The microbiota of marketed processed edible insects as revealed by high-throughput sequencing

What Veterinarians Need to Know About the Newly-Emerging Field of Insects-as-Food-and-Feed

Over the last two decades, the insects-as-food-and-feed industry has rapidly emerged. Its growth is largely because insects require substantially less resources (water, food, and energy) to produce than traditional sources of animal protein, making it a sustainable alternative food option. As this industry continues to grow, veterinarians will likely be called upon to assist in identifying food safety concerns, assessing animal health, implementing biosecurity measures, and formulating/prescribing treatment protocols comparable to what we have seen with the honeybee industry and the institution of veterinary feed directives (VFDs). Similar to other agricultural markets, high animal densities and management practices put insects at high risk for infectious diseases. Veterinarians interested in working with these species will need to become knowledgeable regarding the diseases afflicting the feeder insect industry and how best to diagnose and treat pathogens of concern. Using the edible cricket industry as an example, this review will highlight health and production issues while drawing similarities to other traditional livestock operations. If the insects-as-feed-and-food industry is going to be viable, veterinary involvement will be essential to ensure that insects can be used as a safe source of food for all.

First metagenomic analysis of virome in Uzbekistan honey bee (Apis mellifera): Investigating basic information on honey bee viruses

Honey bees are economically important insects. However, they face multiple biotic and abiotic stresses, such as diseases, pesticides, climate change, and pests, which cause the loss of honey bee colonies worldwide. Among these factors, viruses have been identified as the major cause of colony loss. Research on honey bee viruses in Uzbekistan is limited. This study investigated the viruses affecting honey bees in Uzbekistan. Virome analysis was conducted for each sample using high-throughput sequencing and bioinformatics. Nine honey bee viruses have been identified: the acute bee paralysis virus, aphid lethal paralysis virus, Apis rhabdovirus 1 and 2, black queen cell virus, deformed wing virus, Lake Sinai virus 10, sacbrood virus, and Hubei partiti-like virus 34. Additionally, 15 plant viruses were identified, 7 of which were novel. This study is the first virome analysis of Uzbekistan honey bees and provides a foundation for understanding the viruses affecting honey bees and plants in Uzbekistan.

Unlocking the Potential of Insect-Based Proteins: Sustainable Solutions for Global Food Security and Nutrition

The present review highlights the potential of insect-based proteins to address the growing need for sustainable and secure food systems. The key findings suggest that edible insects offer a viable and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional livestock, requiring significantly less land, water, and feed while emitting lower levels of greenhouse gases. Insect farming can also reduce waste and recycle nutrients, supporting circular economy models. Nutritionally, insects provide high-quality protein, essential amino acids, and beneficial fats, making them valuable to human diets. Despite these benefits, this review emphasizes the need for comprehensive regulatory frameworks to ensure food safety, manage potential allergenicity, and mitigate contamination risks from pathogens and environmental toxins. Additionally, developing innovative processing technologies can enhance the palatability and marketability of insect-based products, promoting consumer acceptance. This review concludes that with appropriate regulatory support and technological advancements, insect-based proteins have the potential to significantly contribute to global food security and sustainability efforts.

Analysis of Microbial Composition of Edible Insect Products Available for Human Consumption within the United States Using Traditional Microbiological Methods and Whole Genome Sequencing

Edible insects offer a promising protein source for humans, but their food safety risks have not been previously investigated within the United States. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the microbial content of processed edible insect products. A total of eight different types of edible insect products, including diving beetles, silkworms, grasshoppers, Jamaican crickets, mealworms, mole crickets, whole roasted crickets, and 100% pure cricket powder, were purchased from a large online retailer for the analysis. All the products were purchased in August 2022 and examined between August 2022 and November 2022. Traditional microbiological methods were employed to determine microbial counts for each product type using three replicates (total number of samples = 24). This included assessing aerobic bacterial spore, lactic acid bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, total viable counts, and the presence of Salmonella. Additionally, whole genome sequencing was employed to further characterize selected colonies (n = 96). Microbial counts data were statistically analyzed using one-way ANOVA, while sequence data were taxonomically classified using Sepia.Bacilluscereusgroup isolates underwent additional characterization with Btyper3. Product type significantly influenced total viable counts, bacterial spore counts, and lactic acid bacteria counts (P = 0.00391, P = 0.0065, and P < 0.001, respectively), with counts ranging from < 1.70 to 6.01 Log10 CFU/g, <1.70 to 5.25 Log10 CFU/g, and < 1.70 to 4.86 Log10 CFU/g, respectively. Enterobacteriaceae were only detected in mole crickets (<2.30 Log10 CFU/g) and house cricket powder (<2.15 Log10 CFU/g). All samples were negative for Salmonella. Whole genome sequencing revealed the presence of 12 different bacterial genera among the analyzed isolates, with a majority belonging to the Bacillus genus. Some of the isolates of Bacillus cereus group were identified as biovar Emeticus. Overall, although edible insects offer a promising food alternative, the presence of Bacillus cereus group in some products could raise concerns regarding food safety.

Antibiotic Resistance in Enterococci and Enterobacteriaceae from Laboratory-Reared Fresh Mealworm Larvae (Tenebrio molitor L.) and Their Frass

The occurrence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in foodstuff involves a human health risk. Edible insects are a precious resource; however, their consumption raises food safety issues. In this study, the occurrence of antibiotic resistant bacteria in laboratory-reared fresh mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor L.) and frass was assessed. Antibiotics were not used during the rearing. Enterobacteriaceae and enterococci were isolated from 17 larvae and eight frass samples. In total, 62 and 69 isolates presumed to belong to Enterobacteriaceae and Enterococcus spp., respectively, were obtained and tested for antibiotic susceptibility via disk diffusion. Based on the results, isolates were grouped, and representative resistant isolates were identified at species level through 16S rRNA gene sequencing. For enterococci resistance, percentages higher than 15% were observed for vancomycin and quinupristin-dalfopristin, whereas Enterobacteriaceae resistance higher than 25% was found against cefoxitin, ampicillin, and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid. Based on the species identification, the observed resistances seemed to be intrinsic both for enterococci and Enterobacteriaceae, except for some β-lactams resistance in Shigella boydii (cefoxitin and aztreonam). These could be due to transferable genetic elements. This study suggests the need for further investigations to clarify the role of edible insects in the spreading of antibiotic resistance determinants through the food chain.

