat); raw CM (the HF diet plus 500 mL CM/ day); or pasteurized CM (PCM). Blood samples were collected on two occasions (weeks 2 and 5). At week 6, the pigs were fitted with an ear vein cannula and the following day an in vitro glucose tolerance test (IVGTT) was conducted (0.3 g/kg BW glucose). Plasma fatty acids and cholesterol concentrations were greater in the pigs fed the HF diet and greatest in those fed CM, while there was no effect of diet on insulin concentrations. The pigs fed CM tended to have a reduced peak insulin (p = 0.058) and an increased glucose nadir (p = 0.009) in response to the IVGTT. These preliminary results tend to support the hypothesis that feeding CM can improve glycemic control in pigs.

Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Enriched Camel Milk Attenuated Colitis Symptoms in Mice Model

Fermented camel's milk has various health beneficial prebiotics and probiotics. This study aimed to evaluate the preventive efficacy of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens enriched camel milk (BEY) in 2-, 4- and 6-Trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis mice models. To this end, the immune modulatory effects of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (BA) on TNF-α challenged HT29 colon cells were estimated using the cell proliferation and cytokines ELISA method. BEY was prepared using the incubation method and nutritional value was quantified by comparing it to commercial yogurt. Furthermore, TNBS-induced colitis was established and the level of disease index, pathological scores, and inflammatory markers of BEY-treated mice using macroscopic and microscopic examinations, qPCR and immunoblot were investigated. The results demonstrate that BA is non-toxic to HT29 colon cells and balanced the inflammatory cytokines. BEY reduced the colitis disease index, and improved the body weight and colon length of the TNBS-induced mice. Additionally, Myeloperoxidase (MPO) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL1β, IL6, IL8 and TNF-α) were attenuated by BEY treatment. Moreover, the inflammatory progress mRNA and protein markers nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB), phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and occludin were significantly down-regulated by BEY treatment. Interestingly, significant suppression of PCNA was observed in colonic tissues using the immunohistochemical examination. Treatment with BEY increased the epigenetic (microRNA217) interactions with PCNA. In conclusion, the BEY clearly alleviated the colitis symptoms and in the future could be used to formulate a probiotic-based diet for the host gut health and control the inflammatory bowel syndrome in mammals.

The Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Effects of Camel Milk

Camel milk (CM) has been found to have several health benefits, including antiviral, antibacterial, anti-tumor, anti-fungal, antioxidant, hypoglycaemic and anti-cancer activities. In addition, CM can counter signs of aging and may be a useful naturopathic treatment for autoimmune diseases. The composition of CM varies with geographic origin, feeding conditions, seasonal and physiological changes, genetics and camel health status. In the present review, we collate the diverse scientific literature studying antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of CM and its bioactive compounds. The databases Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science were searched until the end of September 2021 using the keywords: camel milk, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory. The anti-inflammatory mechanism of CM in various inflammatory disorders was consistently reported to be through modulating inflammatory cells and mediators. The common anti-inflammatory bioactive components of CM seem to be lactoferrin. The antioxidant effects of α-lactalbumin, β-caseins and vitamin C of CM work by reducing or inhibiting the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), hydroxyl radicals, nitric oxide (NO), superoxide anions and peroxyl radicals, likely alleviating oxidative stress. Higher levels of protective proteins such as lysozyme, IgG and secretory IgA compared to cow's milk, and insulin-like protein activity of CM on ß cells appear to be responsible for the immunomodulatory properties of CM. The evidence indicates that CM and its bioactive components has the potential to be a therapeutic value for diseases that are caused by inflammation, oxidative stress and/or immune-dysregulation.

Beneficial Effects of Fermented Camel and Cow’s Milk in Lipid Profile, Liver, and Renal Function in Hypercholesterolemic Rats

As hyperlipidemia has been associated with cardiovascular diseases, this study investigated the influence of probiotic-fermented camel and cow’s milk on blood lipid profiles in hypercholesterolemic rats. When tested, probiotic-fermented camel and cow’s milk exhibited the highest overall acceptance score in flavor and texture. Forty-eight male Wistar rats were divided into eight groups (n = 6). The first group served as normal control, while groups 2–8 were fed on a high-fat (HFD), high-cholesterol diet throughout the experimental period and treated with different types of fermented milks. Feeding rats on probiotic-fermented milk resulted in a significant decrease in the level of triglycerides (TG), cholesterol, and LDL compared with the positive control group. Albumin and total protein concentrations increased significantly, while ALT, AST, and creatinine were significantly reduced in rats fed on probiotic-fermented milk. The results indicated that probiotic-fermented milk might improve liver and kidney functions in hypercholesterolemic rats. These findings highlighted the ameliorative potentials of camel milk against hyperlipidemia and oxidative stress in rats.

