Gamification of active travel to school: A pilot evaluation of the Beat the Street physical activity intervention

Effectiveness of an Ecological Model-Based Active Transport Education Program on Physical and Mental Health in High School Students (MOV-ES Project): Study Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial

The United Nations, through its 2030 Agenda and Sustainable Development Goals, advocates for the establishment of conducive environments for physical activity, following the ecological model. In line with this initiative, active transportation emerges as an accessible, cost-effective, and sustainable approach to augmenting daily physical activity levels. This study protocol endeavors to assess the impact of an active transportation education program rooted in the ecological model on the physical and mental well-being of high school students. Drawing upon scientific insights, we hypothesize that a 16-week active transportation intervention will lead to a 3% reduction in average body fat percentage and a noteworthy enhancement in executive function (including inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and working memory), physical fitness (comprising cardiorespiratory fitness and muscle strength), and mental health (encompassing mood disorders and cognitive functioning). If this intervention proves effective, it could offer a viable solution for the school community, especially in reducing congestion within the school environment. The study protocol aims to evaluate the impact of an active transportation educational program based on the ecological model on the physical and mental well-being of high school students. Three high schools located in the urban area of Talca, Chile, will be randomly selected (one public, one privately subsidized, and one private non-subsidized). Each high school will be randomly assigned an experimental group (n = 30) and a control group (n = 30; without intervention). The experimental groups will receive an active transportation educational intervention during their physical education classes for four months (60 to 90 min sessions, once a week), while the control group will receive no intervention. The primary outcome will provide information on body composition and executive function. Secondary outcomes will include objective physical activity level, physical fitness, mental well-being, academic achievement, health-related quality of life, perception of environmental urban features, physical activity barriers, and adherence to active transportation. It is expected that the results of the MOV-ES Project will transcend the physical health of schoolchildren and will have an impact on the school community, especially by decongesting the school environment.

The intervention design to promote active travel mode among children and adolescents: A systematic review

Background

Walking and cycling are examples of active travel modes or nonmotorized modes that rely on human physical power rather than fossil fuel consumption. In the context of short-distance journeys, active travel modes are advocated as feeder modes to reduce energy consumption and CO2 emissions. However, in Thailand and many other developing countries, these modes of transportation have not been widely adopted or effectively promoted. The absence of comprehensive campaigns and interventions to promote and facilitate the use of active travel modes has become a major barrier to their adoption, particularly among adolescents who will be future global citizens. Therefore, a campaign or intervention targeting adolescents is imperative to introduce and persuade them to adopt active travel modes. This study aims to provide guidelines for developing a robust intervention strategy to promote active travel modes among adolescents.

Methods

This study performed a systematic review to achieve the research goal using a particular search and selection approach. The search strategy has focused on published studies in the English language since 2014 to highlight the most recent trends. The selection process focused on articles relevant to promoting active travel mode among children and adolescents (up to 18 years old) through intervention.

Conclusions

A total of 16 studies were included. The findings reveal that successful interventions to promote active travel modes consist of an educational program and activities incorporating gamification to encourage their use. Furthermore, the intervention should last longer than one month to be effective.

Physical activity interventions in European primary schools: a scoping review to create a framework for the design of tailored interventions in European countries

Introduction

Schools provide a unique environment to facilitate physical activity for children. However, many school-based physical activity interventions have not been effective. We propose a new approach, which allows schools to tailor interventions to their specific context. This scoping review aimed to identify intervention components from previous school-based physical activity interventions to form the basis of a tailored approach in a European setting.

Methods

Joanna Briggs Institute guidelines for conducting scoping reviews were followed. European school-based intervention studies aimed at increasing physical activity in children aged 7-11 years published in English since 2015 were included. Databases searched were Ovid Medline, Embase, PsycINFO, Web of Science Social Sciences Citation Index, ERIC and British Education Index. Data was extracted on intervention components, context-related factors (geographical location, school size, child socioeconomic status and ethnicity), feasibility, acceptability and cost-effectiveness. A data-driven framework was developed to summarize the identified intervention components.

Results

79 articles were included, constituting 45 intervention studies. We identified 177 intervention components, which were synthesized into a framework of 60 intervention component types across 11 activity opportunities: six within the school day, three within the extended school day and two within the wider school environment. Interventions most frequently targeted physical education (21%), active and outdoor learning (16%), active breaks (15%), and school-level environmewnt (12%). Of the intervention components, 41% were delivered by school staff, 31% by the research team, and 24% by external organizations. Only 19% of intervention studies reported geographical location and only 10% reported school size. Participant ethnicity and socioeconomic information was reported by 15% and 25%, respectively. Intervention acceptability was reported in 51% of studies, feasibility in 49%, and cost effectiveness in 2%.

Discussion

This review offers a first step in developing a future framework to help schools to develop context-specific, tailored interventions. However, there was a lack of reporting of contextual factors within the included studies, making it difficult to understand the role of context. Future research should seek to measure and report contextual factors, and to better understand the important aspects of context within school-based physical activity.

Convergent Validation of a Self-Reported Commuting to and from School Diary in Spanish Adolescents

The aim of this study was to examine the convergent validity of self-reported diary times for commuting to and from school with device-measured positional data (Global Positioning System; GPS) in Spanish adolescents.