Evaluation of the Microbial Quality of Hermetia illucens Larvae for Animal Feed and Human Consumption: Study of Different Type of Rearing Substrates

In the context of climate change and depletion of natural resources, meeting the growing demand for animal feed and human food through sufficient, nutritious, safe, and affordable sources of protein is becoming a priority. The use of Hermetia illucens, the black soldier fly (BSF), has emerged as a strategy to enhance the circularity of the agri-food chain, but its microbiological safety remains a concern. The aim of the present study was to systematically review available data on the microbiological quality of BSF and to investigate the impact of using four different rearing substrates including classic options allowed by the EU regulation (cereals, fruits, vegetables) and options not allowed by EU regulations regarding vegetable agri-food (co-products, food at shelf life, and meat). A total of 13 studies were collected and synthesized, including 910 sample results, while 102 new sample results were collected from the present experiments in three farms. Both datasets combined revealed a high level of contamination of larvae, potentially transmitted through the substrate. The main pathogenic bacteria identified were Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, Cronobacter spp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., and Staphylococcus aureus coagulase-positive, while Campylobacter spp. and Listeria monocytogenes were not detected. Any of these four substrates were excluded for their use in insect rearing; however, safety concerns were confirmed and must be managed by the operators of the sector using microbial inactivation treatment after the harvest of the larvae in order to propose safe products for the market. The results obtained will guide the definition of the control criteria and optimize the following manufacturing steps.

Advancing pathogen surveillance by nanopore sequencing and genotype characterization of Acheta domesticus densovirus in mass-reared house crickets

Rapid and reliable detection of pathogens is crucial to complement the growing industry of mass-reared insects, in order to safeguard the insect colonies from outbreak of diseases, which may cause significant economic loss. Current diagnostic methods are mainly based on conventional PCR and microscopic examination, requiring prior knowledge of disease symptoms and are limited to identifying known pathogens. Here, we present a rapid nanopore-based metagenomics approach for detecting entomopathogens from the European house cricket (Acheta domesticus). In this study, the Acheta domesticus densovirus (AdDV) was detected from diseased individuals using solely Nanopore sequencing. Virus reads and genome assemblies were obtained within twenty-four hours after sequencing. Subsequently, due to the length of the Nanopore reads, it was possible to reconstruct significantly large parts or even the entire AdDV genome to conduct studies for genotype identification. Variant analysis indicated the presence of three AdDV genotypes within the same house cricket population, with association to the vital status of the diseased crickets. This contrast provided compelling evidence for the existence of non-lethal AdDV genotypes. These findings demonstrated nanopore-based metagenomics sequencing as a powerful addition to the diagnostic tool kit for routine pathogen surveillance and diagnosis in the insect rearing industry.

Value chain hygiene practices and microbial contamination of street and market vended ready-to-eat grasshopper, Ruspolia differens in Uganda: Implications for food safety and public health

Food safety is a major public health issue particularly in developing countries. Ready-to-eat street-vended foods contribute significantly to dietary intake in urban and peri-urban areas, but with elevated public health risk. In this study, hygiene and food safety practices as well as the microbial contamination in Uganda's edible grasshopper value chain were evaluated."A total of 29 grasshopper-processing households participated, and grasshopper samples collected. Indicator pathogens were analyzed using standard microbiological methods. In Kampala 50% and in Masaka 12% households had earth floors. All households in Kampala were one or two-roomed dwellings with no separate room as a kitchen, and shared a toilet. In contrast, 59% of households in Masaka had three or more rooms, 35% had a separate room for a kitchen and 47% did not share a toilet. 83% households in Kampala and 56% in Masaka obtained drinking water from public taps. Handwashing was inadequate and none of the actors was observed to wash their hands after taking a break or handling waste. For vendors, wearing protective clothing was not common, with only 28.5% in Kampala and 30.8% in Masaka wearing an apron. Containers for vending grasshoppers were largely uncovered and the utensils for measuring the grasshoppers were left mainly uncovered. Indicator organisms, Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium, were detected. E. coli was the most common contaminant, but with lower levels in Masaka compared to Kampala. S. typhimurium was mainly a burden in Kampala. Our findings demonstrate that there are enormous contributors to poor hygiene and sanitation along the edible grasshopper value chain. The existence of pathogenic bacteria such as E. coli in ready-to-eat foods imply that their consumption poses a health risk.

A systematic review on the occurrence of Salmonella in farmed Tenebrio molitor and Acheta domesticus or their derived products

Insects represent a sustainable and protein-rich food source. This new supply chain requires the study and monitoring of pathogens' presence and impact, as for other farmed animals. Among pathogens, Salmonella is of interest due to the well-established possibility for insects to harbor it. Since Acheta domesticus (cricket) and Tenebrio molitor (mealworm) are the most sold and farmed insect species, the present systematic review aimed to collect, select, and evaluate, in the available scientific literature, studies investigating the occurrence of Salmonella in these species sampled. All available studies published in peer-reviewed journals in English, French, Italian, Portuguese, German, and Spanish were considered. No time limits were imposed. We searched PUBMED, EMBASE, WEB of Science Core Collection, and Food Science and Technology Abstracts. The first date searched was May 10th, 2022; an update of the search was conducted on May 5th, 2023. The data synthesis was presented in tables reporting the number of positives on the number of total analyzed samples with other relevant characteristics of the study. The quality assessment was carried out considering relevant aspects for sampling and the method of analysis for Salmonella detection. At the end of the screening process, 10 and nine studies conducted on crickets and mealworms, respectively, were included for data extraction. The S. serovar Wandsworth and S. serovar Stanley were isolated only in one sample of ready-to-eat crickets. A second study detected OTUs related to S. enterica in cricket and mealworm powders. No studies detected Salmonella in mealworms according to cultural methods. The limitations of the present review are that few studies were retrieved and that included studies had important limitations in terms of study design as sampling was mostly based on convenience and not on a sound statistical basis. The present systematic review underlines the need to obtain reliable data about Salmonella presence in insects considering the growing market and the scaling up of existing farms. This research was funded by the Italian Ministry of Health - Ricerca Corrente IZSVe 03/21. The review protocol was published on the Systematic Reviews for Animals and Food (SYREAF) Web site (https://syreaf.org/protocols/).

The Potential of Edible Insects as a Safe, Palatable, and Sustainable Food Source in the European Union

Entomophagy describes the practice of eating insects. Insects are considered extremely nutritious in many countries worldwide. However, there is a lethargic uptake of this practice in Europe where consuming insects and insect-based foodstuffs is often regarded with disgust. Such perceptions and concerns are often due to a lack of exposure to and availability of food-grade insects as a food source and are often driven by neophobia and cultural norms. In recent years, due to accelerating climate change, an urgency to develop alternate safe and sustainable food-sources has emerged. There are currently over 2000 species of insects approved by the World Health Organization as safe to eat and suitable for human consumption. This review article provides an updated overview of the potential of edible insects as a safe, palatable, and sustainable food source. Furthermore, legislation, food safety issues, and the nutritional composition of invertebrates including, but not limited, to crickets (Orthoptera) and mealworms (Coleoptera) are also explored within this review. This article also discusses insect farming methods and the potential upscaling of the industry with regard to future prospects for insects as a sustainable food source. Finally, the topics addressed in this article are areas of potential concern to current and future consumers of edible insects.

