Convergence of nitric oxide and lipid signaling: anti-inflammatory nitro-fatty acids

Plasma n6 polyunsaturated fatty acid levels and risk for total and cause-specific mortality: A prospective observational study from the UK Biobank

BACKGROUND

The potential role of n-6 PUFAs in major health outcomes remains controversial.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the relationship between the major plasma n6 PUFA, linoleic acid (LA), as well as the non-LA n6 PUFAs, and total and cause-specific mortality.

METHODS

This was a prospective, observational, biomarker-based study in the UK Biobank. Individuals with complete information on baseline demographic, covariate and plasma PUFA levels (percent ot total fatty acids) and mortality outcomes were included (n=257,925). Multivariable-adjusted, Cox-proportional hazards models were used to predict risk of death from all-causes, and from cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer, and other causes as a function of plasma LA and non-LA n6 levels, both continuously and by PUFA quintile (Q).

RESULTS

Comparing LA Q5 to Q1, the hazard ratio (HR, 95% CI) for total mortality was 0.80 (0.76, 0.84; p<0.001), and this was similar for all three cause-specific death categories. On the other hand, mortality HR for non-LA n6 was 1.12 (1.08,1.17; p<0.001), and this was primarily due to increased risk for non-CVD, noncancer deaths [HR 1.29 (1.19,1.40; p<0.001)]. Exploratory analyses among the eight next most common other causes of death suggested that both the decreased risk associated with higher LA and the increased risk associated with non-LA n6 were confined to deaths from respiratory and digestive diseases.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight the profound differences in mortality risk related to LA and non-LA n6 PUFA levels and underscore the inappropriateness of treating n-6 PUFAs as a homogenous class with respect to health outcomes. They also support recommendations to maintain (if not increase) current LA intakes.

Targeting amino acid-metabolizing enzymes for cancer immunotherapy

Despite the immune system's role in the detection and eradication of abnormal cells, cancer cells often evade elimination by exploitation of various immune escape mechanisms. Among these mechanisms is the ability of cancer cells to upregulate amino acid-metabolizing enzymes, or to induce these enzymes in tumor-infiltrating immunosuppressive cells. Amino acids are fundamental cellular nutrients required for a variety of physiological processes, and their inadequacy can severely impact immune cell function. Amino acid-derived metabolites can additionally dampen the anti-tumor immune response by means of their immunosuppressive activities, whilst some can also promote tumor growth directly. Based on their evident role in tumor immune escape, the amino acid-metabolizing enzymes glutaminase 1 (GLS1), arginase 1 (ARG1), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1), tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO) and interleukin 4 induced 1 (IL4I1) each serve as a promising target for immunotherapeutic intervention. This review summarizes and discusses the involvement of these enzymes in cancer, their effect on the anti-tumor immune response and the recent progress made in the preclinical and clinical evaluation of inhibitors targeting these enzymes.

Oleic acid reduces oxidative stress in rat brain induced by some anticancer drugs

Oleic acid (OA) is a monounsaturated compound with many health-benefitting properties such as obesity prevention, increased insulin sensitivity, antihypertensive and immune-boosting properties, etc. The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of oleic acid (OA) and some anticancer drugs against oxidative damage induced by nitropropionic acid (NPA) in rat brain. Six groups of Wistar rats were treated as follows: Group 1, (control); group 2, OA; group 3, NPA + OA; group 4, cyclophosphamide (CPP) + OA; group 5, daunorubicin (DRB) + OA; and group 6, dexrazoxane (DXZ) + OA. All compounds were administered intraperitoneally route, every 24 h for 5 days. Their brains were extracted to measure lipoperoxidation (TBARS), H2O2, Ca+2, Mg+2 ATPase activity, glutathione (GSH) and dopamine. Glucose, hemoglobin and triglycerides were measured in blood. In cortex GSH increased in all groups, except in group 2, the group 4 showed the highest increase of this biomarker. TBARS decrease, and dopamine increase in all regions of groups 4, 5 and 6. H2O2 increased only in cerebellum/medulla oblongata of group 5 and 6. ATPase expression decreased in striatum of group 4. Glucose increased in group 6, and hemoglobin increased in groups 4 and 5. These results suggest that the increase of dopamine and the antioxidant effect of oleic acid administration during treatment with oncologic agents could result in less brain injury.

Beet supplementation mitigates post-exercise inflammation

Objectives

This study investigated the efficacy of a mixed beet-based supplement (BEET) versus placebo (PL) in countering inflammation during recovery from 2.25 h of intensive cycling in 20 male and female cyclists. A multi-omics approach was used that included untargeted proteomics and a targeted oxylipin panel.

Methods

A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, crossover design was used with two 2-week supplementation periods and a 2-week washout period. Supplementation periods were followed by a 2.25 h cycling bout at close to 70%VO2max. The BEET supplement provided 212 mg of nitrates per day, 200 mg caffeine from green tea extract, 44 mg vitamin C from Camu Camu berry, B-vitamins from quinoa sprouts (40% Daily Value for thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin B6), and 2.5 g of a mushroom blend containing Cordyceps sinensis and Inonotus obliquus. Six blood samples were collected before and after supplementation (overnight fasted state), immediately post-exercise, and at 1.5 h-, 3 h-, and 24 h-post-exercise.

Results

The 2.25 h cycling bout increased plasma levels of 41 of 67 oxylipins detected. BEET supplementation significantly increased plasma nitrate (NO3 -) and nitrite (NO2 -) (sum, NO3 - + NO2 -) concentrations (interaction effect, p < 0.001) and two anti-inflammatory oxylipins [18-hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acid (18-HEPE) and 4-hydroxy-docosahexanoic acid (4-HDoHE)]. The untargeted proteomics analysis identified 616 proteins (458 across all times points), and 2-way ANOVA revealed a cluster of 45 proteins that were decreased and a cluster of 21 that were increased in the BEET versus PL trials. Functional enrichment supported significant BEET-related reductions in inflammation-related proteins including several proteins related to complement activation, the acute phase response, and immune cell adhesion, migration, and differentiation.

Discussion

Intake of a BEET-based supplement during a 2-week period was linked to higher plasma levels of NO3 - + NO2 -, elevated post-exercise levels of two anti-inflammatory oxylipins, and a significant decrease in a cluster of proteins involved in complement activation and inflammation. These data support that 2-weeks intake of nitrate from a mixed beet-based supplement moderated protein biomarkers of exercise-induced inflammation in athletes.

Nitro-oleic acid regulates T cell activation through post-translational modification of calcineurin

Nitro-fatty acids (NO₂-FAs) are unsaturated fatty acid nitration products that exhibit anti-inflammatory actions in experimental mouse models of autoimmune and allergic diseases. These electrophilic molecules interfere with intracellular signaling pathways by reversible post-translational modification of nucleophilic amino-acid residues. Several regulatory proteins have been identified as targets of NO₂-FAs, modifying their activity and promoting gene expression changes that result in anti-inflammatory effects. Herein, we report the effects of nitro-oleic acid (NO₂-OA) on pro-inflammatory T cell functions, showing that 9- and 10-NOA, but not their oleic acid precursor, decrease T cell proliferation, expression of activation markers CD25 and CD71 on the plasma membrane, and IL-2, IL-4, and IFN-γ cytokine gene expressions. Moreover, we have found that NO₂-OA inhibits the transcriptional activity of nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) and that this inhibition takes place through the regulation of the phosphatase activity of calcineurin (CaN), hindering NFAT dephosphorylation, and nuclear translocation in activated T cells. Finally, using mass spectrometry-based approaches, we have found that NO₂-OA nitroalkylates CaNA on four Cys (Cys129, 228, 266, and 372), of which only nitroalkylation on Cys372 was of importance for the regulation of CaN phosphatase activity in cells, disturbing functional CaNA/CaNB heterodimer formation. These results provide evidence for an additional mechanism by which NO₂-FAs exert their anti-inflammatory actions, pointing to their potential as therapeutic bioactive lipids for the modulation of harmful T cell-mediated immune responses.

