Ganoderma lucidum: A potential source to surmount viral infections through β-glucans immunomodulatory and triterpenoids antiviral properties

Research Progress on the Biological Activity of Ganoderic Acids in Ganoderma lucidum over the Last Five Years

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) is a traditional edible and medicinal mushroom in China. The main bioactive components in G. lucidum include triterpenoids, polysaccharides, steroids, and sterols. Ganoderic acids (GAs) are one of the most abundant triterpenoids found in G. lucidum, garnering significant attention from researchers in the fields of medicine and health care. We summarize the extensive studies on the physiological function of GAs in anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, radiation protection, anti-aging, liver protection, anti-microbial, and neuroprotection areas, among others. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in the bioactivities and pharmacological mechanisms of GAs, aiming to delineate the current research directions and the state of the art in this field. This analysis helps to rapidly identify new bioactivities of GAs and understand their mechanisms, leading to more effective treatments for various diseases.

Structural relationship of regioselectively-sulfonated botryosphaeran derivatives on activity against herpes simplex virus type 1

The bioactivities of sulfonated polysaccharides are frequently related to their substitution pattern. In this study, the regioselective sulfonation of an exocellular fungal (1→3)(1→6)-β-D-glucan (botryosphaeran) was performed by two different methods: mild sulfonation (MS) and via pivaloyl ester (PS), in order to study the influence of the sulfonation pattern on the antiviral activity of the respective derivatives. Two sulfonated derivatives with substitution degrees of 0.82 (MS) and 0.49 (PS) were obtained, with substitution patterns at positions C-6, and C-2/C-4 of the glucose units, respectively. All derivatives were chemically characterized and evaluated for antiviral activity against Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) KOS strain, and dengue type 2 (DENV-2). The sample sulfonated at positions C-6 (MS) showed a remarkable antiviral effect on HSV-1 (IC50 of 5.38 μg mL1), while PS remained inactive. The investigation of the mode of action of sample MS pointed to the inhibition of HSV-1 adsorption to the host cells. Both samples were inactive towards the dengue virus strain. This study demonstrated that the presence of sulfate groups at the C-6 positions of botryosphaeran is the preferred substitution pattern that enables the antiviral activity towards HSV-1.

Polysaccharide structure evaluation of Ganoderma lucidum from different regions in China based on an innovative extraction strategy

The polysaccharides and triterpenes are important functional components of Ganoderma lucidum, but traditional preparation process of G. lucidum functional components can only realize the preparation of single functional component, which has poor targeting and low efficiency. In this study, the existence state of the functional components of G. lucidum was revealed. Then, the single step extraction process for functional components was established, and the precise structure evaluation of polysaccharide and triterpenes was conducted based on the process. The results showed that preparation time required for this strategy is only one-sixth of the traditional one, and 50 % of raw materials can be saved. Structural analysis of the functional components revealed that triterpenes were mainly Ganoderic acid and Lucidenic acid, and the polysaccharide structure was mainly 1,3-glucan and 1,3,6-glucan. The establishment of single step extraction strategy and the evaluation of the fine structure of functional components improved the efficiency of preparation and result determination, and provided an important basis for the development and utilization of green and low-carbon G. lucidum and even edible fungi resources and human nutritional dietary improvement strategies.

The Biological Activity of Ganoderma lucidum on Neurodegenerative Diseases: The Interplay between Different Active Compounds and the Pathological Hallmarks

Neurodegenerative diseases represent a cluster of conditions characterized by the progressive degeneration of the structure and function of the nervous system. Despite significant advancements in understanding these diseases, therapeutic options remain limited. The medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum has been recognized for its comprehensive array of bioactive compounds with anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects, which possess potential neuroprotective properties. This literature review collates and examines the existing research on the bioactivity of active compounds and extracts from Ganoderma lucidum in modulating the pathological hallmarks of neurodegenerative diseases. The structural information and preparation processes of specific components, such as individual ganoderic acids and unique fractions of polysaccharides, are presented in detail to facilitate structure-activity relationship research and scale up the investigation of in vivo pharmacology. The mechanisms of these components against neurodegenerative diseases are discussed on multiple levels and elaborately categorized in different patterns. It is clearly presented from the patterns that most polysaccharides of Ganoderma lucidum possess neurotrophic effects, while ganoderic acids preferentially target specific pathogenic proteins as well as regulating autophagy. Further clinical trials are necessary to assess the translational potential of these components in the development of novel multi-target drugs for neurodegenerative diseases.