Lactiplantibacillus plantarum from Unexplored Tunisian Ecological Niches: Antimicrobial Potential, Probiotic and Food Applications

The continued exploration of the diversity of lactic acid bacteria in little-studied ecological niches represents a fundamental activity to understand the diffusion and biotechnological significance of this heterogeneous class of prokaryotes. In this study, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (Lpb. plantarum) strains were isolated from Tunisian vegetable sources, including fermented olive and fermented pepper, and from dead locust intestines, which were subsequently evaluated for their antimicrobial activity against foodborne pathogenic bacteria, including Escherichia coli O157:H7 CECT 4267 and Listeria monocytogenes CECT 4031, as well as against some fungi, including Penicillium expansum, Aspergilus niger, and Botrytis cinerea. In addition, their resistance to oro-gastro-intestinal transit, aggregation capabilities, biofilm production capacity, adhesion to human enterocyte-like cells, and cytotoxicity to colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line were determined. Further, adhesion to tomatoes and the biocontrol potential of this model food matrix were analyzed. It was found that all the strains were able to inhibit the indicator growth, mostly through organic acid production. Furthermore, these strains showed promising probiotic traits, including in vitro tolerance to oro-gastrointestinal conditions, and adhesion to abiotic surfaces and Caco-2 cells. Moreover, all tested Lpb. plantarum strains were able to adhere to tomatoes with similar rates (4.0-6.0 LogCFU/g tomato). The co-culture of LAB strains with pathogens on tomatoes showed that Lpb. plantarum could be a good candidate to control pathogen growth. Nonetheless, further studies are needed to guarantee their use as probiotic strains for biocontrol on food matrices.

Circular waste management: Superworms as a sustainable solution for biodegradable plastic degradation and resource recovery

Bioplastics offer a promising solution to plastic pollution, however, their production frequently relies on edible biomass, and their degradation rates remain inadequate. This study investigates the potential of superworms (Zophobas atratus larvae) for polybutylene succinate (PBS) waste management, aiming to achieve both resource recovery and biodegradation. Superworms exclusively fed on PBS for a month exhibited the same survival rate as those on a standard bran diet. PBS digestion yielded a 5.13% weight gain and a 23.23% increase in protein composition in superworms. Additionally, carbon isotope analyses substantiated the conversion of PBS into superworm components. Gut microbes capable of PBS biodegradation became progressively prominent, further augmenting the degradation rate of PBS under composting conditions (ISO 14855-1). Gut-free superworms fed with PBS exhibited antioxidant activities comparable to those of blueberries, renowned for their high antioxidant activity. Based on these findings, this study introduces a sustainable circular solution encompassing recycling PBS waste to generate insect biomass, employing insect gut and frass for PBS degradation and fertilizer, and harnessing insect residue as a food source. In essence, the significance of this research extends to socio-economic and environmental spheres, impacting waste management, resource efficiency, circular economy promotion, environmental preservation, industrial advancement, and global sustainability objectives. The study's outcomes possess the potential to reshape society's approach to plastic waste, facilitating a shift toward more sustainable paradigms.

Tenebrio molitor (Linnaeus, 1758): Microbiological Screening of Feed for a Safe Food Choice

As a result of the increasing focus on alternative protein sources which are ideally still sustainable, the yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor, has come into focus. To verify its suitability as a food source in relation to human health, an analysis of the microbiome of larvae of T. molitor is pertinent. Subsequently, the focus of this study was, on the one hand, to analyze the influence of the substrate on the microbial load of the larvae microbiome, and, on the other hand, to determine which processing methods ensure the risk-free consumption of mealworms. For this purpose, mealworms were grown on 10 different substrates derived from by-products of food production (malt residual pellets, corn germ meal, chestnut breakage and meal, wheat bran, bread remains, draff, nettle, hemp seed oil cake, oyster mushrooms with coffee grounds, pumpkin seed oil cake) and microbial loads were analyzed using different selective media. Further starvation/defecation and heating (850 W for 10 min) methods were used to investigate how the reduction of microorganisms is enabled by these methods. The results showed that there was no significant relationship between the microbial load of the substrate and the mealworm. Starvation and defecation led to a lower stock of microorganisms. Heating led to a significant microbial reduction in non-defecated mealworms. The group of defecated and heated mealworms showed no detectable microbial load. In conclusion, firstly, the choice of substrate showed no effect on the microbial load of larvae of Tenebrio molitor and secondly, heating and starvation allow risk-free consumption. This study makes an important contribution for evaluating the safety of mealworms as a sustainable protein source in human nutrition.

Insects and Public Health: An Overview

Insects are, by far, the most common animals on our planet. The ubiquity and plethora of ecological niches occupied by insects, along with the strict and sometimes forced coexistence between insects and humans, make insects a target of public health interest. This article reports the negative aspects historically linked to insects as pests and vectors of diseases, and describes their potential as bioindicators of environmental pollution, and their use as food and feed. Both negative and positive impacts of insects on human and animal health need to be addressed by public health professionals who should aim to strike a balance within the wide range of sometimes conflicting goals in insect management, such as regulating their production, exploiting their potential, protecting their health and limiting their negative impact on animals and humans. This requires increased insect knowledge and strategies to preserve human health and welfare. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of traditional and emerging topics bridging insects and public health to highlight the need for professionals, to address these topics during their work. The present and future role and activities of public health authorities regarding insects are analyzed.

Foodborne Diseases in the Edible Insect Industry in Europe-New Challenges and Old Problems

Insects play a key role in European agroecosystems. Insects provide important ecosystem services and make a significant contribution to the food chain, sustainable agriculture, the farm-to-fork (F2F) strategy, and the European Green Deal. Edible insects are regarded as a sustainable alternative to livestock, but their microbiological safety for consumers has not yet been fully clarified. The aim of this article is to describe the role of edible insects in the F2F approach, to discuss the latest veterinary guidelines concerning consumption of insect-based foods, and to analyze the biological, chemical, and physical hazards associated with edible insect farming and processing. Five groups of biological risk factors, ten groups of chemical risk factors, and thirteen groups of physical risks factors have been identified and divided into sub-groups. The presented risk maps can facilitate identification of potential threats, such as foodborne pathogens in various insect species and insect-based foods. Ensuring safety of insect-based foods, including effective control of foodborne diseases, will be a significant milestone on the path to maintaining a sustainable food chain in line with the F2F strategy and EU policies. Edible insects constitute a new category of farmed animals and a novel link in the food chain, but their production poses the same problems and challenges that are encountered in conventional livestock rearing and meat production.