Compartmentalized regulation of lipid signaling in oxidative stress and inflammation: Plasmalogens, oxidized lipids and ferroptosis as new paradigms of bioactive lipid research

Perturbations in lipid homeostasis combined with conditions favoring oxidative stress constitute a hallmark of the inflammatory response. In this review we focus on the most recent results concerning lipid signaling in various oxidative stress-mediated responses and inflammation. These include phagocytosis and ferroptosis. The best characterized event, common to these responses, is the synthesis of oxygenated metabolites of arachidonic acid and other polyunsaturated fatty acids. Major developments in this area have highlighted the importance of compartmentalization of the enzymes and lipid substrates in shaping the appropriate response. In parallel, other relevant lipid metabolic pathways are also activated and, until recently, there has been a general lack of knowledge on the enzyme regulation and molecular mechanisms operating in these pathways. Specifically, data accumulated in recent years on the regulation and biological significance of plasmalogens and oxidized phospholipids have expanded our knowledge on the involvement of lipid metabolism in the progression of disease and the return to homeostasis. These recent major developments have helped to establish the concept of membrane phospholipids as cellular repositories for the compartmentalized production of bioactive lipids involved in cellular regulation. Importantly, an enzyme classically described as being involved in regulating the homeostatic turnover of phospholipids, namely the group VIA Ca²⁺-independent phospholipase A₂ (iPLA₂β), has taken center stage in oxidative stress and inflammation research owing to its key involvement in regulating metabolic and ferroptotic signals arising from membrane phospholipids. Understanding the role of iPLA₂β in ferroptosis and metabolism not only broadens our knowledge of disease but also opens possible new horizons for this enzyme as a target for therapeutic intervention.

Redox and spectroscopic properties of mammalian nitrite reductase-like hemoproteins

Besides the canonical pathway of L-arginine oxidation to produce nitric oxide (NO) in vivo, the nitrate-nitrite-NO pathway has been widely accepted as another source for circulating NO in mammals, especially under hypoxia. To date, there have been at least ten heme-containing nitrite reductase-like proteins discovered in mammals with activities mainly identified in vitro, including four globins (hemoglobin, myoglobin, neuroglobin (Ngb), cytoglobin (Cygb)), three mitochondrial respiratory chain enzymes (cytochrome c oxidase, cytochrome bc₁, cytochrome c), and three other heme proteins (endothelial nitric oxide synthase, cytochrome P450 and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1)). The pathophysiological functions of these proteins are closely related to their redox and spectroscopic properties, as well as their protein structure, although the physiological roles of Ngb, Cygb and IDO1 remain unclear. So far, comprehensive summaries of the redox and spectroscopic properties of these nitrite reductase-like hemoproteins are still lacking. In this review, we have mainly summarized the published data on the application of ultraviolet-visible, electron paramagnetic resonance, circular dichroism and resonance Raman spectroscopies, and X-ray crystallography in studying nitrite reductase-like activity of these 10 proteins, in order to sort out the relationships among enzymatic function, structure and spectroscopic characterization, which might help in understanding their roles in redox biology and medicine.

Nitrated Fatty-Acids Distribution in Storage Biomolecules during Arabidopsis thaliana Development

The non-enzymatic interaction of polyunsaturated fatty acids with nitric oxide (NO) and derived species results in the formation of nitrated fatty acids (NO₂-FAs). These signaling molecules can release NO, reversibly esterify with complex lipids, and modulate protein function through the post-translational modification called nitroalkylation. To date, NO₂-FAs act as signaling molecules during plant development in plant systems and are involved in defense responses against abiotic stress conditions. In this work, the previously unknown storage biomolecules of NO₂-FAs in Arabidopsis thaliana were identified. In addition, the distribution of NO₂-FAs in storage biomolecules during plant development was determined, with phytosterol esters (SE) and TAGs being reservoir biomolecules in seeds, which were replaced by phospholipids and proteins in the vegetative, generative, and senescence stages. The detected esterified NO₂-FAs were nitro-linolenic acid (NO₂-Ln), nitro-oleic acid (NO₂-OA), and nitro-linoleic acid (NO₂-LA). The last two were detected for the first time in Arabidopsis. The levels of the three NO₂-FAs that were esterified in both lipid and protein storage biomolecules showed a decreasing pattern throughout Arabidopsis development. Esterification of NO₂-FAs in phospholipids and proteins highlights their involvement in both biomembrane dynamics and signaling processes, respectively, during Arabidopsis plant development.

Ribonucleotide reductase: Implications of thiol S-nitrosylation and tyrosine nitration for different subunits

Ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) is a multi-subunit enzyme responsible for catalyzing the rate-limiting step in the production of deoxyribonucleotides essential for DNA synthesis and repair. The active RNR complex is composed of multimeric R1 and R2 subunits. The RNR catalysis involves the formation of tyrosyl radicals in R2 subunits and thiyl radicals in R1 subunits. Despite the quaternary structure and cofactor diversity, all the three classes of RNR have a conserved cysteine residue at the active site which is converted into a thiyl radical that initiates the substrate turnover, suggesting that the catalytic mechanism is somewhat similar for all three classes of the RNR enzyme. Increased RNR activity has been associated with malignant transformation, cancer cell growth, and tumorigenesis. Efforts concerning the understanding of RNR inhibition in designing potent RNR inhibitors/drugs as well as developing novel approaches for antibacterial, antiviral treatments, and cancer therapeutics with improved radiosensitization have been made in clinical research. This review highlights the precise and potent roles of NO in RNR inhibition by targeting both the subunits. Under nitrosative stress, the thiols of the R1 subunits have been found to be modified by S-nitrosylation and the tyrosyl radicals of the R2 subunits have been modified by nitration. In view of the recent advances and progresses in the field of nitrosative modifications and its fundamental role in signaling with implications in health and diseases, the present article focuses on the regulations of RNR activity by S-nitrosylation of thiols (R1 subunits) and nitration of tyrosyl residues (R2 subunits) which will further help in designing new drugs and therapies.

Involvement of Fatty Acids and Their Metabolites in the Development of Inflammation in Atherosclerosis

Despite all the advances of modern medicine, atherosclerosis continues to be one of the most important medical and social problems. Atherosclerosis is the cause of several cardiovascular diseases, which are associated with high rates of disability and mortality. The development of atherosclerosis is associated with the accumulation of lipids in the arterial intima and the disruption of mechanisms that maintain the balance between the development and resolution of inflammation. Fatty acids are involved in many mechanisms of inflammation development and maintenance. Endothelial cells demonstrate multiple cross-linkages between lipid metabolism and innate immunity. In addition, these processes are linked to hemodynamics and the function of other cells in the vascular wall, highlighting the central role of the endothelium in vascular biology.