METHODS

Cross-sectional data were obtained from four Spanish public secondary schools in 2021, comprising 47 adolescents and 141 home-school and school-home trips. Participants self-reported the time they left and arrived at home and school through a commuting diary. They wore a GPS device recording the objective time during three trips (i.e., one home-school trip and two school-home trips). Agreement between commuting diary and GPS data regarding home-school trips and school-home trips was evaluated using Bland-Altman plots.

RESULTS

Total commuting time differed by 1 min (95% limits of agreement were 16.1 min and -18.1 min) between subjective and objective measures (adolescents reported 0.8 more minutes in home-school trips and 1 more minute in school-home trips compared to objective data). Passive commuters reported 0.7 more minutes and active commuters reported 1.2 more minutes in the total commuting time compared to objective data.

CONCLUSIONS

Self-reported commuting diaries may be a useful tool to obtain commuting times of adolescents in epidemiological research or when tools to measure objective times are not feasible.

Shaping Pathways to Child Health: A Systematic Review of Street-Scale Interventions in City Streets

Street-level built environment factors, for example, walking infrastructure, building density, availability of public transport, and proliferation of fast-food outlets can impact on health by influencing our ability to engage in healthy behaviour. Unhealthy environments are often clustered in deprived areas, thus interventions to improve the built environments may improve health and reduce inequalities. The aim of this review was to identify whether street-level built environment interventions can improve children's health in high income countries. A secondary aim was to describe key built environment elements targeted in interventions and research gaps. A systematic review of published literature was conducted by a multi-disciplinary team. Ten intervention papers were included. Physical activity or play was the only health outcome assessed. Most interventions described temporary changes including closure of streets to traffic (N = 6), which were mainly located in deprived neighbourhoods, or the addition of technology to 'gamify' active travel to school (N = 2). Two studies reported permanent changes to street design. There was limited evidence that closing streets to traffic was associated with increases in activity or play and inconclusive evidence with changes to street design and using technology to gamify active travel. Our ability to draw conclusions was hampered by inadequate study designs. Description of interventions was poor. Rigorous evaluation of built environment interventions remains challenging. We recommend a multi-disciplinary approach to evaluation, explicit reporting of built environment indicators targeted in interventions and offer solutions to others working in this area.

A Reusable Multiplayer Game for Promoting Active School Transport: Development Study

Background

Most children and adolescents in Sweden do not meet the recommended daily physical activity levels of the World Health Organization. Active school transport (AST) and gamification are potential methods for increasing children’s daily physical activity. We previously developed a game named Tic-Tac-Training for promoting active transport at workplaces; however, the game has not been applied to AST.

Objective

The objectives of this study are to investigate how Tic-Tac-Training functions to promote AST among schoolchildren in northern Sweden, improve the game to be more suitable for schoolchildren, and construct a road map for future development based on children’s ideas.

Methods

First, we developed Tic-Tac-Training using the Scrum agile software development method. Second, we conducted a questionnaire-based formative evaluation of the game with schoolchildren (n=16; 9/16, 56% male; 6/16, 38% female; and 1/16, 6% other aged 11-12 years) in Luleå, Sweden. Third, we conducted focus group interviews with 33 children (13/33, 39% male and 20/33, 61% female aged 12-13 years) to gather ideas for gamifying AST. We mapped the interview results to the Octalysis gamification framework and established a road map for future development.

Results

The formative evaluation revealed several issues, including a lack of interesting game features, lack of support for continuous engagement, disliked competitive features, and lack of incentives for discourse and participation. New features such as rewards, collectibles, and levels were implemented based on the results. The focus group interviews revealed additional ideas for gamifying AST, such as using avatars, in-game currency and trading, and context-sensitive tasks.

Conclusions

The results have several potential impacts on how reusable, gamified AST interventions can be developed and what kind of gamification elements schoolchildren in northern Sweden wish to see. These results can interest game researchers and teachers who wish to apply gamification in school contexts. Finally, we aim to continue developing the game based on the road map.

Compensation or Displacement of Physical Activity in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review of Empirical Studies

Regular physical activity during childhood and adolescence is associated with health benefits. Consequently, numerous health promotion programs for children and adolescents emphasize the enhancement of physical activity. However, the ActivityStat hypothesis states that increases in physical activity in one domain are compensated for by decreasing physical activity in another domain. Currently, little is known about how physical activity varies in children and adolescents within intervals of one day or multiple days. This systematic review provides an overview of studies that analyzed changes in (overall) physical activity, which were assessed with objective measurements, or compensatory mechanisms caused by increases or decreases in physical activity in a specific domain in children and adolescents. A systematic search of electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, SportDiscus) was performed with a priori defined inclusion criteria. Two independent researchers screened the literature and identified and rated the methodological quality of the studies. A total of 77 peer-reviewed articles were included that analyzed changes in overall physical activity with multiple methodological approaches resulting in compensation or displacement. Of 40,829 participants, 16,265 indicated compensation associated with physical activity. Subgroup analyses separated by study design, participants, measurement instrument, physical activity context, and intervention duration also showed mixed results toward an indication of compensation. Quality assessment of the included studies revealed that they were of high quality (mean = 0.866). This review provides inconclusive results about compensation in relation to physical activity. A trend toward increased compensation in interventional studies and in interventions of longer duration have been observed.