Quality of Tenebrio molitor Powders: Effects of Four Processes on Microbiological Quality and Physicochemical Factors

Tenebrio molitor, the first edible insect approved as a novel food in the EU, is a promising candidate for alternative protein sources, implementing circular and sustainable production systems. This study aims to determine the microbiological quality and physicochemical properties of mealworm powders obtained by four different processing pathways. Contents of dry matter, protein, fat, ash, water activity (aw) and a range of microbial counts were measured and analyzed by one-way ANOVA with Tukey's test. Results showed small differences in the proximate composition of the powder samples (protein 55.62-57.90% and fat 23.63-28.21% of dry matter, DM), except for the one that underwent a defatting step (protein 70.04% and fat 16.84%), p < 0.05. A level of water activity of less than 0.2 was reached for all pathways. Fresh mealworm samples had high total aerobic counts (8.4 log CFU/g) but were free of foodborne pathogens. Heat treatments applied during transformation were sufficient to kill vegetative cells (reduction of 2.8-5.1 log CFU/g) rather than bacterial endospores (reduction of 0.3-1.8 log CFU/g). Results were confirmed by predictive microbiology. This study validated the efficacy of a boiling step as critical control points (CCPs) of insect powder processing, providing primary data for the implementation of HACCP plans.

Polyurethane Foam Residue Biodegradation through the Tenebrio molitor Digestive Tract: Microbial Communities and Enzymatic Activity

Polyurethane (PU) is a widely used polymer with a highly complex recycling process due to its chemical structure. Eliminating polyurethane is limited to incineration or accumulation in landfills. Biodegradation by enzymes and microorganisms has been studied for decades as an effective method of biological decomposition. In this study, Tenebrio molitor larvae (T. molitor) were fed polyurethane foam. They degraded the polymer by 35% in 17 days, resulting in a 14% weight loss in the mealworms. Changes in the T. molitor gut bacterial community and diversity were observed, which may be due to the colonization of the species associated with PU degradation. The physical and structural biodegradation of the PU, as achieved by T. molitor, was observed and compared to the characteristics of the original PU (PU-virgin) using Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy (FTIR), Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA), and Scanning Electron Microphotography (SEM).

Beyond Human Nutrition of Edible Insects: Health Benefits and Safety Aspects

Nowadays, edible insects are considered an outstanding source of nutrients, primarily because they contain high-quality protein, amino acids, and vitamins. Insects are considered a promising alternative protein source towards alleviating future global food shortage problems due to their production considered as being more sustainable by using less agricultural land and water, as well as releasing a smaller amount of greenhouse gas emissions. However, other important aspects to consider about the consumption of edible insects include their health benefits and some safety aspects, which has been relatively overlooked. In this sense, edible insects contain bioactive compounds that can provide diverse bioactivities, such as antioxidant, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory with a positive impact on human health. On the other hand, edible insects are a nutrient-rich food that can provide a perfect growth medium for diverse microorganisms, as well as possess some anti-nutritive factors. These two main aspects could represent food safety concerns for consumers. In this context, recent scientific evidence indicates that preservation methods, mainly thermal treatments, utilized in the cooking or processing of edible insects decreased the microbial levels and anti-nutritive factors, which suggests that edible insects do not represent a critical biological risk to humans. Besides, edible insects could have a positive effect on gut microbiota, either by their pre-biotic effect or their antimicrobial activity towards pathogens. Thus, this review is focused on studies related to the health benefits of edible insects and their isolated components, as well as discussion about potential issues related to their microbial content and anti-nutritive factors; this review will provide a synopsis on whether edible insects may be considered safe for human consumption.

Management Practices Affecting Lesser Mealworm Larvae (Alphitobius diaperinus) Associated Microbial Community in a Broiler House and After Relocating With the Litter Into Pastureland

Lesser mealworms are often found infesting production houses used to raise broiler chickens. Previous studies have investigated pathogenic microorganisms associated with the larvae, but a more thorough study relating total microbiome changes due to management procedures and flock rotations was needed. Additionally, there is a question of what microbiota are transferred into the environment when the litter, in which larvae reside, is piled in pastureland for use as fertilizer and where interactions with the soil and other fauna can occur. This study chronicled, by the 16S rRNA sequencing, the bacterial community profile of larvae in a broiler grow-out house synchronizing to when birds were added to and removed from the house over 2.5 years. The profile was found to be relatively constant despite 11 flock rotations and management disruptions, specifically litter cleanout procedures and the addition of new birds or bedding. In contrast, once removed from the controlled broiler house environment and placed into open pastureland, the substantial microbial diversity brought with the larvae showed greater fluctuation in structure with environmental conditions, one of which was rainfall. Surprisingly, these larvae survived at least 19 weeks, so the potential for moving larval-associated microbes into the environment needs further assessment to minimize the risk of relocating foodborne pathogens and also to assess those bacteria-generating metabolites that have benefits to plant growth when using the litter as a fertilizer. The characterization of their microbiome is the first step to investigating the influences of their microbes on the manmade and environmental ecosystems.

The Current Status, Bioactivity, Food, and Pharmaceutical Approaches of Calocybe indica: A Review

Over the past few years, mushrooms have been extensively explored in the field of pharmaceutical and food science, and researchers are heading toward the search for vital components with a higher safety margin and multitarget applications. Moreover, among all age group populations, mushroom consumption has increased immensely owing to their great nutritional aspects, desirable organoleptic properties, and aroma. In addition, mushrooms continue to generate much attention chiefly in their consumption as food, as a cure for different ailments, as well as a vital commodity globally, owing to their dietary, antioxidant, and therapeutic values. Mushrooms are considered one of the important and suitable diets for patients having multiple types of diseases. Additionally, due to potential immunomodulatory effects, quality protein, and low fat, and cholesterol content, mushrooms are used as an important ingredient for food formulation. Therefore, this review article provides detailed information on Calocybe indica as they are the third most important commercially grown mushroom following button and oyster mushrooms. This review brings tangible evidence that milky white mushrooms are a great source of natural components and antioxidants with potential application in pharmaceuticals and in treating and managing different diseases. Several food applications of milky white mushrooms have also been discussed and reviewed.