Primary saturation of α, β-unsaturated carbonyl containing fatty acids does not abolish electrophilicity

Metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids results in the formation of hydroxylated fatty acids that can be further oxidized by dehydrogenases, often resulting in the formation of electrophilic, α,β-unsaturated ketone containing fatty acids. As electrophiles are associated with redox signaling, we sought to investigate the metabolism of the oxo-fatty acid products in relation to their double bond architecture. Using an untargeted liquid chromatography mass spectrometry approach, we identified mono- and di-saturated products of the arachidonic acid-derived 11-oxoeicosatetraenoic acid (11-oxoETE) and mono-saturated metabolites of 15-oxoETE and docosahexaenoic acid-derived 17-oxodocosahexaenoinc acid (17-oxoDHA) in both human A549 lung carcinoma and umbilical vein endothelial cells. Notably, mono-saturated oxo-fatty acids maintained their electrophilicity as determined by nucleophilic conjugation to glutathione while a second saturation of 11-oxoETE resulted in a loss of electrophilicity. These results would suggest that prostaglandin reductase 1 (PTGR1), known only for its reduction of the α,β-unsaturated double bond, was not responsible for the saturation of oxo-fatty acids at alternative double bonds. Surprisingly, knockdown of PTGR1 expression by shRNA confirmed its participation in the formation of 15-oxoETE and 17-oxoDHA mono-saturated metabolites. Furthermore, overexpression of PTGR1 in A549 cells increased the rate and total amount of oxo-fatty acid saturation. These findings will further facilitate the study of electrophilic fatty acid metabolism and signaling in the context of inflammatory diseases and cancer where they have been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative signaling properties.

Nitric oxide and hydrogen sulfide: Sibling rivalry in the family of epigenetic regulators

Nitric oxide (NO) and hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) were previously only known for their toxic properties. Now they are regarded as potent gaseous messenger molecules (gasotransmitters) that rapidly transverse cell membranes and transduce cellular signals through their chemical reactions and modifications to protein targets. Both are known to regulate numerous physiological functions including angiogenesis, vascular tone, and immune response, to name a few. NO and H₂S often work synergistically and in competition to regulate each other's synthesis, target protein activity via posttranslational modifications (PTMs), and chemical interactions. In addition to their canonical modes of action, increasing evidence has demonstrated that NO and H₂S share another signaling mechanism: epigenetic regulation. This review will compare and contrast biosynthesis and metabolism of NO and H₂S, their individual and shared interactions, and the growing body of evidence for their roles as endogenous epigenetic regulatory molecules.

A novel nitroalkene vitamin E analogue inhibits the NLRP3 inflammasome and protects against inflammation and glucose intolerance triggered by obesity

Chronic metabolic diseases, like obesity, type II diabetes and atherosclerosis often involve a low-grade and sterile systemic inflammatory state, in which activation of the pro-inflammatory transcription factor NF-kB and the NLRP3 inflammasome play a major role. It is well established that genetic inhibition of the NLRP3 inflammasome ameliorates acute and chronic inflammation. Indeed, accumulating experimental evidences in murine models and also in humans suggest that inhibition of the NLRP3 inflammasome might be a suitable approach to tackle the deleterious effects of chronic metabolic diseases. In this work, we explored our previously synthesized nitroalkene-Trolox™ derivative named NATx0, as a non-conventional anti-inflammatory strategy to treat chronic inflammatory diseases, such as obesity-induced glucose intolerance. We found that NATx0 inhibited NF-kB nuclear translocation and pro-inflammatory gene expression in macrophages in vitro. In addition, treatment with NATx0 prevented NLRP3 inflammasome activation after LPS/ATP stimulation in macrophages in vitro. When tested acutely in vivo, NATx0 inhibited neutrophil recruitment in zebrafish larvae, and also diminished IL-1β production after LPS challenge in mice. Finally, when NATx0 was administered chronically to diet-induced obese mice, it decreased muscle tissue inflammation and glucose intolerance, leading to improved glucose homeostasis. In conclusion, we propose that this novel nitroalkene-Trolox derivative is a suitable tool to tackle acute and chronic inflammation in vitro and in vivo mainly due to inhibition of NF-kB/NLRP3 activation.

Regulation of arachidonic acid oxidation and metabolism by lipid electrophiles

Arachidonic acid (AA) is a precursor of enzymatic and non-enzymatic oxidized products such as prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, lipoxins, and isoprostanes. These products may exert signaling or damaging roles during physiological and pathological conditions, some of them being markers of oxidative stress linked to inflammation. Recent data support the concept that cyclooxygenases (COX), lipoxygenases (LOX), and cytochrome P450 (CYP450) followed by cytosolic and microsomal dehydrogenases can convert AA to lipid-derived electrophiles (LDE). Lipid-derived electrophiles are fatty acid derivatives bearing an electron-withdrawing group that can react with nucleophiles at proteins, DNA, and small antioxidant molecules exerting potent signaling properties. This review aims to describe the formation, sources, and electrophilic anti-inflammatory actions of key mammalian LDE.

Electrophilic characteristics and aqueous behavior of fatty acid nitroalkenes

Fatty acid nitroalkenes (NO2-FA) are endogenously-generated products of the reaction of metabolic and inflammatory-derived nitrogen dioxide (.NO2) with unsaturated fatty acids. These species mediate signaling actions and induce adaptive responses in preclinical models of inflammatory and metabolic diseases. The nitroalkene substituent possesses an electrophilic nature, resulting in rapid and reversible reactions with biological nucleophiles such as cysteine, thus supporting post-translational modifications (PTM) of proteins having susceptible nucleophilic centers. These reactions contribute to enzyme regulation, modulation of inflammation and cell proliferation and the regulation of gene expression responses. Herein, focus is placed on the reduction-oxidation (redox) characteristics and stability of specific NO2-FA regioisomers having biological and clinical relevance; nitro-oleic acid (NO2-OA), bis-allylic nitro-linoleic acid (NO2-LA) and the conjugated diene-containing nitro-conjugated linoleic acid (NO2-cLA). Cyclic and alternating-current voltammetry and chronopotentiometry were used to the study of reduction potentials of these NO2-FA. R-NO2 reduction was observed around -0.8 V (vs. Ag/AgCl/3 M KCl) and is related to relative NO2-FA electrophilicity. This reduction process could be utilized for the evaluation of NO2-FA stability in aqueous milieu, shown herein to be pH dependent. In addition, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy was used to define the stability of the nitroalkene moiety under aqueous conditions, specifically under conditions where nitric oxide (.NO) release could be detected. The experimental data were supported by density functional theory calculations using 6-311++G (d,p) basis set and B3LYP functional. Based on experimental and computational approaches, the relative electrophilicities of these NO2-FA are NO2-cLA >> NO2-LA > NO2-OA. Micellarization and vesiculation largely define these biophysical characteristics in aqueous, nucleophile-free conditions. At concentrations below the critical micellar concentration (CMC), monomeric NO2-FA predominate, while at greater concentrations a micellar phase consisting of self-assembled lipid structures predominates. The CMC, determined by dynamic light scattering in 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) at 25 °C, was 6.9 (NO2-LA) 10.6 (NO2-OA) and 42.3 μM (NO2-cLA), respectively. In aggregate, this study provides new insight into the biophysical properties of NO2-FA that are important for better understanding the cell signaling and pharmacological potential of this class of mediators.

The Role of Nitric Oxide in Cancer: Master Regulator or NOt?