The Effects of mHealth-Based Gamification Interventions on Participation in Physical Activity: Systematic Review

Background

It is well known that regular physical exercise has associated benefits; yet, participation remains suboptimal. Mobile health (mHealth) has become an indispensable medium to deliver behavior change interventions, and there is a growing interest in the gamification apps in mHealth to promote physical activity (PA) participation. Gamification could use game design elements (such as points, leaderboards, and progress bars), and it has the potential to increase motivation for PA and engagement. However, mHealth-based gamification interventions are still emerging, and little is known about the application status and efficacy of such interventions.

Objective

This systematic review aims to investigate gamification apps in mHealth for improving PA levels and simultaneously summarize the impact of gamification interventions on PA participation.

Methods

We searched PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Embase, CINAHL (EBSCO host), and IEEE Xplore from inception to December 20, 2020. Original empirical research exploring the effects of gamification interventions on PA participation was included. The papers described at least one outcome regarding exercise or PA participation, which could be subjective self-report or objective indicator measurement. Of note, we excluded studies about serious games or full-fledged games.

Results

Of 2944 studies identified from the database search, 50 (1.69%) were included, and the information was synthesized. The review revealed that gamification of PA had been applied to various population groups and broadly distributed among young people but less distributed among older adults and patients with a disease. Most of the studies (30/50, 60%) combined gamification with wearable devices to improve PA behavior change, and 50% (25/50) of the studies used theories or principles for designing gamified PA interventions. The most frequently used game elements were goal-setting, followed by progress bars, rewards, points, and feedback. This review demonstrated that gamification interventions could increase PA participation; however, the results were mixed, and modest changes were attained, which could be attributed to the heterogeneity across studies.

Conclusions

Overall, this study provides an overview of the existing empirical research in PA gamification interventions and provides evidence for the efficacy of gamification in enhancing PA participation. High-quality empirical studies are needed in the future to assess the efficacy of a combination of gamification and wearable activity devices to promote PA, and further exploration is needed to investigate the optimal implementation of these features of game elements and theories to enhance PA participation.

Using ClassCraft to Improve Primary School Students’ Knowledge and Interest in Sustainable Mobility

Teaching students awareness about sustainable mobility has been lacking to date. There is a need to expand the themes being addressed in order to achieve a change in attitude. Society needs to design a curriculum that teaches about sustainable mobility to guarantee a better environment for future generations. This article presents the most important results of an experiment based on gamification to promote the education of sustainable mobility in primary school classrooms. This new teaching method, aimed at children aged 10–12 years old, applies non-gambling play metaphors to real-life tasks to motivate a change in attitude. The didactic approach was developed using the ClassCraft platform to create specific activities that consider the environmental, economic, and social aspects of sustainable mobility. The initial analysis revealed a perception about sustainable mobility that focused on environmental problems with very little input on the economic and social aspects. The experience has shown that by using the gamified ClassCraft tool applying structured activities about all aspects of sustainable mobility, the pupils acquired new concepts that clarified the social and economic components and began to develop a conscience about how to become an active part in behavioural change.

Interactive Urban Play to Encourage Active Mobility: Usability Study of a Web-Based Augmented Reality Application

Owing to increasing cases of sedentary lifestyles and their negative impact on health, practical solutions are needed to address the physical and mental wellbeing of citizens and to enhance their standard of living. Among the problems are premature mortality rates caused by physical inactivity, which leads to chronic diseases. Innovative solutions are needed to address many of the problems that we face as a society. Location-based games have been identified as effective solutions for increasing physical activity, enhancing social interaction, and exploration in urban environments. In this pilot study, we explore how to encourage active mobility (walking and cycling) through urban play by integrating technology into the built environment. We examined the usability of a web-based augmented reality application in providing interactive experience to users as they explored the urban environment looking for tasks. Overall, participants’ perceptions of the usability of the application were positive; they enjoyed how the application revealed the tasks at each location and all the checkpoints at the different locations had at least a couple of visitors. We present limitations and future research directions.

The Association between ICT-Based Mobility Services and Sustainable Mobility Behaviors of New Yorkers

The energy consumption and emissions in the urban transportation are influenced not only by technical efficiency in the mobility operations but also by the citizens’ mobility behaviors including mode choices and modal shift among sustainable and unsustainable mobility modes. Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) can play an important role in the mobility behaviors of citizens, and it is necessary to study whether ICTs support sustainable mode choices like public transport and nonmotorized modes, which increase the total energy efficiency in the urban mobility and reduce traffic congestion and related emissions. This paper focuses on the two most popular ICT services in the urban transport, which are ATIS (Advanced Traveler Information Systems), and ridesourcing services. This study used the New York Citywide Mobility Survey (CMS) findings with a sample of 3346 participants. The associations between using these two ICT services and the mobility behaviors (mode choice with ATIS and modal shift to ridesourcing) are analyzed through a multinomial logistic regression and descriptive statistics, and the results are compared with similar international studies. The findings indicate that the respondents who use ATIS apps more frequently are more likely to use rail modes, bicycles, bus/shuttles, and rental/car sharing than private cars for their work trips. Moreover, the findings of the modal shift to ridesourcing indicate that the most replaced mobility modes by ridesourcing services are public transport (including rail modes and buses), taxis, and private cars, respectively.

Strategies and effects of school-based interventions to promote active school transportation by bicycle among children and adolescents: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Promoting cycling to school may benefit establishing a lifelong physical activity routine. This systematic review aimed to summarize the evidence on strategies and effects of school-based interventions focusing on increasing active school transport by bicycle.