Camel milk ameliorates inflammatory mechanisms in an alcohol-induced liver injury mouse model

Camel milk (CM) is considered to protect the liver in the practice of traditional medicine in nomadic areas. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of CM on the hepatic biochemical and multiple omics alterations induced by chronic alcoholic liver disease (ALD). An intragastric gavage mice Lieber DeCarli + Gao binge model (NIAAA model) was employed to investigate the inflammatory mechanism of camel milk on the liver tissue of mice. A gut microbiota of the feces of mice and transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of the liver of mice were performed. Analysis of serum and liver biochemical indexes revealed that camel milk not only prevents alcohol-induced colonic dysfunction and lipid accumulation, but also regulates oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokine production to protect against chronic ALD in mouse. The gut microbial community of mice treated with camel milk was more similar to the untreated control group than to the model group, indicating that the intake of camel milk pre- and post-alcohol gavage effectively prevents and alleviates the intestinal microbial disorder caused by chronic alcoholism in mice. Furthermore, the results of the transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of the liver tissue showed that camel milk can improve alcoholic liver injury in mice by regulating inflammatory factors and immune system disruptions. This study provides insights into the molecular mechanism by which camel milk can be developed as a potential functional food with no side effects and against liver injury.

The effect of camel milk curd masses on rats blood serum biochemical parameters: Preliminary study

This study aimed to assess potential feeding effect of camel milk curd mass and its mixes to experimental rat's blood serum biochemical parameters, enzymatic activity and the peptide toxicity. Fifty healthy male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into five groups (n = 10 each). Each group was fed with camel milk pure curd mass and its mixes for 16 days. At the end of the experiment, rats were sacrificed to collect the samples from the blood serum. Blood serum biochemical parameters total protein, cholesterol, glucose, albumin, triglycerides; the enzymatic activities of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase were determined on the A25 automatic analyser, and peptide toxicity analysed by the reference method. The statistical data have shown no significant differences in body weight gain in all groups. Total protein decreased in group II, IV, and V; however, it increased in group III compared to the control group. Cholesterol grew up in group II and it slightly increased in group V, dropped in groups III and IV compared to group I result. Glucose increased in groups II, III, IV compared to group I; still, group V results show a slight decrease. Albumin decreased in group IV, yet in group V it increased than the group I result. Simultaneously, groups II and III results were changed with less percentage. Triglyceride grew up in groups II, V, and it dropped significantly in groups III, IV compared to the control group. De Ritis ratio of enzymes in groups II, III, and IV fluctuated between 1.31 and 0.98 IU/L; however, group V demonstrated significant data versus group I. Diets peptide toxicity in all groups was lower than control group data. The experimental results indicated that curd mass from camel milk could be used as a pure or with additives and it did not discover the observed side effects.

Camel Milk Mitigates Cyclosporine-Induced Renal Damage in Rats: Targeting p38/ERK/JNK MAPKs, NF-κB, and Matrix Metalloproteinases

Renal damage is a devastating adverse effect for cyclosporine; a widely used immunosuppressant drug. The present work examined the potential of camel milk, a natural agent with marked anti-inflammatory/antioxidant properties, to attenuate cyclosporine-induced renal injury. The kidney tissue was examined with the aid of Western blotting, immunohistochemistry, biochemical assays, including colorimetric and ELISA kits. The present findings revealed that camel milk (10 mL/kg/day; for 3 weeks by gavage) significantly lowered serum creatinine, BUN, and KIM-1 renal dysfunction markers. Mechanistically, camel milk inhibited renal inflammation, as seen by significant decrease of the pro-inflammatory cytokines (MCP-1, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-18) and extracellular degradation signals (MMP-2 and MMP-9) and enhanced the generation of the anti-inflammatory IL-10. Moreover, it inhibited the upstream pro-inflammatory p38/ERK/JNK MAPK pathway by lowering the phosphorylation of the 3 subfamilies of MAPKs (p38 MAPK, JNK1/2, and ERK1/2). Furthermore, camel milk curbed the NF-κB pathway activation by downregulating the protein expression of activated NF-κBp65, p-NF-κBp65, and p-IκBα proteins. Additionally, camel milk inhibited renal oxidative stress by lowering the MPO activity and augmenting the reduced/oxidized glutathione ratio and total antioxidant capacity. These findings propose that camel milk may be a promising agent that inhibits cyclosporine-triggered renal inflammation via curtailing the p38/ERK/JNK MAPK and NF-κB pathways, matrix metalloproteinases, and pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Research Development on Anti-Microbial and Antioxidant Properties of Camel Milk and Its Role as an Anti-Cancer and Anti-Hepatitis Agent

Camel milk is a rich source of vitamin C, lactic acid bacteria (LAB), beta-caseins and milk whey proteins, including lactoferrin, lysozyme, lactoperoxidase, alpha-lactalbumin and immunoglobulin. The lactoferrin plays a key role in several physiological functions, such as conferring antioxidant, anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory functions in cells. Similarly, the camel milk alpha-lactalbumin has shown greater antioxidative activity because of its higher antioxidant amino acid residues. The antioxidant properties of camel milk have also been ascribed to the structural conformation of its beta-caseins. Upon hydrolysis, the beta-caseins lead to some bioactive peptides having antioxidant activities. Consequently, the vitamin C in camel milk has a significant antioxidant effect and can be used as a source of vitamin C when the climate is harsh. Furthermore, the lysozyme and immunoglobulins in camel milk have anti-microbial and immune regulatory properties. The LAB isolated from camel milk have a protective role against both Gram-positive and -negative bacteria. Moreover, the LAB can be used as a probiotic and may restore the oxidative status caused by various pathogenic bacterial infections. Various diseases such as cancer and hepatitis have been associated with oxidative stress. Camel milk could increase antiproliferative effects and regulate antioxidant genes during cancer and hepatitis, hence ameliorating oxidative stress. In the current review, we have illustrated the anti-microbial and antioxidant properties of camel milk in detail. In addition, the anti-cancer and anti-hepatitis properties of camel milk have also been discussed.