Feed Insects as a Reservoir of Granadaene-Producing Lactococci

Insects are a component of the diet of different animal species and have been suggested as the major source of human dietary protein for the future. However, insects are also carriers of potentially pathogenic microbes that constitute a risk to food and feed safety. In this study, we reported the occurrence of a hemolytic orange pigmented producing phenotype of Lactococcus garvieae/petauri/formosensis in the fecal microbiota of golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia) and feed larvae (Zophobas atratus). Feed insects were identified as a regular source of L. garvieae/petauri/formosensis based on a reanalysis of available 16S rRNA gene libraries. Pan-genome analysis suggested the existence of four clusters within the L. garvieae/petauri/formosensis group. The presence of cyl cluster indicated that some strains of the L. garvieae/petauri/formosensis group produced a pigment similar to granadaene, an orange cytotoxic lipid produced by group B streptococci, including Streptococcus agalactiae. Pigment production by L. garvieae/petauri/formosensis strains was dependent on the presence of the fermentable sugars, with no pigment being observed at pH <4.7. The addition of buffering compounds or arginine, which can be metabolized to ammonium, restored pigment formation. In addition, pigment formation might be related to the source of peptone. These data suggest that edible insects are a possible source of granadaene-producing lactococci, which can be considered a pathogenic risk with zoonotic potential.

The Bacterial Microbiota of Edible Insects Acheta domesticus and Gryllus assimilis Revealed by High Content Analysis

In the concept of novel food, insects reared under controlled conditions are considered mini livestock. Mass-reared edible insect production is an economically and ecologically beneficial alternative to conventional meat gain. Regarding food safety, insect origin ingredients must comply with food microbial requirements. House crickets (Acheta domesticus) and Jamaican field crickets (Gryllus assimilis) are preferred insect species that are used commercially as food. In this study, we examined cricket-associated bacterial communities using amplicon-based sequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene region (V3-V4). The high taxonomic richness of the bacterial populations inhabiting both tested cricket species was revealed. According to the analysis of alpha and beta diversity, house crickets and Jamaican field crickets displayed significantly different bacterial communities. Investigation of bacterial amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) diversity revealed cricket species as well as surface and entire body-associated bacterial assemblages. The efficiency of crickets processing and microbial safety were evaluated based on viable bacterial counts and identified bacterial species. Among the microorganisms inhabiting both tested cricket species, the potentially pathogenic bacteria are documented. Some bacteria representing identified genera are inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tract of animals and humans, forming a normal intestinal microflora and performing beneficial probiotic functions. The novel information on the edible insect-associated microbiota will contribute to developing strategies for cricket processing to avoid bacteria-caused risks and reap the benefits.

Effects of Agro-Industrial Byproduct-Based Diets on the Growth Performance, Digestibility, Nutritional and Microbiota Composition of Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.)

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of agro-industrial byproduct-based diets on the productive parameters, digestibility, insect composition, and gut microbiota of mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) larvae. Three formulations corresponding to three different levels of starch and protein were tested: one formulation based on bread remains and brewer’s yeast, representing a diet of high starch (61.1%) and low crude protein (18.5%) (HS-LP); and two formulations in which an additional four byproducts (courgette (Cucurbita pepo) remains, tigernut (Cyperus scelentus) pulp, brewer’s spent grains, and rice straw) were incorporated in different proportions, consistent with a diet of both moderate starch (29.8%) and crude protein (21.0%) (MS-MP); and another corresponding to a diet of low starch (20.0%) and high crude protein (26.3%) (LS-HP). A total of 1920 young larvae (average weight = 0.65 mg per larva) were used in this study. The larvae were randomly distributed into 16 replicates per treatment (boxes of 22.5 cm × 14.0 cm × 4.75 cm). Ten replicates for the growth performance−digestibility trial and six replicates for the complementary trial to determine uric acid levels in the frass were assigned per treatment. For growth performance, the diets were administered ad libitum during the experiment. The average number of days for the larvae to start pupating was lower in those reared on the HS-LP and LS-HP diets (88.90 and 91.00 days, respectively) than those on the MS-MP diet (120.09 days) (p < 0.001). The final individual weight was higher (p < 0.001) in larvae of the LS-HP group (168.69 mg) compared to those of the other groups (100.29 and 112.99 mg for HS-LP and MS-MP, respectively). However, the feed conversion ratio was better (p < 0.001) in the HS-LP group with the lowest value (1.39 g/g), with dry matter digestibility being the highest for the same diet (70.38%) (p < 0.001). Mealworms reared on LS-HP and MS-MP diets had a higher crude protein content than those reared on the HS-LP diet (p = 0.039). The most abundant phyla in the gut microbiota of larvae were Tenericutes, Proteobacteria, and Firmicutes, with their abundance depending on the rearing substrate. The representation of Tenericutes phylum was higher (p < 0.05) in the mealworms reared on MS-MP and HS-LP diets, whereas Proteobacteria and Cyanobacteria were higher in abundance (p < 0.001) in the insects reared on LS-HP. In conclusion, the larval growth, digestibility, insect composition, and gut microbiota of Tenebrio molitor were found to depend on the composition of the administered diet, and the results suggest great potential for the use of agro-industrial byproducts in their rearing and production.

Current knowledge of immune priming in invertebrates, emphasizing studies on Tenebrio molitor

Vertebrates rely on the most sophisticated adaptive immunity to defend themselves against various pathogens. This includes immunologic memory cells, which mount a stronger and more effective immune response against an antigen after its first encounter. Unlike vertebrates, invertebrates' defense completely depends on the innate immunity mechanisms including humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Furthermore, the invertebrate equivalent of the memory cells was discovered only recently. Since the discovery of transgenerational immune priming (TGIP) in crustaceans, numerous findings have proven the IP in invertebrate classes such as insects. TGIP can be induced through maternal priming pathways such as transcriptional regulation of antimicrobial peptides, and also paternal IP including the induction of proPO system activity. We appraise the diversity and specificity of IP agents to provide sustained immunologic memory in insects, particularly T. molitor in the review. An understanding of IP (more so TGIP) response in T. molitor will deepen our knowledge of invertebrate immunity, and boost the mass-rearing industry by reducing pathogen infection rates.

Bioactives from Mushroom: Health Attributes and Food Industry Applications

It is well-known that the utilization of mushrooms as therapeutic agents is not new. Over the past years, they have been used by local individuals as food, as well as medicines, throughout the world. Nowadays, mushrooms are excessively used in the medicine, pharmacy, food, and fermentation fields as well. Wild mushrooms are of particular interest, especially Trametes versicolor (commonly known as turkey mushrooms) due to their various uses in the food and pharmaceutical industries. They represent not only a huge storehouse of vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber, but they are also an important source of bioactive polysaccharides. They are widely used in traditional oriental therapies. The fruiting bodies are used in the preparation of health tonics and tea. The present review is necessary to explore more about this mushroom-like classical taxonomy, morphology, nutritional value, bioactivity, various health attributes, mechanism of bioactive components against various diseases, and food applications. The influence of processing processes on the nutritional properties and bioactivity of the fungus is discussed. Potential bioactive components promising health attributes of Trametes versicolor are extensively described. Additionally, several in vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of polysaccharopeptides (PSP) and Polysaccharide-K (PSK) on the aspects related to immune function and inflammation, also presenting an anticancerous effect. Moreover, PSP and PSK were successfully described to decrease several life-threatening diseases. The potential food applications of Trametes versicolor were detailed to signify the effective utilization of the mushroom in functional food formulation.