METHODS

A literature search based on "PICo" was conducted in eight electronic databases. Randomized and non-randomized controlled trials with primary/secondary school students of all ages were included that conducted pre-post measurements of a school-based intervention aimed at promoting active school travel by bicycle and were published in English between 2000 and 2019. The methodological quality was assessed using the "Effective Public Health Practice Project" tool for quantitative studies. Applied behavior change techniques were identified using the "BCT Taxonomy v1". Two independent researchers undertook the screening, data extraction, appraisal of study quality, and behavior change techniques.

RESULTS

Nine studies investigating seven unique interventions performed between 2012 and 2018 were included. All studies were rated as weak quality. The narrative synthesis identified 19 applied behavior change techniques clustered in eleven main groups according to their similarities and a variety of 35 different outcome variables classified into seven main groups. Most outcomes were related to active school travel and psychosocial factors, followed by physical fitness, physical activity levels, weight status, active travel and cycling skills. Four studies, examining in total nine different outcomes, found a significant effect in favor of the intervention group on bicycle trips to school (boys only), percentage of daily cycling trips to school, parental/child self-efficacy, parental outcome expectations, moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (total, from cycling, before/after school), and total basic cycling skills. Seven of these outcomes were only examined in two studies conducting the same intervention in children, a voluntary bicycle train to/from school accompanied by adults, including the following clustered main groups of behavior change techniques: shaping knowledge, comparison of behavior, repetition and substitution as well as antecedents.

CONCLUSIONS

The applied strategies in a bicycle train intervention among children indicated great potential to increase cycling to school. Our findings provide relevant insights for the design and implementation of future school-based interventions targeting active school transport by bicycle.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This systematic review has been registered in the international prospective register of systematic reviews "PROSPERO" at (registration number: CRD42019125192 ).

"Playing with Little Behaviors"; Physical Activity Promotion by Gamified Education in Young Boys

Background:

Physical activity is affecting every aspect of our life. A sedentary lifestyle can be the risk factor for noncommunicable diseases (NCD) or premature death all over the world. Several studies demonstrate that school-based physical activity promotion is an important solution to make healthy behaviors, especially in children and adolescents. In this vein, the current research evaluates a model for physical activity, which is promoted through a game among high school students.

Methods:

In this study, 47 high school's 10^th-grade boys from Tehran were requited. The game scenario included the suggestion of some behaviors which can increase daily physical activity by each student, like or dislike each behavior by other students, counting likes, selecting the most-liked behaviors, and rewarding their proposers. After a week, the behavioral recall was assessed and compared with a control group who had been heard these behaviors in the class without gamification.

Results:

The participants in the game could recall physical activity behaviors significantly more than peers in the control group.

Conclusions:

The findings show gamification could significantly improve the effectiveness of education for normal behaviors in physical activity.

School-Based Interventions for Promoting Physical Activity Using Games and Gamification: A Systematic Review Protocol

Games and/or gamification seem to be a promising area for educational and health research. These strategies are being increasingly used for improving health indicators, even in educational settings; however, there is little information about these terms within the school to promote physical activity (PA). Objective: the aim of this study is to describe a systematic review protocol of school-based interventions for promoting PA in pre-schoolers, children, and adolescent students using games and gamification. Methods: This review protocol is registered in International prospective register of systematic reviews (PROSPERO) (CRD42019123521). Scientific databases include PubMed, Web of Science, SportDiscus, Cochrane Library, ERIC, and PsycINFO. A standardized procedure will be executed following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses protocol (PRISMA-P) checklist for conducting systematic review protocols and the PICOS (Population, Interventions, Comparators, Outcomes, and Study design) tool to address an appropriate search strategy. Detailed information will be extracted, including a quantitative assessment using effect sizes to compare the interventions and a qualitative assessment using the Evaluation of Public Health Practice Projects (EPHPP) tool. Conclusion: This systematic review protocol contributes to establishing future systematic reviews using games and gamification strategies in school settings in order to examine their effect on PA outcomes among youth. Additionally, an update and clarification on the different terms in the school context have been included.

Gamification and Its Application in the Social Environment

This study sets out to conduct a systematic review of the emergence and evolution of gamification in the social environment, its main components, and its application as a learning tool through the motivation and engagement it generates in people. The results were obtained by consulting two major scientific databases, namely, Scopus and the Web of Science, which provided 136 articles published on the social environment from 2011 through to mid-2016 using the term gamification. The results of this study reveal how over time gamification has been gaining importance in the social environment through the use of its components. The highest number of scientific publications come from the United States and Spain. In addition, the use of gaming components increases motivation and engagement. It shows how gamification uses (individual or group) rewards according to the context to achieve the proposed objectives, being successfully implemented in education, health, services, and social learning.

Physical activity and social connectedness interventions in outdoor spaces among children and youth: a rapid review

INTRODUCTION

The rise in sedentary behaviour, coupled with the decline in overall mental health among Canadian children and youth in recent decades, demonstrates a clear need for applied research that focusses on developing and evaluating cross-disciplinary interventions. Outdoor spaces provide opportunities for physical activity and social connectedness, making them an ideal setting to address these critical health concerns among children and youth.

METHODS

We conducted a rapid review of peer-reviewed (n = 3096) and grey literature (n = 7) to identify physical activity and/or social connectedness outdoor space interventions targeted at children and youth (19 years and under) in Australia and New Zealand, Canada, Europe and the United States. We determined if interventions were effective by analyzing their research design, confidence intervals and reported limitations, and then conducted a narrative synthesis of the effective interventions.