Camel milk as an alternative treatment regimen for diabetes therapy

Camel milk is a valuable source of nutrition with a wide range of therapeutic effects. Its unique composition helps to regulate the blood glucose level. The current study is aimed to evaluate the antidiabetic and hepatoprotective effects, as well as lipid profile restoration of camel milk in the diabetic mouse model. This innovative study evaluates the therapeutic effects of camel milk in diabetic mice by simultaneous measurement of blood glucose, HbA1c, ALT, AST, TG, cholesterol, and histopathological studies. The results showed that camel milk has significantly reduced blood glucose, HbA1c (p < .001), aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT) (p < .01), triglyceride (TG), and cholesterol (p < .01), compared to that in the diabetic control group. Also, the therapeutic effects of camel milk were completely comparable with the antidiabetic drug glibenclamide. The results of this study suggest that camel milk could be used as a proper alternative treatment regimen for diabetes therapy.

The palliative effect of camel milk on hepatic CYP1A1 gene expression and DNA damage induced by fenpropathrin oral intoxication in male rats

The present study investigated the alleviating role of camel milk (CM) in the mitigation of fenpropathrin (FNP) type II pyrethroid induced oxidative stress, alterations of hepatic (CYP1A1) mRNA expression pattern, and DNA damage using the alkaline comet assay (SCGE) in male rats. Sixty male Sprague-Dawley rats were separated into six groups (n = 10): 1st control (C), 2nd corn oil (CO), 3rd (CM): gavaged CM 2ml/rat, 4th (FNP): gavaged FNP 7.09 mg/kg body weight (BW), 5th (FNP pro/co-treated): gavaged CM firstly for 15 days, then CM + FNP by the same mentioned doses and route, 6th (FNP + CM co-treated): gavaged FNP firstly followed by CM by the same mentioned doses and route. Rats were orally gavaged three times per week, day after day for 60 days. FNP exposure significantly reduced serum glutathione (GSH) levels, but significantly increased serum levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), malondialdehyde (MDA), protein carbonyl (PCO), and 8hydroxy2deoxyguanosine (8OH2dG). Additionally, FNP exposure significantly up-regulated the mRNA expression levels of hepatic CYP1A1 and increased the SCGE indices in whole blood, liver, and spleen tissues of exposed male rats. Administration of CM significantly regulated the FNP induced oxidative stress, reduced hepatic CYP1A1 mRNA expression levels and values of comet assay indices particularly in the (CM + FNP pro/co-treated) group compared to the (FNP + CM co-treated) group. In conclusion, our results indicate, for the first time, that FNP retains an in vivo genotoxic potential at a dose of (1/10 LD₅₀) and up-regulated hepatic CYP1A1 mRNA expression in male rats. Additionally, CM supplements may improve the genotoxic outcomes, oxidative stress, and altered CYP1A1 mRNA expression induced by FNP particularly in the pro/concurrent-treatment compared to the concurrent treatment alone.

Curcumin and Baicalin ameliorate ethanol-induced liver oxidative damage via the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway

One of the key mechanisms of alcoholic liver disease is oxidative stress. Both Curcumin and Baicalin exert antioxidant effects, but the mechanism of their combined effects of ethanol-induced liver injury is still unclear. This study was conducted to evaluate the dual antioxidant activity of Curcumin combined with Baicalin against ethanol-induced liver injury in rats. Rats were divided into five groups, a control, ethanol, ethanol + Curcumin (50 mg/kg), ethanol + Baicalin (50 mg/kg), and ethanol + Curcumin +Baicalin group with ten rats per group. The effects of ethanol on liver enzymes, oxidative stress indicators and the levels of Nrf2/HO-1 pathway related proteins and mRNA were observed along with liver histopathology in rats. Our results found that the serum ALT and AKP levels were increased in ethanol-treated rats, which also showed a rising trend of 8-OHdG and LPO levels while hydroxyl radical scavenging ability, T-AOC, and the activities of SOD and GSH-Px were decreased in liver. The mRNA levels of Nrf2 and HO-1, the ratio of p-Nrf2/Nrf2, the protein level of HO-1 were decreased while NQO1 mRNA level, Nrf2, p-Nrf2, and NQO1 protein levels were increased in ethanol-treated rats. Combination treatment of Curcumin and Baicalin significantly reversed the ethanol-induced liver oxidative damage and further activate the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, which was more effective than each drug alone. In conclusion, evidence has shown for the first time in this study that Curcumin combined with Baicalin ameliorated ethanol-induced liver oxidative damage in rats and revealed liver-protection. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Many drugs for treating alcoholic liver disease are available commercially, but some adverse effects they have may cause secondary damage to the liver. At present, the combined treatment of different natural phytochemicals has attracted special attention in modern medicine. Curcumin, a kind of phytochemicals, is extracted from turmeric rhizome. Baicalin is one of the major active components of Scutellaria Baicalensis. The current research is to explore the antioxidant effect of Curcumin and Baicalin in ethanol-induced liver injury in rats. Our research proves that Curcumin combined with Baicalin on ethanol-induced liver oxidative damage is superior to single drug treatment. Therefore, the combination of Curcumin and Baicalin may provide a more prospective natural remedy to combat ethanol-induced liver injury.