Ganoderma lucidum: Multifaceted mechanisms to combat diabetes through polysaccharides and triterpenoids: A comprehensive review

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder. Diabetes complications can affect many organs and systems in the body. Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) contains various compounds that have been studied for their potential antidiabetic effects, including polysaccharides, triterpenoids (ganoderic acids, ganoderol B), proteoglycans, and G. lucidum extracts. G. lucidum polysaccharides (GLPs) and triterpenoids have been shown to act through distinct mechanisms, such as improving glucose metabolism, modulating the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) system, inhibiting the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway, and protecting the pancreatic beta cells. While GLPs exhibit a significant role in controlling diabetic nephropathy and other associated complications. This review states the G. lucidum antidiabetic mechanisms of action and potential biologically active compounds that contribute to diabetes management and associated complications. To make G. lucidum an appropriate replacement for the treatment of diabetes with fewer side effects, more study is required to completely comprehend the number of physiologically active compounds present in it as well as the underlying cellular mechanisms that influence their effects on diabetes.

Current Advances in the Functional Genes of Edible and Medicinal Fungi: Research Techniques, Functional Analysis, and Prospects

Functional genes encode various biological functions required for the life activities of organisms. By analyzing the functional genes of edible and medicinal fungi, varieties of edible and medicinal fungi can be improved to enhance their agronomic traits, growth rates, and ability to withstand adversity, thereby increasing yield and quality and promoting industrial development. With the rapid development of functional gene research technology and the publication of many whole-genome sequences of edible and medicinal fungi, genes related to important biological traits have been mined, located, and functionally analyzed. This paper summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of different functional gene research techniques and application examples for edible and medicinal fungi; systematically reviews the research progress of functional genes of edible and medicinal fungi in biological processes such as mating type, mycelium and fruit growth and development, substrate utilization and nutrient transport, environmental response, and the synthesis and regulation of important active substances; and proposes future research directions for functional gene research for edible and medicinal fungi. The overall aim of this study was to provide a valuable reference for further promoting the molecular breeding of edible and medicinal fungi with high yield and quality and to promote the wide application of edible and medicinal fungi products in food, medicine, and industry.

Revisiting microbial exopolysaccharides: a biocompatible and sustainable polymeric material for multifaceted biomedical applications

Microbial exopolysaccharides (EPS) have gained significant attention as versatile biomolecules with multifarious applications across various sectors. This review explores the valorisation of EPS and its potential impact on diverse sectors, including food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and biotechnology. EPS, secreted by microorganisms, possess unique physicochemical properties, such as high molecular weight, water solubility, and biocompatibility, making them attractive for numerous functional roles. Additionally, EPS exhibit significant bioactivity, contributing to their potential use in pharmaceuticals for drug delivery and tissue engineering applications. Moreover, the eco-friendly and sustainable nature of microbial EPS production aligns with the growing demand for environmentally conscious processes. However, challenges still exist in large-scale production, purification, and regulatory approval for commercial use. Advances in bioprocessing and microbial engineering offer promising solutions to overcome these hurdles. Stringent investigations have concluded EPS as novel sources for sustainable applications that are likely to emerge and develop, further reinforcing the significance of these biopolymers in addressing contemporary societal needs and driving innovation in various industrial sectors. Overall, the microbial EPS represents a thriving field with immense potential for meeting diverse industrial demands and advancing sustainable technologies.

Therapeutic potential of the medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum against Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a high-incidence neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by cognitive impairment, memory loss, and psychiatric abnormalities. Ganoderma lucidum is a famous medicinal fungus with a long history of dietary intake, containing various bioactive components, and have been documented to exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-aging, and immunomodulatory effects, among others. Recent studies have shown that G. lucidum and its components have promising therapeutic potential against AD from various aspects, which can delay the progression of AD, improve cognitive function and quality of life. The underlying mechanisms mainly include inhibiting tau hyperphosphorylation, inhibiting Aβ formation, affecting activated microglia, regulating NF-κB/MAPK signalling pathway, inhibiting neuronal apoptosis, modulating immune system, and inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, etc. This paper systematically reviewed the relevant studies on the therapeutic potential of G. lucidum and its active components for treatment of AD, key points related with the mechanism studies and clinical trials have been discussed, and further perspectives have been proposed. Totally, as a natural medicinal mushroom, G. lucidum has the potential to be developed as effective adjuvant for AD treatment owing to its therapeutic efficacy against multiple pathogenesis of AD. Further mechanical investigation and clinical trials can help unlock the complete potential of G. lucidum as a therapeutic option for AD.