RESULTS

We found 104 unique studies, of which 70 (67%) were determined to be effective. Overall, 55 interventions targeted physical activity outcomes, 10 targeted social connectedness outcomes and 5 targeted both. Play (n = 47) and contact with nature (n = 25) were dominant themes across interventions, with most taking place in a school or park. We report on the identifying features, limitations and implications of these interventions.

CONCLUSION

The incorporation of natural and play-focussed elements into outdoor spaces may be effective ways to improve physical activity and social connectedness. There is a considerable need for more Canadian-specific research. Novel methods, such as incorporating smartphone technology into the design and evaluation of these interventions, warrant consideration.

A feasibility study of 'The StepSmart Challenge' to promote physical activity in adolescents

Background

Inactive lifestyles are becoming the norm and creative approaches to encourage adolescents to be more physically active are needed. Little is known about how gamification techniques can be used in physical activity interventions for young people. Such approaches may stimulate interest and encourage physical activity behaviour. The study investigated the feasibility of implementing and evaluating a physical activity intervention for adolescents which included gamification techniques within schools. We tested recruitment and retention strategies for schools and participants, the use of proposed outcome measures, and explored intervention acceptability.

Methods

This school-based feasibility study of a randomised cluster trial recruited adolescents aged 12-14 years (n = 224) from five schools (three intervention; two control) in Belfast, Northern Ireland. The 22-week intervention (The StepSmart Challenge) informed by self-determination theory and incorporating gamification strategies involved a school-based pedometer competition. Outcomes, measured at baseline, and post-intervention (at 22 weeks post-baseline and 52 weeks post-baseline) included daily minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) (measured using ActiGraph accelerometer), mental wellbeing (Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale), social support for physical activity, time preference (for delayed and larger rewards or immediate and smaller rewards), pro-social behaviour (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ)) and the influence of social networks. The intervention's acceptability was explored in focus groups.

Results

We invited 14 schools to participate; eight showed interest in participating. We recruited the first five who responded; all five completed the trial. Of the 236 pupils invited, 224 participated (94.9%): 84.8% (190/224) provided valid MVPA (minutes/day) at baseline and 57.2% (123/215) at 52 weeks. All other outcomes were well completed apart from the SDQ (65% at baseline). Qualitative data highlighted that participants and teachers found The StepSmart Challenge to be an acceptable intervention.

Conclusions

The level of interest and high recruitment and retention rates provide support for the feasibility of this trial. The intervention, incorporating gamification strategies and the recruitment methods, using parental opt-out procedures, were acceptable to participants and teachers. Teachers also suggested that the implementation of The StepSmart Challenge could be embedded in a lifelong learning approach to health within the school curriculum. As young people's lives become more intertwined with technology, the use of innovative gamified interventions could be one approach to engage and motivate health behavioural change in this population.

Trial registration

NCT02455986 (date of registration: 28 May 2015).

A Pilot Intervention Using Gamification to Enhance Student Participation in Classroom Activity Breaks

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of adding game design elements (goal setting, feedback, and external rewards) to an evidence-based physical activity intervention to increase in-class physical activity participation (intensity of activity breaks performed). Nine third- through sixth-grade classrooms (n = 292 students) in one elementary-middle school in Detroit, Michigan (49% female, 95% nonwhite; 80% qualified for free/reduced lunch) participated in this 20-week intervention where teachers implemented 5 × 4 min moderate-to-vigorous activity breaks per day. Gamification of activity breaks occurred during weeks 13-20 of the intervention and included the use of game design elements and classroom goals for activity break intensity. Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during activity breaks was measured via direct observation. There was a significant effect of intervention with a 27% increase in student MVPA participation during the gamified intervention weeks compared with the standard intervention weeks (p = 0.03). Gamification of activity breaks resulted in 55% (compared with 25% during the standard intervention) of students accumulating approximately 20 min of health-enhancing physical activity per day in their classroom. These findings provide preliminary evidence that gamifying activity breaks may be an important strategy for increasing student participation in classroom activity breaks.

Interventions promoting active transport to school in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The systematic review investigated the effectiveness of active travel (AT) interventions on physical activity and fitness in primary school children. The review assessed intervention effectiveness, design, complexity, and study quality. Searches were conducted in five databases on 30/08/2018. Studies with an AT intervention compared to an inactive control, in 4 to 11 year olds, measuring AT or fitness outcomes were included. Two-stage screening identified relevant studies. Relevant data were extracted using Cochrane Extraction Form, Quality Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies, Active Living by Design model, and intervention Complexity Assessment Tool for Systematic Reviews. Meta-analysis and Cohen's D effect size assessed effectiveness. Seventeen eligible studies were included. Effectiveness assessment found a statistically significant standardised mean difference (SMD) in AT outcomes in favour of the intervention (continuous AT - SMD 0.78 (CI 0.11-1.46); frequency AT - SMD 1.87 (CI 0.88-2.86)). Cohen's D calculation concurred with this finding. Fifteen studies had SMD favouring the intervention - two studies had SMD favouring the control. Sixteen studies received a weak quality rating - one study rated moderate. Active travel shows promise in increasing physical activity in primary school children. The review found walking school buses and educational strategies most effective for increasing relevant outcomes, although overall study quality was weak. Effect size did not associate with the complexity of an intervention, therefore supporting efforts to promote active travel through interventions may be easier to scale. Further intervention studies of greater methodological quality are necessary to confirm these findings due to the limited evidence available.