The effect of Lactobacillus fermentum DALI02 in reducing the oxidative stress and inflammatory response induced by high-fat diet of rats

A long-term high-fat diet (HFD) leads to significant oxidative stress in the body and induces inflammation. A preliminary evidence suggests a potential therapeutic utility of probiotics for this condition. To evaluate the potential effect of Lactobacillus fermentum DALI02 on the oxidative stress and inflammatory damage induced by HFD, we used a hyperlipidemic rat as a model fed with HFD. Results revealed that HFD induced a significant oxidative stress and inflammation. However, results reveal that L. fermentum DALI02, manifested a significant decrease in levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and resistin, while the catalase (CAT), total antioxidant capability (T-AOC), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and adiponectin (ADPN) levels significantly increased. And it was dose-dependent that the effect of high dose groups with high viable count was particularly notable. The results suggest that L. fermentum DALI02 could alleviate oxidative stress and inflammation as it appeared to reduce lipid peroxidation and improved the lipid metabolism in vivo.

A long-term high-fat diet (HFD) leads to significant oxidative stress in the body and induces inflammation.

Camel milk modulates ethanol-induced changes in the gut microbiome and transcriptome in a mouse model of acute alcoholic liver disease

Morbidity and mortality as a result of liver disease are major problems around the world, especially from alcoholic liver disease (ALD), which is characterized by hepatic inflammation and intestinal microbial imbalance. In this study, we investigated the hepatoprotective effects of camel milk (CM) in a mouse model of acute ALD and the underlying mechanism at the gut microbiota and transcriptome level. Male Institute of Cancer Research mice (n = 24; Beijing Weitong Lihua Experimental Animal Technology Co. Ltd., China) were divided into 3 groups: normal diet (NC); normal diet, then ethanol (ET); and normal diet and camel milk (CM), then ethanol (ET+CM). Analysis of serum biochemical indexes and histology revealed a reduction in hepatic inflammation in the ET+CM group. Sequencing of 16S rRNA showed that CM modulated the microbial communities, with an increased proportion of Lactobacillus and reduced Bacteroides, Alistipes, and Rikenellaceae RC9 gut group. Comparative hepatic transcriptome analysis revealed 315 differentially expressed genes (DEG) in the ET+CM and ET groups (150 upregulated and 165 downregulated). Enrichment analysis revealed that CM downregulated the expression of inflammation-related (ILB and CXCL1) genes in the IL-17 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) pathways. We conclude that CM modulates liver inflammation and alleviates the intestinal microbial disorder caused by acute alcohol injury, indicating the potential of dietary CM in protection against alcohol-induced liver injury.

Camel milk rescues neurotoxic impairments induced by fenpropathrin via regulating oxidative stress, apoptotic, and inflammatory events in the brain of rats

This study explored the camel milk (CM) efficacy to ameliorate the fenpropathrin (FNP) induced neurotoxic impacts in rats. Six groups were orally administered physiological saline, corn oil, CM (2ml/rat/day), FNP (15 mg/kg bw daily for 60 days), CM/FNP (protective) or FNP + CM (therapeutic). Sensorimotor functions, memory, exploratory, and locomotor activities were assessed. The levels of dopamine (DOPA) neurotransmitter, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzyme, oxidative stress, and inflammatory markers were determined. Brain histopathology and apoptotic markers immunohistochemical detection were performed. The results revealed that FNP exposure resulted in deficit sensorimotor functions, impaired memory, and less exploration. DOPA and AChE Levels were significantly reduced. FNP exposure increased nitric oxide, malondialdehyde, myeloperoxidase, Caspase-3, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels but interleukin 10, total antioxidant capacity, and Bcl-2 levels were declined. Also, FNP exposure induced obvious encephalopathy. Additionally, neurodegenerative changes were seen in the hippocampi of FNP-treated rats. FNP Exposure induced a significant decrease of Bcl-2 immunolabelling but Caspase-3 immunoexpression was increased in cerebral cortices and hippocampus tissues. CM significantly counteracted the FNP injurious impacts, especially when used as a prophylactic routine than a therapeutic one. Conclusively, these findings confirmed that CM could be a biologically effective protective agent against FNP induced neurobehavioral aberrations and neurotoxic impacts.