Analysis of Microbiological and Chemical Hazards in Edible Insects Available to Canadian Consumers

ABSTRACT

Edible insects are a novel food in most countries; their popularity is growing because of their high-protein and low-fat content, ease of cultivation, and small environmental impact. To our knowledge, this is the first report that addresses both microbiological and chemical hazards in edible insects. Samples were collected from retail stores or purchase through e-commerce. A total of 51 samples of dried whole insects or insect powder were tested for Escherichia coli, which serves as an indicator of the overall sanitation conditions throughout the food production chain, and the bacterial pathogen Salmonella spp. Neither Salmonella spp. nor E. coli (>100 CFU/g) was found in the samples analyzed. A total of 43 samples of crickets (protein bars, powders, flour, and whole insects) and 4 samples of silkworm (whole insects) were analyzed for up to 511 pesticides. Of these, 39 samples contained up to four pesticides; 34 samples were compliant and 5 samples were noncompliant with Canadian regulations. Seven pesticide residues were detected, with glyphosate and its metabolite, aminomethylphosphonic acid, as the predominant residues. Nineteen of the samples tested for pesticides were also analyzed for arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead; there was insufficient material remaining to allow testing of pesticides and metals. The positive rates for arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury were 100, 79, 58, and 74%, respectively. The detected concentrations ranged from 0.030 to 0.34 mg/kg for arsenic, from 0.031 to 0.23 mg/kg for cadmium, 0.019 to 0.059 mg/kg for lead, and from 0.94 to 28 μg/kg for mercury. Based on the lack of detection of microbiological contamination, and the positive rates and levels of pesticides and metals observed in the products, Health Canada determined that all insect products analyzed were safe for human consumption. This is a limited study; the Canadian Food Inspection Agency will continue to monitor this novel food.

HIGHLIGHTS

Interaction of environmental eukaryotic microorganisms and fungi in the pond-cultured carps: new insights into the potential pathogenic fungi in the freshwater aquaculture

The quality and safety of the aquatic products have gradually become the focus of global attention. In this study, the environmental eukaryotic and fungi communities in pond-cultured grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) and the koi carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) were investigated. For comparative analysis, the alpha diversity shows that the environmental microbial abundance in the koi carp groups were higher than that in the grass carp groups, while beta diversity reveals that the differences of the microbial community composition and structures in the grass carp groups were significantly higher than those in the koi carp groups. Meanwhile, the environmental microbial diversity of grass carp groups was higher than that of koi carp groups at phylum level, but showed no significant difference at genus level. Additionally, the dominant total phyla were Opisthokonta, Stramenopiles plusAlveolates plusRhizaria, Archaeplastida, Cryptophyceae, and Centrohelida for the 18S rRNA gene and Ciliophora, Chlorophyta, and Ascomycota for the ITS2 rRNA gene in both of the two carp groups. Additionally, annotation analysis showed that the biomarkers in the grass carp groups are significantly higher than those of the koi carp groups. Furthermore, the functional prediction of Funguild showed significant difference in outputs, while similarity in trophic modes and guild types between the two carp groups. Meanwhile, the total relative abundances of animal pathogen, fungal parasite, and plant pathogen were extremely similar between the two carp groups. Surprisingly, one pathogenic fungus of genus Fusarium was identified in both the environments of two carp groups based on filtered operational taxonomic unit tables. Overall, this is the first robust report to understand the characteristics of environmental eukaryotic microorganisms and fungi in the edible and ornamental carps. Our results also provide the basic data for the prevention of fungal diseases and the healthy culture of the carps.

Surface Micro Discharge-Cold Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Processing of Common House Cricket Acheta domesticus Powder: Antimicrobial Potential and Lipid-Quality Preservation

The growing world population and the need to reduce the environmental impact of food production drive the exploration of novel protein sources. Insects are being cultivated, harvested, and processed to be applied in animal and human nutrition. The inherent microbial contamination of insect matrices requires risk management and decontamination strategies. Thermal sterilization results in unfavorable cooking effects and oxidation of fatty acids. The present study demonstrates the risk management in Acheta domesticus (home cricket) powder with a low-energy (8.7-22.0 mW/cm², 5 min) semi-direct surface micro discharge (SMD)-cold atmospheric pressure plasma (CAPP). At a plasma power density lower than 22 mW/cm², no degradation of triglycerides (TG) or increased free fatty acids (FFA) content was detected. For mesophilic bacteria, 1.6 ± 0.1 log₁₀ reductions were achieved, and for Enterobacteriaceae, there were close to 1.9 ± 0.2 log₁₀ reductions in a layer of powder. Colonies of Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, and Bacillus megaterium were identified via the mass spectral fingerprint analyzed with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry (MS). The spores of these Bacillus strains resisted to a plasma power density of 22 mW/cm². Additional inactivation effects at non-thermal, practically non-oxidative conditions are supposed for low-intensity plasma treatments combined with the powder's fluidization.

Benefits and Challenges in the Incorporation of Insects in Food Products

Edible insects are being accepted by a growing number of consumers in recent years not only as a snack but also as a side dish or an ingredient to produce other foods. Most of the edible insects belong to one of these groups of insects such as caterpillars, butterflies, moths, wasps, beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, bees, and ants. Insect properties are analyzed and reported in the articles reviewed here, and one common feature is nutrimental content, which is one of the most important characteristics mentioned, especially proteins, lipids, fiber, and minerals. On the other hand, insects can be used as a substitute for flour of cereals for the enrichment of snacks because of their high content of proteins, lipids, and fiber. Technological properties are not altered when these insects-derived ingredients are added and sensorial analysis is satisfactory, and only in some cases, change in color takes place. Insects can be used as substitute ingredients in meat products; the products obtained have higher mineral content than traditional ones, and some texture properties (like elasticity) can be improved. In extruded products, insects are an alternative source of proteins to feed livestock, showing desirable characteristics. Isolates of proteins of insects have demonstrated bioactive activity, and these can be used to improve food formulations. Bioactive compounds, as antioxidant agents, insulin regulators, and anti-inflammatory peptides, are high-value products that can be obtained from insects. Fatty acids that play a significant role in human health and lipids from insects have showed positive impacts on coronary disease, inflammation, and cancer. Insects can be a vector for foodborne microbial contamination, but the application of good manufacturing practices and effective preservation techniques jointly with the development of appropriate safety regulations will decrease the appearance of such risks. However, allergens presented in some insects are a hazard that must be analyzed and taken into account. Despite all the favorable health-promoting characteristics present in insects and insects-derived ingredients, willingness to consume them has yet to be generalized.