Alsayegh A, Ahmad FA, Akhtar MS, Alavudeen SS, Bantun F, Wahab S, Ahmed A, Ali M, Elbendary EY, Raposo A, Kambal N, H. Abdelrahman M. Ganoderma lucidum: Insight into antimicrobial and antioxidant properties with development of secondary metabolites

Ganoderma lucidum is a versatile mushroom. Polysaccharides and triterpenoids are the major bioactive compounds and have been used as traditional medicinal mushrooms since ancient times. They are currently used as nutraceuticals and functional foods. G. lucidum extracts and their bioactive compounds have been used as an alternative to antioxidants and antimicrobial agents. Secondary metabolites with many medicinal properties make it a possible substitute that could be applied as immunomodulatory, anticancer, antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-diabetic. The miraculous properties of secondary metabolites fascinate researchers for their development and production. Recent studies have paid close attention to the different physical, genetic, biochemical, and nutritional parameters that potentiate the production of secondary metabolites. This review is an effort to collect biologically active constituents from G. lucidum that reveal potential actions against diseases with the latest improvement in a novel technique to get maximum production of secondary metabolites. Studies are going ahead to determine the efficacy of numerous compounds and assess the valuable properties achieved by G. lucidum in favor of antimicrobial and antioxidant outcomes.

Red recombination enables a wide variety of markerless manipulation of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus genome to generate recombinant virus

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is a member of the genera Alphacoronavirus that has been associated with acute watery diarrhea and vomiting in swine. Unfortunately, no effective vaccines and antiviral drugs for PEDV are currently available. Reverse genetics systems are crucial tools for these researches. Here, a PEDV full-length cDNA clone was constructed. Furtherly, three PEDV reporter virus plasmids containing red fluorescent protein (RFP), Nano luciferase (Nluc), or green fluorescence protein (GFP) were generated using Red recombination with the GS1783 E. coli strain. These reporter-expressing recombinant (r) PEDVs showed similar growth properties to the rPEDV, and the foreign genes were stable to culture up to P9 in Vero cells. Using the Nluc-expressing rPEDV, the replication of PEDV was easily quantified, and a platform for rapid anti-PEDV drug screening was constructed. Among the three drugs, Bergenin, Umifenovir hydrochloride (Arbidol), and Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids (GLTs), we found that GLTs inhibited PEDV replication mainly after the stage of virus "Entry". Overall, this study will broaden insight into the method for manipulating the PEDV genome and provide a powerful tool for screening anti-PEDV agents.

Computational Advancement towards the Identification of Natural Inhibitors for Dengue Virus: A Brief Review

Viral infectious illnesses represent a severe hazard to human health due to their widespread incidence worldwide. Among these ailments, the dengue virus (DENV) infection stands out. World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that DENV infection affects ~400 million people each year, with potentially fatal symptoms showing up in 1% of the cases. In several instances, academic and pharmaceutical researchers have conducted several pilot and clinical studies on a variety of topics, including viral epidemiology, structure and function analyses, infection source and route, therapeutic targets, vaccinations, and therapeutic drugs. Amongst Takeda, TAK-003, Sanofi, Dengvaxia®, and Butantan/NIH/Merck, Dengvaxia® (CYD-TDV) is the only licensed vaccination yet; however, the potential inhibitors are under development. The biology and evolution of DENVs are briefly discussed in this review, which also compiles the most recent studies on prospective antiviral targets and antiviral candidates. In conclusion, the triumphs and failures have influenced the development of anti-DENV medications, and the findings in this review article will stimulate more investigation.

β-glucan-induced disease resistance in plants: A review

Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and induced systemic resistance (ISR) are caused by various factors, including both pathogenic and non-pathogenic ones. β-glucan primarily originates from bacteria and fungi, some species of these organisms work as biological agents in causing diseases. When β-glucan enters plants, it triggers the defense system, leading to various reactions such as the production of proteins related to pathogenicity and defense enzymes. By extracting β-glucan from disturbed microorganisms and using it as an inducing agent, plant diseases can be effectively controlled by activating the plant's defense system. β-glucan plays a crucial role during the interaction between plants and pathogens. Therefore, modeling the plant-pathogen relationship and using the molecules involved in this interaction can help in controlling plant diseases, as pathogens have genes related to resistance against pathogenicity. Thus, it is reasonable to identify and use biological induction agents at a large scale by extracting these compounds.