Pharmacokinetic changes of tramadol in rats with hepatotoxicity induced by ethanol and acetaminophen in perfused rat liver model

Tramadol is an opioid agonist with activation monoaminergic properties. It can be administered orally, rectally, intravenously, or intramuscularly as a centrally acting analgesic. Liver injury can lead to changes in the metabolism of tramadol. In this study, the rate of tramadol metabolism in rats with damaged liver induced by ethanol and acetaminophen was assessed in a recirculation perfusion system. Acetaminophen is a mild analgesic and antipyretic agent, which can cause centrilobular hepatic necrosis in toxic doses, whereas alcohol causes death due to liver diseases. Alcoholic liver disease (ALD), such as alcoholic fatty liver, alcoholic hepatitis, and alcoholic fibrosis, is the most common liver disease. The aim of this study was to investigate the alteration in tramadol metabolism in different hepatotoxicity conditions in animal models. Male rats were randomly assigned to three groups. The control group received normal saline, group 2 received acetaminophen at the dose of 250 mg/kg/day, and group 3 received ethanol at the beginning dose of 3 g/kg/day, which was slowly increased to 6 g/kg/day. Tramadol was added to the perfusion solution at the concentration of 500 ng/mL. Samples were collected during 180 min, and analyte concentrations were determined by the High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) method. The concentration of tramadol and its three main metabolites, O-desmethyltramadol (M1), N-desmethyltramadol (M2), and N,O-didesmethyltramadol (M5), were determined in perfusate samples. Ethanol and acetaminophen significantly affected the pattern of weight gain and liver weights before perfusion and caused a significant increase in enzyme activities. Moreover, histopathologic examination revealed that ethanol and acetaminophen caused liver damage. An increase in the elimination half-life and reduced clearance rate of tramadol were seen in the acetaminophen and ethanol groups, in comparison to the control group. Additionally, significant reductions in the Area Under the Curve (AUC) of metabolites of tramadol (M1, M2, and M5) were observed in the acetaminophen and ethanol groups in the perfused rat liver model. Liver damage caused by ethanol and acetaminophen during 45 days in animals leads to a significant reduction in the level of tramadol metabolites. Therefore, in patients with liver damage caused by ethanol and acetaminophen, caution needs to be considered when prescribing tramadol.

Leptin and camel milk abate oxidative stress status, genotoxicity induced in valproic acid rat model of autism

The aspect of treatment of autistic behaviour was investigated using valproic acid rat model of pregnant female rats. Two main groups (10 male rats/group) were treated for 6 days and then divided into six subgroups. The first group of normal rats was divided into three subgroups: (A) – control group, (B) – treated with camel milk (CAM; 2 mL/p.o) and (C) – treated with leptin (1000 µg/kg i.p) twice daily. The second group of autistic rats was randomly distributed into four subgroups as follows: (D) – positive control (autistics rats), (E) – treated with CAM, (F) – treated with a moderate dose of leptin and (G) – treated with a higher dose of leptin. Autistic behaviours of male offspring were checked by grooming and elevated pulz maze tests. Valproic acid (VPA)-induced autistic rats showed severe changes in oxidative stress markers, neurotransmitters and inflammatory cytokines, besides genotoxic manifestation of expression of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, Bax and caspase-3. Leptin or CAM alone showed no signs of toxicity. CAM showed pronounced improvement in control rats than control itself. Leptin or CAM treatment of autistic animals showed a significant improvement of all measured parameters and genetic expression values. The improvement was pronounced in animals treated with CAM. These results suggest that CAM is a potential therapeutic candidate for autism via regulation of inflammatory and apoptotic pathways. Leptin plays an essential role in alleviation of autistic behaviour through antioxidant effects.

Camel milk attenuates methotrexate-induced kidney injury via activation of PI3K/Akt/eNOS signaling and intervention with oxidative aberrations

Methotrexate (MTX) is a classical chemotherapeutic agent with nephrotoxicity as the most disturbing adverse effect. So far, its underlying molecular mechanisms, particularly PI3K/Akt/eNOS transduction, are inadequately explored. Several antioxidant modalities have been characterized to ameliorate MTX-induced renal injury. In this regard, Camel milk (CM) is a natural product with recognized antioxidant and anti-inflammatory features. Thus, the current study aimed to investigate the potential ameliorating effects of CM in MTX-induced kidney injury in rats. Renal tissues were studied in terms of renal injury markers, histopathology, oxidative stress, apoptosis and PI3K/Akt/eNOS signaling. CM was orally administered (10 ml kg-1) and the renal injury was induced by a single i.p. injection of MTX (20 mg kg-1). Interestingly, CM dose-dependently attenuated MTX-triggered increase of BUN and serum creatinine and renal Kim-1 expression and mitigated the renal histopathological changes. CM counteracted renal oxidative stress as manifested by lowering of lipid peroxides, restoration of NOX-1 levels and augmentation of the antioxidant defenses e.g., GSH, SOD, GPx and total antioxidant capacity. With respect to apoptosis, CM curbed the cleavage of PARP and caspase-3, downregulated p53, Bax and Cyt C proapoptotic signals and enhanced Bcl-2 and PCNA levels. In the same context, CM activated the prosurvival PI3K/Akt/eNOS pathway via enhancing PI3K p110, phospho-Akt and phospho-eNOS levels. Equally important, CM preconditioning did not interfere with MTX cytotoxicity in TK-10 or PC-3 cancer cells. Together, the current findings demonstrate, for the first time, the renoprotective effects of CM in MTX-induced kidney injury via activation of PI3K/Akt/eNOS signaling and combating oxidative stress and apoptosis.