Hygienic Characteristics and Detection of Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Crickets (Acheta domesticus) Breed for Flour Production

During the last ten years, the worldwide interest in using insects as food and feed has surged. Edible insects fall within the category of novel foods, i.e., the category of food not consumed in significant amounts in the European Union before 15 May 1997 (the date of entry into force of Regulation (EC) No. 258/1997, later repealed by Regulation (EU) No. 2283/2015). One of the most promising insect species to be raised for food is the house cricket (Acheta domesticus). In this study, the rearing of a stock of house crickets was studied over a period of four months. The microbiological quality of the farm was studied using swabs on the surface of the rearing boxes to analyze the trend over time of different populations of microorganisms (total aerobic mesophilic microbiota, Lactobacillus spp., enterococci, Staphylococcus spp., Enterobacteriaceae, total coliforms, Pseudomonas spp. and molds). The presence of four antimicrobial resistance genes (aph, blaZ, sul1, and tetM) was investigated by polymerase chain reaction. A production scheme was also developed in order to obtain a cricket-based flour, which was analyzed for its microbiological and chemical-centesimal profile. The results obtained in this study demonstrate that the contamination increases with time and that a proper management of the farming system for insects is of the utmost importance, as it is for conventional farm animals such as ungulates, poultry, and rabbits. The old-fashioned adage “all full, all empty” for the farming system summarizes the need for proper cleaning and disinfection of the structures at the end of each production cycle.

The merits of entomophagy in the post COVID-19 world

BACKGROUND

In 2020, human society underwent several drastic changes due to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which generated an unprecedented global impact. Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, various pressing concerns underlying food security, such as transport, production, and maintenance of the supply chain, have been raised.

SCOPE AND APPROACH

The present study aimed to describe and review the merits of entomophagy in the post COVID-19 world, especially with regard to the low risk for zoonotic disease spread, high production rate, and future prospects for inducing entomophagy to enhance the diversity in the food system in comparison to conventional livestock.

KEY FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

The advantages of entomophagy in the post COVID-19 world have been elucidated herein, with particular emphasis on the minimal risk of zoonotic disease transmission and production efficiency, in addition to the future goal of establishment of entomophagy to expand redundancy and diversity in the food system as against the utility of conventional livestock. In the current scenario, as well as in the post COVID-19 situation, boosting entomophagy may play a pivotal role in global food security, as the aspects already touched upon have amply demonstrated.

A Proteomic- and Bioinformatic-Based Identification of Specific Allergens from Edible Insects: Probes for Future Detection as Food Ingredients

The increasing development of edible insect flours as alternative sources of proteins added to food and feed products for improving their nutritional value, necessitates an accurate evaluation of their possible adverse side-effects, especially for individuals suffering from food allergies. Using a proteomic- and bioinformatic-based approach, the diversity of proteins occurring in currently consumed edible insects such as silkworm (Bombyx mori), cricket (Acheta domesticus), African migratory locust (Locusta migratoria), yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor), red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus), and giant milworm beetle (Zophobas atratus), was investigated. Most of them consist of phylogenetically-related protein allergens widely distributed in the different groups of arthropods (mites, insects, crustaceans) and mollusks. However, a few proteins belonging to discrete protein families including the chemosensory protein, hexamerin, and the odorant-binding protein, emerged as proteins highly specific for edible insects. To a lesser extent, other proteins such as apolipophorin III, the larval cuticle protein, and the receptor for activated protein kinase, also exhibited a rather good specificity for edible insects. These proteins, that are apparently missing or much less represented in other groups of arthropods, mollusks and nematods, share well conserved amino acid sequences and very similar three-dimensional structures. Owing to their ability to trigger allergic responses in sensitized people, they should be used as probes for the specific detection of insect proteins as food ingredients in various food products and thus, to assess their food safety, especially for people allergic to edible insects.

LF NMR spectroscopy analysis of water dynamics and texture of Gluten-Free bread with cricket powder during storage

The paper presents the effect of replacing starch (at 2%, 6% and 10%) with cricket powder (CP) on the water behavior studied by the ¹H NMR method, as well as the texture of gluten-free bread during 6-day storage. It was noticed that the bread crumb containing CP has lower water transport rate than the control bread crumb, while concluding that 2% CP stabilizes water transport throughout the entire staling time range. The NMR analyzes showed that the initial T₂₁ values are the higher, the more starch has been replaced with the CP, however, after 6 days of storage, all tested samples are characterized by similar values of the T₂₁ parameter. A decrease in long component of spin-spin relaxation time T₂₂ during storage was also observed. It has been noted that the replacement of starch to 2% and 6% CP causes an increase in the molecular dynamics of water. The less starch present, the greater the potential for bulk molecules to move. The observed changes at the molecular level resulted in macroscopic changes in the texture of the bread. After analyzing the hardness parameter of the tested breads, it was found that on the day of baking, bread without the addition of CP had significantly higher values of this parameter than breads with CP. For the sample without CP, the highest increase in total hardness change (123.93%) was noted during storage, which indicates the fastest texture change process. Based on the results obtained, it can be concluded that the use of cricket powder to enrich gluten-free bread can not only improve the nutritional value, but also effectively delay the process of bread staling.

Insects, Rodents, and Pets as Reservoirs, Vectors, and Sentinels of Antimicrobial Resistance

This paper reviews the occurrence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in insects, rodents, and pets. Insects (e.g., houseflies, cockroaches), rodents (rats, mice), and pets (dogs, cats) act as reservoirs of AMR for first-line and last-resort antimicrobial agents. AMR proliferates in insects, rodents, and pets, and their skin and gut systems. Subsequently, insects, rodents, and pets act as vectors that disseminate AMR to humans via direct contact, human food contamination, and horizontal gene transfer. Thus, insects, rodents, and pets might act as sentinels or bioindicators of AMR. Human health risks are discussed, including those unique to low-income countries. Current evidence on human health risks is largely inferential and based on qualitative data, but comprehensive statistics based on quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) are still lacking. Hence, tracing human health risks of AMR to insects, rodents, and pets, remains a challenge. To safeguard human health, mitigation measures are proposed, based on the one-health approach. Future research should include human health risk analysis using QMRA, and the application of in-silico techniques, genomics, network analysis, and ’big data’ analytical tools to understand the role of household insects, rodents, and pets in the persistence, circulation, and health risks of AMR.