Nitric oxide (NO) is a key player in both the development and suppression of tumourigenesis depending on the source and concentration of NO. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms by which NO induces DNA damage, influences the DNA damage repair response, and subsequently modulates cell cycle arrest. In some circumstances, NO induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis protecting against tumourigenesis. NO in other scenarios can cause a delay in cell cycle progression, allowing for aberrant DNA repair that promotes the accumulation of mutations and tumour heterogeneity. Within the tumour microenvironment, low to moderate levels of NO derived from tumour and endothelial cells can activate angiogenesis and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, promoting an aggressive phenotype. In contrast, high levels of NO derived from inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expressing M1 and Th1 polarised macrophages and lymphocytes may exert an anti-tumour effect protecting against cancer. It is important to note that the existing evidence on immunomodulation is mainly based on murine iNOS studies which produce higher fluxes of NO than human iNOS. Finally, we discuss different strategies to target NO related pathways therapeutically. Collectively, we present a picture of NO as a master regulator of cancer development and progression.

Structural considerations on lipoxygenase function, inhibition and crosstalk with nitric oxide pathways

Lipoxygenases (LOX) are non-heme iron-containing enzymes that catalyze regio- and stereo-selective dioxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Mammalian LOXs participate in the eicosanoid cascade during the inflammatory response, using preferentially arachidonic acid (AA) as substrate, for the synthesis of leukotrienes (LT) and other oxidized-lipid intermediaries. This review focus on lipoxygenases (LOX) structural and kinetic implications on both catalysis selectivity, as well as the basic and clinical implications of inhibition and interactions with nitric oxide (^•NO) and nitroalkenes pathways. During inflammation ^•NO levels are increasingly favoring the formation of reactive nitrogen species (RNS). ^•NO may act itself as an inhibitor of LOX-mediated lipid oxidation by reacting with lipid peroxyl radicals. Besides, ^•NO may act as an O₂ competitor in the LOX active site, thus displaying a protective role on lipid-peroxidation. Moreover, RNS such as nitrogen dioxide (^•NO₂) may react with lipid-derived species formed during LOX reaction, yielding nitroalkenes (NO₂FA). NO₂FA represents electrophilic compounds that could exert anti-inflammatory actions through the interaction with critical LOX nucleophilic amino acids. We will discuss how nitro-oxidative conditions may limit the availability of common LOX substrates, favoring alternative routes of PUFA metabolization to anti-inflammatory or pro-resolutive pathways.

Anti-inflammatory activity and mechanism of action of ethanolic leaf extract of Morinda lucida Benth

Background and aim

Most developing countries resort to medicinal plants for treating diseases, but few of these have scientific backing for their use. The aim of the study was to validate traditional use of Morinda lucida leaves in treating inflammation and determine the mechanism of action.

Experimental procedure

Effect of hydroethanolic leaf extract of M. lucida (HEML) on localized inflammation was evaluated using rat paw edema presented by sub-planter injections of λ-carrageenan, histamine or serotonin in separate experiments. Systemic inflammation was evaluated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced hyperthermia. Antioxidant activity of HEML was also evaluated using the free-radical scavenging assay.

Results and conclusion

No mortalities were recorded in acute toxicity assay after administering 5000 mg/kg HEML to rats. It showed very good activity against localized and systemic inflammation in inverse dose-dependent manner and caused reduction in nitric oxide and prostaglandin E−2 levels by affecting expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase, but not cyclooxygenases-2 in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. HEML reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β and tumor necrotic factor, but elevated levels of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 in vitro. HEML contains saponins, reducing sugars, polyphenols and flavonoids and showed antioxidant activity with EC₅₀ = 0.6415 ± 0.0027 mg/ml. In conclusion, this study provides evidence that HEML possesses anti-inflammatory activity, possibly through modulation of production of early/late phase inflammation mediators.

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HEML has anti-inflammatory effect, comparable to diclofenac.

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Mechanism of action may be via minimizing levels of pro-inflammatory mediators.

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HEML reduced NO levels via inhibition of iNOS expression.

Endogenous Biosynthesis of S-Nitrosoglutathione From Nitro-Fatty Acids in Plants

Nitro-fatty acids (NO₂-FAs) are novel molecules resulting from the interaction of unsaturated fatty acids and nitric oxide (NO) or NO-related molecules. In plants, it has recently been described that NO₂-FAs trigger an antioxidant and a defence response against stressful situations. Among the properties of NO₂-FAs highlight the ability to release NO therefore modulating specific protein targets through post-translational modifications (NO-PTMs). Thus, based on the capacity of NO₂-FAs to act as physiological NO donors and using high-accuracy mass-spectrometric approaches, herein, we show that endogenous nitro-linolenic acid (NO₂-Ln) can modulate S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) biosynthesis in Arabidopsis. The incubation of NO₂-Ln with GSH was analyzed by LC-MS/MS and the in vitro synthesis of GSNO was noted. The in vivo confirmation of this behavior was carried out by incubating Arabidopsis plants with ¹⁵N-labeled NO₂-Ln throughout the roots, and ¹⁵N-labeled GSNO (GS¹⁵NO) was detected in the leaves. With the aim to go in depth in the relation of NO₂-FA and GSNO in plants, Arabidopsis alkenal reductase mutants (aer mutants) which modulate NO₂-FAs levels were used. Our results constitute the first evidence of the modulation of a key NO biological reservoir in plants (GSNO) by these novel NO₂-FAs, increasing knowledge about S-nitrosothiols and GSNO-signaling pathways in plants.

Protein S-Nitrosylation in plants: Current progresses and challenges

Nitric oxide (NO) is an important signaling molecule regulating diverse biological processes in all living organisms. A major physiological function of NO is executed via protein S-nitrosylation, a redox-based posttranslational modification by covalently adding a NO molecule to a reactive cysteine thiol of a target protein. S-nitrosylation is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism modulating multiple aspects of cellular signaling. During the past decade, significant progress has been made in functional characterization of S-nitrosylated proteins in plants. Emerging evidence indicates that protein S-nitrosylation is ubiquitously involved in the regulation of plant development and stress responses. Here we review current understanding on the regulatory mechanisms of protein S-nitrosylation in various biological processes in plants and highlight key challenges in this field.

Free radical-dependent inhibition of prostaglandin endoperoxide H Synthase-2 by nitro-arachidonic acid

Prostaglandin endoperoxide H synthase (PGHS) is a heme-enzyme responsible for the conversion of arachidonic acid (AA) to prostaglandin H₂ (PGH₂). PGHS have both oxygenase (COX) and peroxidase (POX) activities and is present in two isoforms (PGHS-1 and -2) expressed in different tissues and cell conditions. It has been reported that PGHS activity is inhibited by the nitrated form of AA, nitro-arachidonic acid (NO₂AA), which in turn could be synthesized by PGHS under nitro-oxidative conditions. Specifically, NO₂AA inhibits COX in PGHS-1 as well as POX in both PGHS-1 and -2, in a dose and time-dependent manner. NO₂AA inhibition involves lowering the binding stability and displacing the heme group from the active site. However, the complete mechanism remains to be understood. This review describes the interactions of PGHS with NO₂AA, focusing on mechanisms of inhibition and nitration. In addition, using a novel approach combining EPR-spin trapping and mass spectrometry, we described possible intermediates formed during PGHS-2 catalysis and inhibition. This literature revision as well as the results presented here strongly suggest a free radical-dependent inhibitory mechanism of PGHS-2 by NO₂AA. This is of relevance towards understanding the underlying mechanism of inhibition of PGHS by NO₂AA and its anti-inflammatory potential.