Ameliorative Effect of Camel's Milk and Nigella Sativa Oil against Thioacetamide-induced Hepatorenal Damage in Rats

Background:

Camel milk (CM) and Nigella sativa (NS) have been traditionally claimed to cure wide range of diseases and used as medicine in different part of world, particularly in Saudi Arabia. Several research studies have been published that proved beneficial effects of CM and NS.

Objective:

This study was undertaken to investigate the antihepatotxic potential of CM and NS oil (NSO) against thioacetamide (TAA)-induced hepato and nephrotoxicity in rats.

Materials and Methods:

Thirty female Albino Wistar rats were randomly divided in to six groups having five rats in each group. A single subcutaneous injection of TAA (100 mg/kg b. w.) was administered to all the rats in Group-II to VI on 1^st day to induce hepatorenal damage. Group I served as a normal control while Group II served as toxic control for comparison purpose. Experimental animals in Group III, IV, and V were supplemented with fresh CM, (250 mL/24 h/cage), NSO (2 mL/kg/day p. o.), and NSO + fresh CM, respectively. Group VI was treated with a polyherbal hepatoprotective Unani medicine Jigreen (2 mL/kg/day p. o.) for 21 days. TAA-induced hepatorenal damage and protective effects of CM and NSO were assessed by analyzing liver and kidney function tests in the serum. Histopathology of liver and kidney tissues was also carried out to corroborate the findings of biochemical investigation.

Results:

The results indicated that the TAA intoxicated rats showed significant increase in the alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, alkaline phosphatase, lipid profile, urea, creatinine, uric acid, sodium, and potassium levels in serum. Treatment of rats with CM, NSO, and CM plus NSO combination and Jigreen significantly reversed the damage and brought down the serum biochemical parameters and lipid profile toward the normal levels. The histopathological studies also support the hepato and nephroprotective effects of CM and NSO.

Conclusion:

This study demonstrated the ameliorative effects of CM, NSO, and CM plus NSO combination against TAA-induced hepatorenal toxicity in rats.

SUMMARY

The antihepatotxic potential of Camel's Milk (CM) and Nigella sativa oil (NSO) against thioacetamide (TAA) induced hepatorenal toxicity was evaluated in rats

The oral administration of fresh CM (250 mL/24h/cage), NSO (2 mL/kg/day) and NSO+fresh CM and Jigreen (2 mL/kg/day) for 21 days significantly decreased the hepatorenal toxicity as evidenced from analyzed biochemical parameters in serum and histopathological studies of liver and kidney tissues

This study demonstrated the ameliorative effects of CM and NSO against TAA induced hepatorenal toxicity.

Abbreviations used: CM: Camel milk; NS: Nigella sativa; NSO: Nigella sativa Oil; TAA: Thioacetamide; S.C.: Subcutaneous; Jig: Jigreen; b.w.: Body Weight; mL: Milli liter; mg: Milli gram; g: Gram; Kg: Kilo gram; ALT: Alanine transaminase; AST: Aspartate transaminase; GGT: Gamma-Glutamyl Transpeptidase; ALP: Alkaline Phosphatase; TC: Total Cholesterol; HDL-C: High Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol; LDL-C: Low Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol; TG: Triglyceride; TB: Total bilirubin; K⁺: Potassium; Na⁺: Sodium; CCl₄: Carbon Tetrachloride; °C: Degree Celsius; p.o.: Per Oral; RPM: Revolutions per minute; H&E: Hematoxylin and Eosin; SEM: Standard Error of Mean; ANOVA: The one-way analysis of variance.

In vivo antitumour potential of camel's milk against hepatocellular carcinoma in rats and its improvement of cisplatin renal side effects

CONTEXT

Camel milk (CM) is recommended for liver disease patients in Egypt for a strong belief that it has a curative effect.

OBJECTIVE

The effect of consumption of CM with or without chemotherapeutic drug cisplatin was evaluated on induced hepatocarcinogenesis in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Wistar male rats (56) were divided into eight groups (7 rats each). Group I was control. Hepatocarcinogenesis was initiated by a single dose of intraperitoneal injection of diethylnitrosamine (DENA) (200 mg/kg BW) and promoted by phenobarbitone (500 ppm) in drinking water in groups V, VI, VII and VIII. Treatment started from 28th till 38th week using CM (5 mL/day) and/or cisplatin (5 mg/kg/3 weeks) in groups II, III IV, VI, VII and VIII. Biochemical analysis, lipid peroxidation and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in liver tissue were performed. Histopathology of liver and kidney and immunohistochemistry of placental glutathione-S-transferase (P-GST) in liver were performed and analyzed using image analysis.