Inhibition of intrarenal PRR-RAS pathway by Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide peptides in proteinuric nephropathy

Excessive proteinuria leads to renal dysfunction and damage. Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide peptide (GL-PP) and Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide peptide 2 (GL-PP2) are biologically active compounds extracted from Ganoderma lucidum. GL-PP has a relative molecular weight of 37,121 with 76.39 % polysaccharides and 16.35 % polypeptides, while GL-PP2 has a relative molecular weight of 31,130, composed of 64.14 % polysaccharides and 17.73 % polypeptides. The xylose: mannose: glucose monosaccharide ratios in GL-PP and GL-PP2 were 4.83:1:7.03 and 2.35:1:9.38, respectively. In this study, we investigated the protective effects of GL-PP and GL-PP2 on proteinuria-induced renal dysfunction and damage using rat and cell models. Both compounds reduced kidney injury, proteinuria, and inhibited the (pro)renin receptor (PRR)-renin-angiotensin system (RAS) pathway, inflammatory cell infiltration, oxidative stress, and fibrosis. GL-PP2 showed stronger inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase proteins compared to GL-PP. In cell models, both compounds displayed anti-inflammatory properties and improved cellular viability by inhibiting the PRR-RAS pathway. GL-PP2 has higher feasibility and productivity than GL-PP in pharmacology and industrial production. It shows promise in treating proteinuria-induced renal disease with superior anti-inflammatory effects and economic, safe industrial application prospects. Further research is needed to compare efficacy, mechanisms, clinical applications, and commercial feasibility of GL-PP and GL-PP2.

Ganoderma adspersum (Ganodermataceae): Investigation of Its Secondary Metabolites and the Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, and Cytotoxic Potential of Its Extracts

Ganoderma is a genus of wood-degrading mushrooms with medicinal importance. Most Ganoderma species have been studied extensively for their secondary metabolites, biological activities, and ecological value. In this study, the biological activities of the extracts of G. adspersum growing wild on Morus alba trees in the region of Western Thrace (Greece) were evaluated, and the petroleum ether, dichloromethanolic, and methanolic extracts were studied further for their secondary metabolites. Six substances were isolated by chromatographic (Clumn Chromatography (C.C.), High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)) and spectroscopic methods (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)), which were classified in the following categories: (a) unsaturated fatty acids: cis-oleic acid (1); (b) sterols: ergosta-7,22-dien-3-one (2), ergosta-7,22-dien-3-ol (3), and ergosta-5,7,22-trien-3-ol (4); and (c) lanostane-type triterpenoids: applanoxidic acid G (5) and applanoxidic acid A (6). Finally, the biological activities of the extracts were estimated for their antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic potential. The methanolic extract of G. adspersum showed the highest total antioxidant activity. The results of the antimicrobial activities indicated that all of the extracts had a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ranging between 39.1 and 312.5 μg/mL. The evaluation of the cytotoxic activity of the samples showed once again that the methanolic extract was the most potent among the examined extracts, with half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of 19.22 μg/mL (Hep2c cells), 32.9 μg/mL (RD cells), and 8.94 μg/mL (L2OB cells). Moreover, the bioactivity scores of the isolated secondary metabolites were calculated using the online computer software program Molinspiration. The compounds showed promising bioactivity scores for drug targets.

Ganoderic acid C2 exerts the pharmacological effects against cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression: a study involving molecular docking and experimental validation