Oxidative pathways of arachidonic acid as targets for regulation of platelet activation

Platelet activation plays an important role in acute and chronic cardiovascular disease states. Multiple pathways contribute to platelet activation including those dependent upon arachidonic acid. Arachidonic acid is released from the platelet membrane by phospholipase A2 action and is then metabolized in the cytosol by specific arachidonic acid oxidation enzymes including prostaglandin H synthase, 12-lipoxygenase, and cytochrome P450 to produce pro- and anti-inflammatory eicosanoids. This review aims to analyze the role of arachidonic acid oxidation on platelet activation, the enzymes that use it as a substrate associated as novel therapeutics target for antiplatelet drugs.

Post-Translational Modification of Proteins Mediated by Nitro-Fatty Acids in Plants: Nitroalkylation

Nitrate fatty acids (NO₂-FAs) are considered reactive lipid species derived from the non-enzymatic oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids by nitric oxide (NO) and related species. Nitrate fatty acids are powerful biological electrophiles which can react with biological nucleophiles such as glutathione and certain protein⁻amino acid residues. The adduction of NO₂-FAs to protein targets generates a reversible post-translational modification called nitroalkylation. In different animal and human systems, NO₂-FAs, such as nitro-oleic acid (NO₂-OA) and conjugated nitro-linoleic acid (NO₂-cLA), have cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory influences in a broad spectrum of pathologies by modulating various intracellular pathways. However, little knowledge on these molecules in the plant kingdom exists. The presence of NO₂-OA and NO₂-cLA in olives and extra-virgin olive oil and nitro-linolenic acid (NO₂-Ln) in Arabidopsis thaliana has recently been detected. Specifically, NO₂-Ln acts as a signaling molecule during seed and plant progression and beneath abiotic stress events. It can also release NO and modulate the expression of genes associated with antioxidant responses. Nevertheless, the repercussions of nitroalkylation on plant proteins are still poorly known. In this review, we demonstrate the existence of endogenous nitroalkylation and its effect on the in vitro activity of the antioxidant protein ascorbate peroxidase.

Nitro-fatty acids are formed in response to virus infection and are potent inhibitors of STING palmitoylation and signaling

Several chronic inflammatory conditions have recently been shown to depend on abnormally high activity of the signaling protein stimulator of IFN genes (STING). These conditions include examples from systemic lupus erythematosus, Aicardi–Goutiéres syndrome, and STING-associated vasculopathy with onset in infancy. The involvement of STING in these diseases points to an unmet demand to identify inhibitors of STING signaling, which could form the basis of anti-STING therapeutics. With this report, we identify distinct endogenously formed lipid species as potent inhibitors of STING signaling—and propose that these lipids could have pharmaceutical potential for treatment of STING-dependent inflammatory diseases.

The adaptor molecule stimulator of IFN genes (STING) is central to production of type I IFNs in response to infection with DNA viruses and to presence of host DNA in the cytosol. Excessive release of type I IFNs through STING-dependent mechanisms has emerged as a central driver of several interferonopathies, including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Aicardi–Goutières syndrome (AGS), and stimulator of IFN genes-associated vasculopathy with onset in infancy (SAVI). The involvement of STING in these diseases points to an unmet need for the development of agents that inhibit STING signaling. Here, we report that endogenously formed nitro-fatty acids can covalently modify STING by nitro-alkylation. These nitro-alkylations inhibit STING palmitoylation, STING signaling, and subsequently, the release of type I IFN in both human and murine cells. Furthermore, treatment with nitro-fatty acids was sufficient to inhibit production of type I IFN in fibroblasts derived from SAVI patients with a gain-of-function mutation in STING. In conclusion, we have identified nitro-fatty acids as endogenously formed inhibitors of STING signaling and propose for these lipids to be considered in the treatment of STING-dependent inflammatory diseases.

The discovery of nitro-fatty acids as products of metabolic and inflammatory reactions and mediators of adaptive cell signaling

Foundational advances in eicosanoid signaling, the free radical biology of oxygen and nitric oxide and mass spectrometry all converged to enable the discovery of nitrated unsaturated fatty acids. Due to the unique biochemical characteristics of fatty acid nitroalkenes, these species undergo rapid and reversible Michael addition of biological nucleophiles such as cysteine, leading to the post-translational modification of low molecular weight and protein thiols. This capability has led to the present understanding that nitro-fatty acid reaction with the alkylation-sensitive cysteine proteome leads to physiologically-beneficial alterations in transcriptional regulatory protein function, gene expression and in vivo rodent model responses to metabolic and inflammatory stress. These findings motivated the preclinical and clinical development of nitro-fatty acids as new drug candidates for treating acute and chronic metabolic and inflammatory disorders.

Biological properties of nitro-fatty acids in plants

Nitro-fatty acids (NO2-FAs) are formed from the reaction between nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Knowledge concerning NO2-FAs has significantly increased within a few years ago and the beneficial actions of these species uncovered in animal systems have led to consider them as molecules with therapeutic potential. Based on their nature and structure, NO2-FAs have the ability to release nitric oxide (NO) in aqueous environments and the capacity to mediate post-translational modifications (PTM) by nitroalkylation. Recently, based on the potential of these NO-derived molecules in the animal field, the endogenous occurrence of nitrated-derivatives of linolenic acid (NO2-Ln) was assessed in plant species. Moreover and through RNA-seq technology, it was shown that NO2-Ln can induce a large set of heat-shock proteins (HSPs) and different antioxidant systems suggesting this molecule may launch antioxidant and defence responses in plants. Furthermore, the capacity of this nitro-fatty acid to release NO has also been demonstrated. In view of this background, here we offer an overview on the biological properties described for NO2-FAs in plants and the potential of these molecules to be considered new key intermediaries of NO metabolism in the plant field.

Development and application of a UHPLC-MS/MS metabolomics based comprehensive systemic and tissue-specific screening method for inflammatory, oxidative and nitrosative stress

Oxidative stress and inflammation are underlying pathogenic mechanisms associated with the progression of several pathological conditions and immunological responses. Elucidating the role of signalling lipid classes, which include, among others, the isoprostanes, nitro fatty acids, prostanoids, sphingoid bases and lysophosphatidic acids, will create a snapshot of the cause and effect of inflammation and oxidative stress at the metabolic level. Here we describe a fast, sensitive, and targeted ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry metabolomics method that allows the quantitative measurement and biological elucidation of 17 isoprostanes as well as their respective isomeric prostanoid mediators, three nitro fatty acids, four sphingoid mediators, and 24 lysophosphatidic acid species from serum as well as organ tissues, including liver, lung, heart, spleen, kidney and brain. Application of this method to paired mouse serum and tissue samples revealed tissue- and serum-specific stress and inflammatory readouts. Little correlation was found between localized (tissue) metabolite levels compared with the systemic (serum) circulation in a homeostatic model. The application of this method in future studies will enable us to explore the role of signalling lipids in the metabolic pathogenicity of stress and inflammation during health and disease.

Redox Functions of Heme Oxygenase-1 and Biliverdin Reductase in Diabetes

In patients with diabetes, the hyperglycemia-driven excess generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) induces oxidative stress (OS) in a variety of tissues. OS is closely associated with chronic inflammation and has a key role in the pathogenesis of vascular complications. The enzymes that generate ROS and gasotransmitters are redox regulated and are implicated in cellular signaling. As a result of cellular metabolism, cells produce significant amounts of carbon monoxide (CO), mainly from heme degradation catalyzed by heme oxygenases (HOs). These reactions also generate biliverdin, bilirubin (BR), and iron. The conversion of biliverdin to BR is catalyzed by biliverdin reductase-A (BVR-A). In this review, we focus on the importance of the HO-1/CO system and BVR in the pathophysiology and therapy of inflammation associated with diabetes.