RESULTS

Albumin concentration and SOD activity were 3.13 ± 0.23 and 311.45 ± 41.71 in group VII (DENA & cisplatin), whereas they were 4.3 ± 0.15 and 540.5 ± 29.94 in group VII (DENA, CM and cisplatin). The mean area of altered hepatocellular foci and P-GST altered foci decreased in group VI (DENA and CM) (1049.6 ± 174.78 and 829.1 ± 261) and group VIII (cisplatin and CM) (1615.12 ± 436 and 543.9 ± 127) compared to group V (DENA only) (4173.74 ± 510.7 and 3169.49 ± 538.61). Cisplatin caused chronic interstitial nephritis, which was slightly alleviated in group VIII (CM and cisplatin).

CONCLUSIONS

CM had an antioxidant effect and together with cisplatin managed to decrease hepatocarcinogenesis.

Antihyperlipidemic and antiapoptotic potential of zingerone on alcohol induced hepatotoxicity in experimental rats

The ultimate aim of this present study was to investigate the antihyperlipidemic and antiapoptotic potential of zingerone (ZO) on alcohol induced hepatotoxicity in experimental rats. Male albino wistar rats were divided in four groups. Groups 1 and 2 rats received isocaloric glucose and dimethyl sulphoxide (2% DMSO), liver toxicity was induced in groups 3 and 4 by supplementing 30% ethanol post orally for 60 days. In addition to, groups 2 and 4 received zingerone (20 mg/kg body weight in 2% DMSO) daily during the final 30 days of the experimental period. Ethanol alone administered rats showed increased levels/activities of plasma total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), free fatty acids (FFA), phospholipids (PL), low density lipoproteins (LDL), very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), tissue TC, TG, FFA, PL, HMG-CoA reductase, phase I xenobiotic enzymes, collagen and fat accumulation, DNA damage and increased Bax, caspase-3 and caspase-9 expressions and decrease in the levels/activities of plasma high density lipoproteins (HDL), lipoprotein lipase (LPL), lecithin cholesterol acyl transferase (LCAT), phase II xenobiotic enzymes and a decreased Bcl-2 expression. Zingerone supplementation was able to counter and reverse the ethanol induced changes in all the above parameters in experimental rats. Together results portray zingerone exhibits antihyperlipidemic and antiapoptotic potential on alcohol induced hepatotoxicity.

The Therapeutic Effects of Camel Milk: A Systematic Review of Animal and Human Trials

The clinical effectiveness and value of camel milk as a therapeutic agent is currently unclear. MEDLINE (1946 to March 2016), EMBASE (1974 to March 2016), and Google Scholar were searched using the following terms: milk, bodily secretions, camels, camelus, camelini, camelidae, dromedary, bactrian camel, body fluid, and bodily secretions. Articles identified were reviewed if the study was investigating the use of camel milk for the potential treatment of diseases affecting humans. Of 430 studies, 24 were included after assessment. Identified studies highlighted treatment with camel milk of diseases, including diabetes, autism, cancer, various infections, heavy metal toxicity, colitis, and alcohol-induced toxicity. Although most studies using both the human and animal model do show a clinical benefit with an intervention and camel milk, limitations of these studies must be taken into consideration before widespread use. Based on the evidence, camel milk should not replace standard therapies for any indication in humans.

Short communication: Camel milk ameliorates inflammatory responses and oxidative stress and downregulates mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways in lipopolysaccharide-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome in rats

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a complex syndrome disorder with high mortality rate. Camel milk (CM) contains antiinflammatory and antioxidant properties and protects against numerous diseases. This study aimed to demonstrate the function of CM in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ARDS in rats. Camel milk reduced the lung wet:dry weight ratio and significantly reduced LPS-induced increases in neutrophil infiltration, interstitial and intra-alveolar edema, thickness of the alveolar wall, and lung injury scores of lung tissues. It also had antiinflammatory and antioxidant effects on LPS-induced ARDS. After LPS stimulation, the levels of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α, IL-10, and IL-1β) in serum and oxidative stress markers (malondialdehyde, myeloperoxidase, and total antioxidant capacity) in lung tissue were notably attenuated by CM. Camel milk also downregulated mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways. Given these results, CM is a potential complementary food for ARDS treatment.

Antioxidant therapy for treatment of inflammatory bowel disease: Does it work?

Oxidative stress (OS) is considered as one of the etiologic factors involved in several signals and symptoms of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) that include diarrhea, toxic megacolon and abdominal pain. This systematic review discusses approaches, challenges and perspectives into the use of nontraditional antioxidant therapy on IBD, including natural and synthetic compounds in both human and animal models. One hundred and thirty four papers were identified, of which only four were evaluated in humans. Some of the challenges identified in this review can shed light on this fact: lack of standardization of OS biomarkers, absence of safety data and clinical trials for the chemicals and biological molecules, as well as the fact that most of the compounds were not repeatedly tested in several situations, including acute and chronic colitis. This review hopes to stimulate researchers to become more involved in this fruitful area, to warrant investigation of novel, alternative and efficacious antioxidant-based therapies.