Is the decline of active travel to school unavoidable by-products of economic growth and urbanization in developing countries?

BACKGROUND

Economic growth and urbanization may contribute to the decline of active travel to school (ATS). We aim to explain the change of ATS in China between 1997 and 2011 and to predict the prevalence of ATS in China within the next 30 years using various scenario.

METHODS

We developed a system dynamics model to study ATS and the model assumes the prevalence of ATS is determined by the dynamic interaction of four exogenous and eight endogenous variables.

RESULTS

The simulated prevalence of ATS is roughly consistent with empirical data. Economic development and urban sprawl are more influential than urban design and crime in terms of ATS. Under a relatively reasonable scenario, the prevalence of ATS is projected to decrease from 73% in 2011 to 65% in 2014, and the prevalence of childhood overweight & obesity is projected to increase from 24% in 2011 to 34% in 2041. With the maintaining of economic development grow, to control urban sprawl is the most effective measure to promote ATS and decrease childhood obesity.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the model enabled us to conduct experiments to test the possible effects of changing one or more factors taking into account their dynamic interrelationship, and our study may provide implications for policy intervention.

Impact of an Australian state-wide active travel campaign targeting primary schools

Active travel can have health and environmental benefits. This study evaluated the impact of a month-long (October 2015) campaign encouraging primary school children in Victoria, Australia to engage in active school travel. With support from local councils, schools participated in the campaign by monitoring active school travel and delivering promotional activities. A longitudinal study evaluated campaign impact. Carers (n = 715) of Victorian primary school children were recruited via social media and completed online surveys at baseline (T1; 0 wk) and during (T2; +2 wks) and after the campaign (T3; +6 wks). Carers reported their child's travel behaviour over the last five school days, and whether their child and/or their child's school participated in the campaign. Separate generalised linear models were used for T2 and T3 outcomes adjusting for T1 values and potential confounders. A greater proportion of children who participated in the campaign engaged in any active school travel at T2 (OR = 2.49, 95% CI = 1.63, 3.79) and T3 (1.62, 95% CI = 1.06, 2.46) compared with non-participating children. Similarly, these children had a higher frequency of active school travel at T2 (IRR = 1.60, 95% CI = 1.29, 1.97) and T3 (IRR = 1.45, 95% CI = 1.16, 1.80). Campaign participation resulted in small, short-term increases in active school travel.

•

A controlled trial evaluated a state-wide campaign to promote school active travel.

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Carers reported school active travel at baseline and after the four-week campaign.

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A greater proportion of participating children engaged in school active travel.

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Campaign impact did not differ by key individual and area-level indicators.

•

However, campaign impact did differ by sex and distance to school.

Between Privilege and Oppression: An Intersectional Analysis of Active Transportation Experiences Among Washington D.C. Area Youth

The use of active transportation (AT), such as walking, cycling, or even public transit, as a means of transport offers an opportunity to increase youth physical activity and improve health. Despite the well-known benefits of AT, there are environmental and social variables that converge on the AT experiences of low-income youth and youth of color (YOC) that have yet to be fully uncovered. This study uses an intersectional framework, largely focusing on the race-gender-class trinity, to examine youth AT within a context of transportation inequity. Theoretically guided by the Ecological Model of Active Transportation, focus groups were completed with two groups of girls (15 participants) and two groups of boys (nine participants) ranging between the ages of 12–15 years who lived within the Washington D.C. area. This research found race, gender, and class to be inhibitors of AT for both boys and girls, but with more pronounced negative influences on girls.

Sociodemographic, biological, and psychosocial correlates of light- and moderate-to-vigorous-intensity physical activity during school time, recesses, and physical education classes

BACKGROUND

Identifying factors associated with physical activity (PA) is useful in planning interventions and policies. The aim of this study was to identify sociodemographic, biological, and psychosocial factors associated with PA performed in school settings.

METHODS

Data collected for the present study included gender, age, socioeconomic status, body fat percentage, aerobic fitness, self-efficacy, attitudes, peer and parental support, and perception of school environment. Dependent variables were light-intensity PA (LPA) and moderate-to-vigorous-intensity PA (MVPA) performed during school time, recesses, and physical education (PE) classes. Multiple regression analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Participating adolescents (n = 567, 53% female, 12.9 ± 5.3 years) spent 5% of school time in MVPA and 27% in LPA, 15% of recesses in MVPA and 44% in LPA, and 16% of PE classes in MVPA and 41% in LPA. Boys engaged in more MVPA in all categories. Age was inversely related with MVPA and LPA in all periods, whereas body fat percentage was inversely related with MVPA in school time and PE classes. Attitude was inversely related with MVPA in all periods and with LPA in recesses. Considering PA to be good and enjoyable was positively associated with MVPA in school time.

CONCLUSION

Adolescents spent little time in PA during school. Future interventions should implement enjoyable activities at school.