Nitric Oxide Mediates Nitrite-Sensing and Acclimation and Triggers a Remodeling of Lipids

Nitric oxide (NO) is an intermediate of the nitrogen cycle, an industrial pollutant, and a marker of climate change. NO also acts as a gaseous transmitter in a variety of biological processes. The impact of environmental NO needs to be addressed. In diatoms, a dominant phylum in phytoplankton, NO was reported to mediate programmed cell death in response to diatom-derived polyunsaturated aldehydes. Here, using the Phaeodactylum Pt1 strain, 2E,4E-decadienal supplied in the micromolar concentration range led to a nonspecific cell toxicity. We reexamined NO biosynthesis and response in Phaeodactylum NO inhibits cell growth and triggers triacylglycerol (TAG) accumulation. Feeding experiments indicate that NO is not produced from Arg but via conversion of nitrite by the nitrate reductase. Genome-wide transcriptional analysis shows that NO up-regulates the expression of the plastid nitrite reductase and genes involved in the subsequent incorporation of ammonium into amino acids, via both Gln synthesis and Orn-urea pathway. The phosphoenolpyruvate dehydrogenase complex is also up-regulated, leading to the production of acetyl-CoA, which can feed TAG accumulation upon exposure to NO. Transcriptional reprogramming leading to higher TAG content is balanced with a decrease of monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) in the plastid via posttranslational inhibition of MGDG synthase enzymatic activity by NO. Intracellular and transient NO emission acts therefore at the basis of a nitrite-sensing and acclimating system, whereas a long exposure to NO can additionally induce a redirection of carbon to neutral lipids and a stress response.

Reactive nitrogen species (RNS)-resistant microbes: adaptation and medical implications

Nitrosative stress results from an increase in reactive nitrogen species (RNS) within the cell. Though the RNS - nitric oxide (·NO) and peroxynitrite (ONOO-) - play pivotal physiological roles, at elevated concentrations, these moieties can be poisonous to both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells alike due to their capacity to disrupt a variety of essential biological processes. Numerous microbes are known to adapt to nitrosative stress by elaborating intricate strategies aimed at neutralizing RNS. In this review, we will discuss both the enzymatic systems dedicated to the elimination of RNS as well as the metabolic networks that are tailored to generate RNS-detoxifying metabolites - α-keto-acids. The latter has been demonstrated to nullify RNS via non-enzymatic decarboxylation resulting in the production of a carboxylic acid, many of which are potent signaling molecules. Furthermore, as aerobic energy production is severely impeded during nitrosative stress, alternative ATP-generating modules will be explored. To that end, a holistic understanding of the molecular adaptation to nitrosative stress, reinforces the notion that neutralization of toxicants necessitates significant metabolic reconfiguration to facilitate cell survival. As the alarming rise in antimicrobial resistant pathogens continues unabated, this review will also discuss the potential for developing therapies that target the alternative ATP-generating machinery of bacteria.

HbE/β-Thalassemia and Oxidative Stress: The Key to Pathophysiological Mechanisms and Novel Therapeutics

SIGNIFICANCE

Oxidative stress and generation of free radicals are fundamental in initiating pathophysiological mechanisms leading to an inflammatory cascade resulting in high rates of morbidity and death from many inherited point mutation-derived hemoglobinopathies. Hemoglobin (Hb)E is the most common point mutation worldwide. The βE-globin gene is found in greatest frequency in Southeast Asia, including Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. With the wave of worldwide migration, it is entering the gene pool of diverse populations with greater consequences than expected.

CRITICAL ISSUES

While HbE by itself presents as a mild anemia and a single gene for β-thalassemia is not serious, it remains unexplained why HbE/β-thalassemia (HbE/β-thal) is a grave disease with high morbidity and mortality. Patients often exhibit defective physical development, severe chronic anemia, and often die of cardiovascular disease and severe infections. Recent Advances: This article presents an overview of HbE/β-thal disease with an emphasis on new findings pointing to pathophysiological mechanisms derived from and initiated by the dysfunctional property of HbE as a reduced nitrite reductase concomitant with excess α-chains exacerbating unstable HbE, leading to a combination of nitric oxide imbalance, oxidative stress, and proinflammatory events.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Additionally, we present new therapeutic strategies that are based on the emerging molecular-level understanding of the pathophysiology of this and other hemoglobinopathies. These strategies are designed to short-circuit the inflammatory cascade leading to devastating chronic morbidity and fatal consequences. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 26, 794-813.

Coenzyme A thioester formation of 11- and 15-oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid

Release of arachidonic acid (AA) by cytoplasmic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2), followed by metabolism through cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase (15-PGDH), results in the formation of the eicosanoids 11-oxo- and 15-oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid (oxo-ETE). Both 11-oxo- and 15-oxo-ETE have been identified in human biospecimens but their function and further metabolism is poorly described. The oxo-ETEs contain an α,β-unsaturated ketone and a free carboxyclic acid, and thus may form Michael adducts with a nucleophile or a thioester with the free thiol of Coenzyme A (CoA). To examine the potential for eicosanoid-CoA formation, which has not previously been a metabolic route examined for this class of lipids, we applied a semi-targeted neutral loss scanning approach following arachidonic acid treatment in cell culture and detected inducible long-chain acyl-CoAs including a predominant AA-CoA peak. Interestingly, a series of AA-inducible acyl-CoAs at lower abundance but higher mass, likely corresponding to eicosanoid metabolites, was detected. Using a targeted LC-MS/MS approach we detected the formation of CoA thioesters of both 11-oxo- and 15-oxo-ETE and monitored the kinetics of their formation. Subsequently, we demonstrated that these acyl-CoA species undergo up to four double bond reductions. We confirmed the generation of 15-oxo-ETE-CoA in human platelets via LC-high resolution MS. Acyl-CoA thioesters of eicosanoids may provide a route to generate reducing equivalents, substrates for fatty acid oxidation, and substrates for acyl-transferases through cPLA2-dependent eicosanoid metabolism outside of the signaling contexts traditionally ascribed to eicosanoid metabolites.

Enterosalivary nitrate metabolism and the microbiome: Intersection of microbial metabolism, nitric oxide and diet in cardiac and pulmonary vascular health

Recent insights into the bioactivation and signaling actions of inorganic, dietary nitrate and nitrite now suggest a critical role for the microbiome in the development of cardiac and pulmonary vascular diseases. Once thought to be the inert, end-products of endothelial-derived nitric oxide (NO) heme-oxidation, nitrate and nitrite are now considered major sources of exogenous NO that exhibit enhanced vasoactive signaling activity under conditions of hypoxia and stress. The bioavailability of nitrate and nitrite depend on the enzymatic reduction of nitrate to nitrite by a unique set of bacterial nitrate reductase enzymes possessed by specific bacterial populations in the mammalian mouth and gut. The pathogenesis of pulmonary hypertension (PH), obesity, hypertension and CVD are linked to defects in NO signaling, suggesting a role for commensal oral bacteria to shape the development of PH through the formation of nitrite, NO and other bioactive nitrogen oxides. Oral supplementation with inorganic nitrate or nitrate-containing foods exert pleiotropic, beneficial vascular effects in the setting of inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, ischemia-reperfusion injury and in pre-clinical models of PH, while traditional high-nitrate dietary patterns are associated with beneficial outcomes in hypertension, obesity and CVD. These observations highlight the potential of the microbiome in the development of novel nitrate- and nitrite-based therapeutics for PH, CVD and their risk factors.