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Major biomarkers used for evaluation of antioxidant therapy were MPO, TBARS/MDA and glutathione levels.

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Challenges were identified for the yet poor use of antioxidant therapy in IBD.

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This review stimulates the investigation of alternative and efficacious antioxidant therapies.

Camel's milk ameliorates TNBS-induced colitis in rats via downregulation of inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress

Current treatment strategies for inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are associated with several adverse effects, and thus, the search for effective agents with minimal side effects merits attention. Camel's milk (CM) is endowed with antioxidant/anti-inflammatory features and has been reported to protect against diabetes and hepatic injury, however, its effects on IBD have not been previously explored. In the current study, we aimed to investigate the potential alleviating effects of CM against TNBS-induced colitis in rats. CM (10 ml/kg b.i.d. by oral gavage) effectively suppressed the severity of colon injury as evidenced by amelioration of macroscopic damage, colon weight/length ratio, histopathological alterations, leukocyte influx and myeloperoxidase activity. Administration of CM mitigated the colonic levels of TNF-α and IL-10 cytokines. The attenuation of CM to colon injury was also associated with suppression of oxidative stress via reduction of lipid peroxides and nitric oxide along with boosting the antioxidant defenses through restoration of colon glutathione and total anti-oxidant capacity. In addition, caspases-3 activity, an apoptotic marker, was inhibited. Together, our study highlights evidences for the promising alleviating effects of CM in colitis. Thus, CM may be an interesting complementary approach for the management of IBD.

Camel milk ameliorates steatohepatitis, insulin resistance and lipid peroxidation in experimental non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Background

Camel milk (CM) is gaining increasing recognition due to its beneficial effects in the control and prevention of multiple health problems. The current study aimed to investigate the effects of CM on the hepatic biochemical and cellular alterations induced by a high-fat, cholesterol-rich diet (HCD), specifically, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

Methods

Seventy male Wistar rats were divided into four groups: the Control (C) Group fed a standard diet; the Control + camel milk (CCM) Group fed a standard diet and CM, the Cholesterol (Ch) Group fed a HCD with no CM, and the Cholesterol + camel milk (ChM) Group fed a HCD and CM. The following parameters were investigated in the studied groups; basal, weekly random and final fasting blood glucose levels, intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test (GTT) and insulin tolerance test (ITT), serum insulin, serum lipids, liver functions, lipid peroxidation products, the antioxidant activity of catalase (CAT) and the levels of reduced glutathione (GSH). In addition, HOMA-IR as an index of insulin resistance (IR) and the histopathology of the hepatic tissue were assessed.

Results

The Ch Group developed features similar to those of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), characterized by hepatic steatosis; inflammatory cellular infiltration in liver tissue; altered liver functions; and increased total cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, atherogenic index (AI), blood glucose, IR, and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. Additionally, feeding the HCD to animals in the Ch Group decreased CAT activity and the GSH and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels. Camel milk intake for eight weeks decreased hepatic fat accumulation and inflammatory cellular infiltration, preserved liver function, increased the GSH levels and CAT activity, decreased the MDA levels, and ameliorated the changes in the lipid profile, AI, and IR in animals from the ChM Group.

Conclusions

CM has a unique composition that is rich in minerals; vitamins, insulin and insulin-like protein, and it increased HDL-cholesterol and ameliorated the biochemical and cellular features of NAFLD in rats that received a HCD. The antioxidant effect of CM is a likely mechanism for the altered metabolism and absorption of HCD in the presence of CM. Regular consumption of CM could provide a natural way to protect against NAFLD induced by a high-fat diet.

Protection of the extracts of Lentinus edodes mycelia against carbon-tetrachloride-induced hepatic injury in rats

Lentinus edodes is the medicinal macrofungus showing potential for therapeutic applications in infectious disorders including hepatitis. In an attempt to develop the agent for handling hepatic injury, we used the extracts of Lentinus edodes mycelia (LEM) to screen the effect on hepatic injury in rats induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄). Intraperitoneal administration of CCl₄ not only increased plasma glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT) and glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GPT) but also decreased hepatic superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) levels in rats. Similar to the positive control silymarin, oral administration (three times daily) of this product (LEM) for 8 weeks significantly reduced plasma GOT and GPT. Also, the activities of antioxidant enzymes of SOD and GPx were elevated by LEM. in liver from CCl₄-treated rats, indicating that mycelium can increase antioxidant-like activity. Moreover, the hepatic mRNA and protein levels of SOD and GPx were both markedly raised by LEM. The obtained results suggest that oral administration of the extracts of Lentinus edodes mycelia (LEM) has the protective effect against CCl₄-induced hepatic injury in rats, mainly due to an increase in antioxidant-like action.