COVID-19 Pandemic Is a Call to Search for Alternative Protein Sources as Food and Feed: A Review of Possibilities

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is a global health challenge with substantial adverse effects on the world economy. It is beyond any doubt that it is, again, a call-to-action to minimize the risk of future zoonoses caused by emerging human pathogens. The primary response to contain zoonotic diseases is to call for more strict regulations on wildlife trade and hunting. This is because the origins of coronaviruses such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), SARS-CoV, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), as well as other viral pathogens (e.g., Ebola, HIV) are traceable to wild animals. Although COVID-19 is not related to livestock animals, the pandemic increased general attention given to zoonotic viral infections—the risk of which can also be associated with livestock. Therefore, this paper discusses the potential transformation of industrial livestock farming and the production of animal products, particularly meat, to decrease the risks for transmission of novel human pathogens. Plant-based diets have a number of advantages, but it is unrealistic to consider them as the only solution offered to the problem. Therefore, a search for alternative protein sources in insect-based foods and cultured meat, important technologies enabling safer meat production. Although both of these strategies offer a number of potential advantages, they are also subject to the number of challenges that are discussed in this paper. Importantly, insect-based foods and cultured meat can provide additional benefits in the context of ecological footprint, an aspect important in light of predicted climate changes. Furthermore, cultured meat can be regarded as ethically superior and supports better food security. There is a need to further support the implementation and expansion of all three approaches discussed in this paper, plant-based diets, insect-based foods, and cultured meat, to decrease the epidemiological risks and ensure a sustainable future. Furthermore, cultured meat also offers a number of additional benefits in the context of environmental impact, ethical issues, and food security.

Control of Biological Hazards in Insect Processing: Application of HACCP Method for Yellow Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) Powders

Entomophagy has been part of human diets for a long time in a significant part of the world, but insects are considered to be a novel food everywhere else. It would appear to be a strategic alternative in the future of human diet to face the challenge of ensuring food security for a growing world population, using more environmentally sustainable production systems than those required for the rearing of other animals. Tenebrio molitor, called yellow mealworm, is one of the most interesting insect species in view of mass rearing, and can be processed into a powder that ensures a long shelf life for its use in many potential products. When considering insects as food or feed, it is necessary to guarantee their safety. Therefore, manufacturers must implement a Hazard Analysis Critical Control plan (HACCP), to limit risks for consumers' health. The aim of this case study was to develop a HACCP plan for Tenebrio molitor larvae powders for food in a risk-based approach to support their implementation in industry. Specific purposes were to identify related significant biological hazards and to assess the efficiency of different manufacturing process steps when used as Critical Control Points. Then, combinations of four different processes with four potential uses of powders by consumers in burger, protein shake, baby porridge, and biscuits were analyzed with regard to their safety.

Locust Bacterial Symbionts: An Update

As one of the world's most infamous agricultural pests, locusts have been subjected to many in-depth studies. Their ability at one end of their behavioral spectrum to live as solitary individuals under specific conditions, and at the other end of the spectrum to form swarms of biblical scale, has placed them at the focus of vast research efforts. One important aspect of locust ecology is that of their interactions with the bacteria that reside in and on them. Although this aspect of locust ecology has been little studied relative to the mainstream locust research, these bacteria have been shown both to affect locust immunity and to participate in maintaining swarm integrity through the secretion of attractant volatiles. The interaction between locusts and their bacteria seems, however, to be bi-directional, with the bacteria themselves, as recently shown, being influenced by their host's swarming tendencies. This seems to be a consequence of the bacterial composition in the locust's gut, reproductive organs, and integument undergoing change with the change in their host's behavior. In this review we describe the current state of knowledge of the locust-bacteria interactions (data exists mainly for the desert and the migratory locusts), as well as highlighting some newly-gained understanding; and offer perspectives for future research.

Technological Feature Assessment of Lactic Acid Bacteria Isolated from Cricket Powder's Spontaneous Fermentation as Potential Starters for Cricket-Wheat Bread Production

The bacterial community profile of cricket powder highlighted the presence of four main genera: Bacteroides spp., Parabacteroides spp., Lactococcus spp., and Enterococcus spp. The spontaneous fermentation of cricket powder allowed for the isolation and characterization of seven lactic acid bacteria strains belonging to six species: Latilactobacillus curvatus, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, Latilactobacillus sakei, Lactococcus garvieae, Weissella confusa, and Enterococcus durans. The strains were characterized and selected according to different technological properties. L. plantarum CR L1 and L. curvatus CR L13 showed the best performance in terms of general aminopeptidase activity, acidification, and growth rate in MRS broth and in dough with cricket powder and wheat flour, as well as robustness during consecutive backslopping. Thus, they were used as starter-mixed to produce sourdough to manufacture bread fortified with 20% cricket powder. The addition of cricket powder led to a significant increase of protein (up to 94%) and lipid content, from 0.7 up to 6 g/100 g of bread. Spontaneous fermentation represents a source of microbial diversity that can be exploited in order to obtain potential starters for food with innovative ingredients. Edible insects powder can be successfully added in leavened baked goods to enhance their nutritional value.

In vitro bioactivity, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory efficacy of modified solvent evaporation assisted Trametes versicolor extract

In the present study, modified solvent evaporation assisted methanolic Trametes versicolor extract was evaluated for its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory efficacy. Mushroom extract showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher total phenolic content (48.71 mg/g) followed by total flavonoid content (13.13 mg/g), ascorbic acid content (11.03 mg/g), β-carotene content (8.34), and lycopene content (6.85). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed the functional groups of the observed bioactive compounds, while HPLC chromatogram showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher gallic acid content (45.72 mg/g) as compared to rutin content (12.50 mg/g). Statistically, mushroom extract and artificial antioxidant (BHA) showed a non-significant (p < 0.05) difference in terms of percentage inhibition during DPPH and N₂O₂ scavenging assay. During the time-kill kinetics, the mushroom extract significantly inhibited the growth of S. aureus in comparison with the growth of P.aeruginosa, K. pneumonia, and E.coli. Mushroom extract showed effective anti-inflammatory activity during membrane stabilization (33.71-73.24%) and protein denaturation (23.11-74.56%) assays.

Identification of bacterial endospores and targeted detection of foodborne viruses in industrially reared insects for food

With edible insects being increasingly produced, food safety authorities have called for the determination of microbiological challenges posed to human health. Here, we find that the bacterial endospore fraction in industrially reared mealworm and cricket samples is largely comprised of Bacillus cereus group members that can pose insect or human health risks. Hepatitis A virus, hepatitis E virus and norovirus genogroup II were not detected in the sample collection, indicating a low food safety risk from these viral pathogens.