Nitro-fatty acids in plant signaling: New key mediators of nitric oxide metabolism

Recent studies in animal systems have shown that NO can interact with fatty acids to generate nitro-fatty acids (NO2-FAs). They are the product of the reaction between reactive nitrogen species and unsaturated fatty acids, and are considered novel mediators of cell signaling based mainly on a proven anti-inflammatory response. Although these signaling mediators have been described widely in animal systems, NO2-FAs have scarcely been studied in plants. Preliminary data have revealed the endogenous presence of free and protein-adducted NO2-FAs in extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO), which appear to be contributing to the cardiovascular benefits associated with the Mediterranean diet. Importantly, new findings have displayed the endogenous occurrence of nitro-linolenic acid (NO2-Ln) in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana and the modulation of NO2-Ln levels throughout this plant's development. Furthermore, a transcriptomic analysis by RNA-seq technology established a clear signaling role for this molecule, demonstrating that NO2-Ln was involved in plant-defense response against different abiotic-stress conditions, mainly by inducing the chaperone network and supporting a conserved mechanism of action in both animal and plant defense processes. Thus, NO2-Ln levels significantly rose under several abiotic-stress conditions, highlighting the strong signaling role of these molecules in the plant-protection mechanism. Finally, the potential of NO2-Ln as a NO donor has recently been described both in vitro and in vivo. Jointly, this ability gives NO2-Ln the potential to act as a signaling molecule by the direct release of NO, due to its capacity to induce different changes mediated by NO or NO-related molecules such as nitration and S-nitrosylation, or by the electrophilic capacity of these molecules through a nitroalkylation mechanism. Here, we describe the current state of the art regarding the advances performed in the field of NO2-FAs in plants and their implication in plant physiology.

Acquired Amino Acid Deficiencies: A Focus on Arginine and Glutamine

Nonessential amino acids are synthesized de novo and therefore not diet dependent. In contrast, essential amino acids must be obtained through nutrition since they cannot be synthesized internally. Several nonessential amino acids may become essential under conditions of stress and catabolic states when the capacity of endogenous amino acid synthesis is exceeded. Arginine and glutamine are 2 such conditionally essential amino acids and are the focus of this review. Low arginine bioavailability plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of a growing number of varied diseases, including sickle cell disease, thalassemia, malaria, acute asthma, cystic fibrosis, pulmonary hypertension, cardiovascular disease, certain cancers, and trauma, among others. Catabolism of arginine by arginase enzymes is the most common cause of an acquired arginine deficiency syndrome, frequently contributing to endothelial dysfunction and/or T-cell dysfunction, depending on the clinical scenario and disease state. Glutamine, an arginine precursor, is one of the most abundant amino acids in the body and, like arginine, becomes deficient in several conditions of stress, including critical illness, trauma, infection, cancer, and gastrointestinal disorders. At-risk populations are discussed together with therapeutic options that target these specific acquired amino acid deficiencies.

Differences in the modulation of reactive species, lipid bodies, cyclooxygenase-2, 5-lipoxygenase and PPAR-γ in cerebral malaria-susceptible and resistant mice

Proinflammatory responses are associated with the severity of cerebral malaria. NO, H₂O₂, eicosanoid and PPAR-γ are involved in proinflammatory responses, but regulation of these factors is unclear in malaria. This work aimed to compare the expression of eicosanoid-forming-enzymes in cerebral malaria-susceptible CBA and C57BL/6 and -resistant BALB/c mice. Mice were infected with Plasmodium berghei ANKA, and the survival rates and parasitemia curves were assessed. On the sixth day post-infection, cyclooxygenase-2 and 5-lipoxygenase in brain sections were assessed by immunohistochemistry, and, NO, H₂O₂, lipid bodies, and PPAR-γ expression were assessed in peritoneal macrophages. The C57BL/6 had more severe disease with a lower survival time, higher parasitemia and lower production of plasmodicidal NO and H₂O₂ molecules than BALB/c. Enhanced COX-2 and 5-LOX expression were observed in brain tissue cells and vessels from C57BL/6 mice, and these mice expressed higher constitutive PPAR-γ levels. There was no translocation of PPAR-γ from cytoplasm to nucleus in macrophages from these mice. CBA mice had enhanced COX-2 expression in brain tissue cells and vessels and also lacked PPAR-γ cytoplasm-to-nucleus translocation. The resistant BALB/c mice presented higher survival time, lower parasitemia and higher NO and H₂O₂ production on the sixth day post-infection. These mice did not express either COX-2 or 5-LOX in brain tissue cells and vessels. Our data showed that besides the high parasite burden and lack of microbicidal molecules, an imbalance with high COX-2 and 5-LOX eicosanoid expression and a lack of regulatory PPAR-γ cytoplasm-to-nucleus translocation in macrophages were observed in mice that develop cerebral malaria.

Sesquiterpenes from the roots of Lindera strychnifolia with inhibitory effects on nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 cells

Seven new sesquiterpenes, linderolides N-T (1-7), along with nine known compounds, were isolated from roots of Lindera strychnifolia (Lauraceae). Their structures were established by extensive spectroscopic analysis. The relative and absolute configurations were determined by NOESY and CD analysis, respectively. Among the isolated compounds, two new compounds, linderolide O (2) and linderolide P (3) inhibited lipopolysaccharide-stimulated nitric oxide production in murine RAW 264.7 macrophage cells, with IC₅₀ values of 6.3 and 9.6μM, respectively.

Coenzyme Q10 Supplementation Prevents Iron Overload While Improving Glycaemic Control and Antioxidant Protection in Insulin-Resistant Psammomys obesus

This study investigated the anti-diabetic preventive activity of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) in a murine model of diet-induced insulin resistance (IR), Psammomys obesus (Po). IR was induced by feeding a standard laboratory diet (SD). CoQ10 oil suspension was orally administered at 10 mg/kg body weight (BW)/day along with SD for 9 months. Anthropometric parameters, namely, total body weight gain (BWG) and the relative weight of white adipose tissue (WAT) were determined. Blood glucose, insulin, quantitative insulin sensitivity check index (QUICKI), total antioxidant status (TAS), iron, malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitrite (NO2 (-)) were evaluated. NO2 (-) level was also assessed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) culture supernatants. Our results show that CoQ10 supplementation significantly improved blood glucose, insulin, QUICKI, TAS, iron and MDA, but influenced neither NO2 (-) levels nor the anthropometric parameters. These findings support the hypothesis that CoQ10 would exert an anti-diabetic activity by improving both glycaemic control and antioxidant protection. The most marked effect of CoQ10 observed in this study concerns the regulation of iron levels, which may carry significant preventive importance.

Metabolomics profiling of the free and total oxidised lipids in urine by LC-MS/MS: application in patients with rheumatoid arthritis

Oxidised lipids, covering enzymatic and auto-oxidation-synthesised mediators, are important signalling metabolites in inflammation while also providing a readout for oxidative stress, both of which are prominent physiological processes in a plethora of diseases. Excretion of these metabolites via urine is enhanced through the phase-II conjugation with glucuronic acid, resulting in increased hydrophilicity of these lipid mediators. Here, we developed a bovine liver-β-glucuronidase hydrolysing sample preparation method, using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry to analyse the total urinary oxidised lipid profile including the prostaglandins, isoprostanes, dihydroxy-fatty acids, hydroxy-fatty acids and the nitro-fatty acids. Our method detected more than 70 oxidised lipids biosynthesised from two non-enzymatic and three enzymatic pathways in urine samples. The total oxidised lipid profiling method was developed and validated for human urine and was demonstrated for urine samples from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Pro-inflammatory mediators PGF_2α and PGF_3α and oxidative stress markers iPF_2α- IV, 11-HETE and 14-HDoHE were positively associated with improvement of disease activity score. Furthermore, the anti-inflammatory nitro-fatty acids were negatively associated with baseline disease activity. In conclusion, the developed methodology expands the current metabolic profiling of oxidised lipids in urine, and its application will enhance our understanding of the role these bioactive metabolites play in health and disease.