Systematic review of interventions for promoting active school transport

Active commuting to school has been recognized as a potential avenue to increase physical activity in children and adolescents. However, active commuting to school has declined over time, and interventions are needed to reverse this trend. The main aim in the current study was to update a previous systematic review on interventions focused on active travel to school, following the same methodology and addressing the quality and effectiveness of new studies detected in the more recent scientific literature. A systematic review was conducted to identify intervention studies of active commuting to school published from February 2010 to December 2016. Five electronic databases and a manual search were conducted. Detailed information was extracted, including a quantitative assessment comparing the effect sizes, with Cohen's d, and a qualitative assessment using the Evaluation of Public Health Practice Projects tool. We identified 23 interventions that focused on active commuting to school. Among the 23 interventions, three were randomized control trials, 22 had a pre/post design, and 12 used control groups. Most interventions reported a small effect size on active commuting to school (14/23) (d: from -1.45 to 2.37). The quality assessment was rated as weak in most studies (21/23). Government funding continues investing in public policies to promote active commuting to school. However, even though seven years have passed since the last systematic review, research with high quality designs with randomization, greater sample size, and the use of valid and reliable instruments are needed.

One Step Forward: Development of a Program Promoting Active School Transportation

Background

Physical activity promotes health and learning. However, up to 80% of the children in industrialized countries do not achieve the recommended level of daily physical activity. By encouraging children to use active school transportation (AST), it is possible to increase their overall physical activity.

Objective

The aim of this paper was to present the development of an AST intervention using Intervention Mapping (IM) to promote children’s physical activity.

Methods

The principles of IM were applied to guide the development of the intervention. The process was divided into 3 phases. First, a literature review and collection of experiences of stakeholders were carried out to gain a broad perspective on the problem and possible solutions. Thereafter, an analysis of the critical environmental and behavioral factors affecting outcome was conducted, which guided the choice of tangible components of the intervention. Finally, a plan of evaluation and implementation was established.

Results

A structured program to increase AST among children was developed, consisting of 3 subsequent phases that are described in detail. Implementation took place, and evaluation of the intervention is being carried out.

Conclusions

IM proved to be a valuable method to develop a structured AST intervention for children. By following the steps of the IM process, it became evident that empowerment and gamification are 2 promising avenues to consider when designing AST interventions in a school context. By engaging end users and including important agents, such as parents and teachers, who control the environmental factors, the possibility to design a sustainable program increases. In addition, gamification made it possible to integrate learning into AST, which could motivate schools to devote time and effort to implementing this program.

Exploring the use of a gamified intervention for encouraging physical activity in adolescents: a qualitative longitudinal study in Northern Ireland

OBJECTIVE

To explore the temporal changes of adolescents' views and experiences of participating in a gamified intervention to encourage physical activity behaviour and associated processes of behaviour change.

DESIGN

A qualitative longitudinal design was adopted whereby focus groups were conducted with the same participants in each intervention school (n=3) at four time-points (baseline, end of each of two intervention phases and 1-year follow-up). The framework method was used to thematically analyse the data.

SETTING

Secondary schools (n=3), Belfast (Northern Ireland).

PARTICIPANTS

A subsample (n=19 at four time-points) of individuals aged 12-14 years who participated in the StepSmart Challenge, a gamified intervention involving a pedometer competition and material rewards to encourage physical activity behaviour change.

RESULTS

Three core themes were identified: (1) competition; (2) incentives and (3) influence of friends. Participants indicated that a pedometer competition may help initiate physical activity but suggested that there were a number of barriers such as participants finding it 'boring', and feeling as though they had a remote chance of 'winning'. 'Incentives' were viewed favourably, although there were participants who found not winning a prize 'annoying'. Friends were a motivator to be more physically active, particularly for girls who felt encouraged to walk more when with a friend.

CONCLUSIONS

The intervention in general and specific gamified elements were generally viewed positively and deemed acceptable. Results suggest that gamification may have an important role to play in encouraging adolescents to engage in physical activity and in creating interventions that are fun and enjoyable. The longitudinal approach added additional depth to the analysis as themes were refined and tested with participants over time. The findings also suggest that gamified Behaviour Change Techniques align well with core concepts of Self-determination Theory and that various game elements may require tailoring for specific populations, for example, different genders.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT02455986; Pre-results.

Beat the Street: A Pilot Evaluation of a Community-Wide Gamification-Based Physical Activity Intervention

OBJECTIVE

There is a plethora of published research reporting the wealth and breadth of biopsychosocial benefits of physical activity; however, a recent Cochrane systematic review concluded insufficient evidence for current population level physical activity interventions, citing scalability as a major contributory factor, with many of the interventions failing to reach a substantial proportion of the community. The current study aimed to conduct a pilot evaluation of a technology-enabled, gamification-based intervention called Beat the Street and sought to examine the impact of the Beat the Street intervention on self-reported physical activity.

METHODS

In total, n = 329 people completed the International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short Form (I-PAQ-SF) in full at baseline (before the intervention) and follow-up (immediately following the 7-week intervention).

RESULTS

Overall, participants increased their weekly walking by +180 minutes per week (P < 0.001) and their weekly physical activity by +335 minutes per week (P < 0001). Vigorous activity increased by +48 minutes per week (P = 0.004) and moderate activity increased by +60 minutes per week (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

The findings provide preliminary evidence that the Beat the Street intervention may be a promising approach to increasing physical activity at a community-wide level and warrants further investigation.

Effectiveness of active school transport interventions: a systematic review and update

Background

Active school transport (AST) is a promising strategy to increase children’s physical activity. A systematic review published in 2011 found large heterogeneity in the effectiveness of interventions in increasing AST and highlighted several limitations of previous research. We provide a comprehensive update of that review.