Triterpenoids, as the main active ingredient of Ganoderma lucidum fermented extract, exert multiple pharmacological activities, including immunomodulatory properties. Our study aimed to reveal the pharmacological effects and potential mechanisms of Ganoderic acid C2 (GAC) against cyclophosphamide (CY)-associated immunosuppression. Target genes were collected from several public databases, including the DisGeNET, Comparative Toxicogenomics Database, GeneCards, and PharmMapper. STRING database was used to construct the protein-protein interaction of network. Subsequently, molecular docking was carried out to visualize the protein-GAC interactions. Experimental validations, including ELISA and qRT-PCR were performed to confirm the pharmacological activities of GAC on CY-induced immunosuppression model. A total of 56 GAC-related targets were identified to be closely associated with CY-induced immunosuppression. Enrichment analyses results revealed that these targets were mainly involved in immune and inflammatory response-related pathways. STAT3 and TNF were identified as the core targets of GAC. Molecular docking indicated that GAC combined well with STAT3 and TNF protein. In addition, animal experiments indicated that GAC improved immunity as well as STAT3 and TNF genes expression in CY-induced immunosuppression, which further verified the prediction through bioinformatics analysis and molecular docking. We successfully revealed the potential therapeutics mechanisms underlying the effect of GAC against CY-induced immunosuppression based on the combination of bioinformatics analysis, molecular docking, and animal experiments. Our findings lay a theoretical foundation for the in-depth development and utilization of Ganoderma lucidum fermentation product in the future, and also provide theoretical guidance for the development of innovative drugs that assist in improving immunity.

Unraveling the Polysaccharide Biosynthesis Potential of Ganoderma lucidum: A Chromosome-Level Assembly Using Hi-C Sequencing

Ganoderma lucidum exhibits the ability to synthesize a diverse range of biologically active molecules with significant pharmaceutical potential, including xylomannan and fucogalactan, which have demonstrated antitumor activity. However, there exists considerable intra-species variability in the capacity to produce these metabolites at high concentrations, likely reflecting the high genomic diversity observed from a limited number of strains sequenced to date. We employed high-throughput shotgun sequencing to obtain the complete genome sequence of G. lucidum strain 5.1, which is distinguished by its remarkable xylomannan synthesis capabilities. Through the utilization of semi-automatic reordering based on conformation capture (Hi-C) data, we substantially enhanced the assembly process, resulting in the generation of 12 chromosome-level scaffolds with a cumulative length of 39 Mbp. By employing both de novo and homology-based approaches, we performed comprehensive annotation of the genome, thereby identifying a diverse repertoire of genes likely involved in polysaccharide biosynthesis. The genome sequence generated in this study serves as a valuable resource for elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying the medicinal potential of Ganoderma species, discovering novel pharmaceutically valuable compounds, and elucidating the ecological mechanisms of the species. Furthermore, the chromosome contact map obtained for the first time for this species extends our understanding of 3D fungal genomics and provides insights into the functional and structural organization within the fungal kingdom.

A review of anti-tumour effects of Ganoderma lucidum in gastrointestinal cancer

Gastrointestinal (GI) cancer is the most common cancer in the world and one of the main causes of cancer-related death. Clinically, surgical excision and chemotherapy are the main treatment methods for GI cancer, which is unfortunately accompanied with serious adverse reactions and drug toxicity, bringing irreversible damage to patients and seriously affecting the quality of life. Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) has a long history of medicinal and edible use in China. Its bioactive compounds mainly include polysaccharides, triterpenes, and proteins, which have potential anti-tumor activities by inhibiting proliferation, inducing apoptosis, inhibiting metastasis, and regulating autophagy. Currently, there is no in-depth review on the anti-tumor effect of G. lucidum in GI cancer. Therefore, this review is an attempt to compile the basic characteristics, anti-GI caner mechanisms, and clinical application of G. lucidum, aiming to provide a reference for further research on the role of G. lucidum in the prevention and treatment of GI cancer from the perspective of traditional Chinese and western medicine.

Recent Advances in the Preparation, Structure, and Biological Activities of β-Glucan from Ganoderma Species: A Review

Ganoderma has served as a valuable food supplement and medicinal ingredient with outstanding active compounds that are essential for human protection against chronic diseases. Modern pharmacology studies have proven that Ganoderma β-d-glucan exhibits versatile biological activities, such as immunomodulatory, antitumor, antioxidant, and antiviral properties, as well as gut microbiota regulation. As a promising polysaccharide, β-d-glucan is widely used in the prevention and treatment of various diseases. In recent years, the extraction, purification, structural characterization, and pharmacological activities of polysaccharides from the fruiting bodies, mycelia, spores, and fermentation broth of Ganoderma species have received wide attention from scholars globally. Unfortunately, comprehensive studies on the preparation, structure and bioactivity, toxicology, and utilization of β-d-glucans from Ganoderma species still need to be further explored, which may result in limitations in future sustainable industrial applications of β-d-glucans. Thus, this review summarizes the research progress in recent years on the physicochemical properties, structural characteristics, and bioactivity mechanisms of Ganoderma β-d-glucan, as well as its toxicological assessment and applications. This review is intended to provide a theoretical basis and reference for the development and application of β-d-glucan in the fields of pharmaceuticals, functional foods, and cosmetics.