PPARγ signaling and emerging opportunities for improved therapeutics

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) is a ligand-activated nuclear receptor that regulates glucose and lipid metabolism, endothelial function and inflammation. Rosiglitazone (RGZ) and other thiazolidinedione (TZD) synthetic ligands of PPARγ are insulin sensitizers that have been used for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. However, undesirable side effects including weight gain, fluid retention, bone loss, congestive heart failure, and a possible increased risk of myocardial infarction and bladder cancer, have limited the use of TZDs. Therefore, there is a need to better understand PPARγ signaling and to develop safer and more effective PPARγ-directed therapeutics. In addition to PPARγ itself, many PPARγ ligands including TZDs bind to and activate G protein-coupled receptor 40 (GPR40), also known as free fatty acid receptor 1. GPR40 signaling activates stress kinase pathways that ultimately regulate downstream PPARγ responses. Recent studies in human endothelial cells have demonstrated that RGZ activation of GPR40 is essential to the optimal propagation of PPARγ genomic signaling. RGZ/GPR40/p38 MAPK signaling induces and activates PPARγ co-activator-1α, and recruits E1A binding protein p300 to the promoters of target genes, markedly enhancing PPARγ-dependent transcription. Therefore in endothelium, GPR40 and PPARγ function as an integrated signaling pathway. However, GPR40 can also activate ERK1/2, a proinflammatory kinase that directly phosphorylates and inactivates PPARγ. Thus the role of GPR40 in PPARγ signaling may have important implications for drug development. Ligands that strongly activate PPARγ, but do not bind to or activate GPR40 may be safer than currently approved PPARγ agonists. Alternatively, biased GPR40 agonists might be sought that activate both p38 MAPK and PPARγ, but not ERK1/2, avoiding its harmful effects on PPARγ signaling, insulin resistance and inflammation. Such next generation drugs might be useful in treating not only type 2 diabetes, but also diverse chronic and acute forms of vascular inflammation such as atherosclerosis and septic shock.

Repair Mechanisms in Oxidant-Driven Chronic Inflammatory Disease

The interplay that governs chronic diseases through pathways specifically associated with chronic inflammation remains undefined. Many metabolic events have been identified during the injury and repair process. Nonetheless, the cellular events that control the pathogenesis of inflammation-induced disease have not been fully characterized. We and others reason that chronic inflammatory diseases associated with a cascade of complex network mediators, such as nitric oxide, arachidonic acid metabolites, cytokines, and reactive oxygen species, play a significant role in the governance of alterations in homeostasis, oxidative stress, and thromboatherosclerosis. In this context, we discuss lipid mediators associated with the maintenance of health, including the specialized proresolving mediators that help drive cellular repair. Emphasis is placed on the pathophysiology of chronic metabolic insults involving both the airways and the cardiovascular system during oxidant-driven inflammatory disease. In this review, we highlight new pathways of inquiry that show promise for the identification of those metabolic targets that can improve therapy for chronic inflammation.

Nitro-oleic acid modulates classical and regulatory activation of macrophages and their involvement in pro-fibrotic responses

Inflammation is an immune response triggered by microbial invasion and/or tissue injury. While acute inflammation is directed toward invading pathogens and injured cells, thus enabling tissue regeneration, chronic inflammation can lead to severe pathologies and tissue dysfunction. These processes are linked with macrophage polarization into specific inflammatory "M1-like" or regulatory "M2-like" subsets. Nitro-fatty acids (NO2-FAs), produced endogenously as byproducts of metabolism and oxidative inflammatory conditions, may be useful for treating diseases associated with dysregulated immune homeostasis. The goal of this study was to characterize the role of nitro-oleic acid (OA-NO2) in regulating the functional specialization of macrophages induced by bacterial lipopolysaccharide or interleukin-4, and to reveal specific signaling mechanisms which can account for OA-NO2-dependent modulation of inflammation and fibrotic responses. Our results show that OA-NO2 inhibits lipopolysaccharide-stimulated production of both pro-inflammatory and immunoregulatory cytokines (including transforming growth factor-β) and inhibits nitric oxide and superoxide anion production. OA-NO2 also decreases interleukin-4-induced macrophage responses by inhibiting arginase-I expression and transforming growth factor-β production. These effects are mediated via downregulation of signal transducers and activators of transcription, mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor-кB signaling responses. Finally, OA-NO2 inhibits fibrotic processes in an in vivo model of angiotensin II-induced myocardial fibrosis by attenuating expression of α-smooth muscle actin, systemic transforming growth factor-β levels and infiltration of both "M1-" and "M2-like" macrophage subsets into afflicted tissue. Overall, the electrophilic fatty acid derivative OA-NO2 modulates a broad range of "M1-" and "M2-like" macrophage functions and represents a potential therapeutic approach to target diseases associated with dysregulated macrophage subsets.

Nitro-fatty acids in cardiovascular regulation and diseases: characteristics and molecular mechanisms

Electrophilic nitro-fatty acids (NO2-FAs) are endogenously formed by redox reactions of nitric oxide ((.)NO)- and nitrite ((.)NO2)- derived nitrogen dioxide with unsaturated fatty acids. Nitration preferentially occurs on polyunsaturated fatty acids with conjugated dienes under physiological or pathophysiological conditions such as during digestion, metabolism and as adaptive inflammatory processes. Nitro-fatty acids are present in free and esterified forms achieving broad biodistribution in humans and experimental models. Structural, functional and biological characterization of NO2-FAs has revealed clinically relevant protection from inflammatory injury in a number of cardiovascular, renal and metabolic experimental models. NO2-FAs are engaged in posttranslational modifications (PTMs) of a selective redox sensitive pool of proteins and regulate key adaptive signaling pathways involved in cellular homeostasis and inflammatory response. Here, we review and update the biosynthesis, metabolism and signaling actions of NO2-FAs, highlighting their diverse protective roles relevant to the cardiovascular system.

Protection of nitro-fatty acid against kidney diseases

Nitrated derivatives of unsaturated fatty acids are endogenously formed under oxidative and nitrative stress condition and are defined as electrophilic fatty acids containing a nitro group to a carbon-carbon double bond. Among the most studied nitro derivatives of unsaturated fatty acids are nitro-oleic acid (OA-NO₂) and nitro-linoleic acid (LNO₂). These products exhibit novel protective actions in a variety of rodent disease models. Diverse signaling events are responsible for effects of nitrated fatty acid, including activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-dependent gene expression, suppressing NF-κB-induced inflammation, inhibiting oxidative stress, and increasing both endothelial nitric oxide synthase- and Nrf2-dependent gene regulation. Nitrated fatty acids have been emerging not only as a unique class of signaling molecules produced endogenously and but also as multipotent modulators of cell signaling pathways in cardiovascular and renal diseases. In this review, we discuss biochemical properties of nitrated fatty acid and its signaling pathways in the modulation of cellular events. A major focus is to review recent knowledge of nitrated fatty acid on the treatment of kidney diseases and its therapeutic potential for inflammation and metabolic disorders, with special emphasis on acute kidney injury and diabetic kidney disease.