Methods

Replicating the search of the previous review, we screened the PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane, Sport Discus and National Transportation Library databases for articles published between February 1, 2010 and October 15, 2016. To be eligible, studies had to focus on school-aged children and adolescents, include an intervention related to school travel, and report a measure of travel behaviors. We assessed quality of individual studies with the Effective Public Health Practice Project quality assessment tool, and overall quality of evidence with the Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) approach. We calculated Cohen’s d as a measure of effect size.

Results

Out of 6318 potentially relevant articles, 27 articles reporting 30 interventions met our inclusion criteria. Thirteen interventions resulted in an increase in AST, 8 found no changes, 4 reported inconsistent results, and 5 did not report inferential statistics. Cohen’s d ranged from −0.61 to 0.75, with most studies reporting “trivial-to-small” positive effect sizes. Three studies reported greater increases in AST over longer follow-up periods and two Safe Routes to School studies noted that multi-level interventions were more effective. Study quality was rated as weak for 27/30 interventions (due notably to lack of blinding of outcome assessors, unknown psychometric properties of measurement tools, and limited control for confounders), and overall quality of evidence was rated as low. Evaluations of implementation suggested that interventions were limited by insufficient follow-up duration, incomplete implementation of planned interventions, and limited access to resources for low-income communities.

Conclusions

Interventions may increase AST among children; however, there was substantial heterogeneity across studies and quality of evidence remains low. Future studies should include longer follow-ups, use standardized outcome measures (to allow for meta-analyses), and examine potential moderators and mediators of travel behavior change to help refine current interventions.

Trial registration

Registered in PROSPERO: CRD42016033252

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-017-5005-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Solving "Smart City" Transport Problems by Designing Carpooling Gamification Schemes with Multi-Agent Systems: The Case of the So-Called "Mordor of Warsaw"

To reduce energy consumption and improve residents’ quality of life, “smart cities” should use not only modern technologies, but also the social innovations of the “Internet of Things” (IoT) era. This article attempts to solve transport problems in a smart city’s office district by utilizing gamification that incentivizes the carpooling system. The goal of the devised system is to significantly reduce the number of cars, and, consequently, to alleviate traffic jams, as well as to curb pollution and energy consumption. A representative sample of the statistical population of people working in one of the biggest office hubs in Poland (the so-called “Mordor of Warsaw”) was surveyed. The collected data were processed using spatial data mining methods, and the results were a set of parameters for the multi-agent system. This approach made it possible to run a series of simulations on a set of 100,000 agents and to select an effective gamification methodology that supports the carpooling process. The implementation of the proposed solutions (a “serious game” variation of urban games) would help to reduce the number of cars by several dozen percent, significantly reduce energy consumption, eliminate traffic jams, and increase the activity of the smart city residents.

The relationship between physical inactivity and mental wellbeing: Findings from a gamification-based community-wide physical activity intervention

Mental ill health accounts for 13 per cent of total global disease burden with predictions that depression alone will be the leading cause of disease burden globally by 2030. Poor mental health is consistently associated with deprivation, low income, unemployment, poor education, poorer physical health and increased health-risk behaviour. A plethora of research has examined the relationship between physical activity and mental wellbeing; however, the influence of community-wide gamification-based physical activity interventions on mental wellbeing, to the authors' knowledge, is yet to be explored. In view of this paucity of attention, the current study examined the relationship between physical activity and mental wellbeing pre/post a community-wide, gamification-based intervention. The findings revealed that increases in mental wellbeing were significantly greater for the least active prior to the intervention, and a strong, positive correlation between increase in physical activity and increase in mental wellbeing was observed.

Missed opportunities in the evaluation of public health interventions: a case study of physical activity programmes

BACKGROUND

Evidence-based approaches are requisite in evaluating public health programmes. Nowhere are they more necessary than physical activity interventions where evidence of effectiveness is often poor, especially within hard to reach groups. Our study reports on the quality of the evaluation of a government funded walking programme in five 'Walking Cities' in England. Cities were required to undertake a simple but robust evaluation using the Standard Evaluation Framework (SEF) for physical activity interventions to enable high quality, consistent evaluation. Our aim was not to evaluate the outcomes of this programme but to evaluate whether the evaluation process had been effective in generating new and reliable evidence on intervention design and what had worked in 'real world' circumstances.

METHODS

Funding applications and final reports produced by the funder and the five walking cities were obtained. These totalled 16 documents which were systematically analysed against the 52 criteria in the SEF. Data were cross checked between the documents at the bid and reporting stage with reference to the SEF guidance notes.

RESULTS

Generally, the SEF reporting requirements were not followed well. The rationale for the interventions was badly described, the target population was not precisely specified, and neither was the method of recruitment. Demographics of individual participants, including socio-economic status were reported poorly, despite being a key criterion for funding.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study of the evaluations demonstrated a missed opportunity to confidently establish what worked and what did not work in walking programmes with particular populations. This limited the potential for evidence synthesis and to highlight innovative practice warranting further investigation. Our findings suggest a mandate for evaluability assessment. Used at the planning stage this may have ensured the development of realistic objectives and crucially may have identified innovative practice to implement and evaluate. Logic models may also have helped in the development of the intervention and its means of capturing evidence prior to implementation. It may be that research-practice partnerships between universities and practitioners could enhance this process. A lack of conceptual clarity means that replicability and scaling-up of effective interventions is difficult and the opportunity to learn from failure lost.