A review of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides: Health benefit, structure-activity relationship, modification, and nanoparticle encapsulation

Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides possess unique functional properties. Various processing technologies have been used to produce and modify G. lucidum polysaccharides to improve their yield and utilization. In this review, the structure and health benefits were summarized, and the factors that may affect the quality of G. lucidum polysaccharides were discussed, including the use of chemical modifications such as sulfation, carboxymethylation, and selenization. Those modifications improve the physicochemical characteristics and utilization of G. lucidum polysaccharides, and make them more stable that could be used as functional biomaterials to encapsulate active substances. Ultimate, G. lucidum polysaccharide-based nanoparticles were designed to deliver various functional ingredients to achieve better health-promoting effects. Overall, this review presents an in-depth summary of current modification strategies and offers new insights into the effective processing techniques to develop G. lucidum polysaccharide-rich functional foods or nutraceuticals.

A novel partitivirus orchestrates conidiation, stress response, pathogenicity, and secondary metabolism of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium majus

Mycoviruses are widely present in all major groups of fungi but those in entomopathogenic Metarhizium spp. remain understudied. In this investigation, a novel double-stranded (ds) RNA virus is isolated from Metarhizium majus and named Metarhizium majus partitivirus 1 (MmPV1). The complete genome sequence of MmPV1 comprises two monocistronic dsRNA segments (dsRNA 1 and dsRNA 2), which encode an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) and a capsid protein (CP), respectively. MmPV1 is classified as a new member of the genus Gammapartitivirus in the family Partitiviridae based on phylogenetic analysis. As compared to an MmPV1-free strain, two isogenic MmPV1-infected single-spore isolates were compromised in terms of conidiation, and tolerance to heat shock and UV-B irradiation, while these phenotypes were accompanied by transcriptional suppression of multiple genes involved in conidiation, heat shock response and DNA damage repair. MmPV1 attenuated fungal virulence since infection resulted in reduced conidiation, hydrophobicity, adhesion, and cuticular penetration. Additionally, secondary metabolites were significantly altered by MmPV1 infection, including reduced production of triterpenoids, and metarhizins A and B, and increased production of nitrogen and phosphorus compounds. However, expression of individual MmPV1 proteins in M. majus had no impact on the host phenotype, suggesting insubstantive links between defective phenotypes and a single viral protein. These findings indicate that MmPV1 infection decreases M. majus fitness to its environment and its insect-pathogenic lifestyle and environment through the orchestration of the host conidiation, stress tolerance, pathogenicity, and secondary metabolism.

Toxicogenic effects of the mushroom Ganoderma lucidum on human liver and kidney tumor cells and peripheral blood lymphocytes

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst., a bioactive mushroom with medicinal properties, is known to exert immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, hypocholesterolemic, hypoglycemic, and hepatoprotective effects.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, the effects of the G. lucidum fruiting body dry extract (GLE) on human liver (HepG2/C3A) and kidney (786-O) tumor cells and peripheral blood lymphocytes were evaluated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MTT-based cytotoxicity, trypan blue-based cell viability, comet, and cytokinesis-block micronucleus cytome assays were performed, and the production of reactive oxygen species was evaluated in vitro.

RESULTS

GLE was toxic to the tumor cells, decreasing their viability by increasing their production of reactive oxygen species and inducing damage to their DNA. By contrast, only high concentrations of GLE were toxic to lymphocytes and decreased their viability, whereas low concentrations increased lymphocyte viability. Moreover, primary DNA damage was induced by GLE only at the highest concentration tested.

CONCLUSIONS

G. lucidum shows potential antitumor effects against cancerous kidney and liver cells, exhibiting cytotoxic and genotoxic activity at low concentrations, whereas the same effects in lymphocytes are mediated only at high concentrations. This mushroom has the potential to be biotechnologically developed into a therapeutic agent for diseases, such as cancer.

Ganoderma lucidum: Novel Insight into Hepatoprotective Potential with Mechanisms of Action

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) has been widely used for its health benefits as an edible and traditional medicinal mushroom for thousands of years in Asian countries. It is currently used as a nutraceutical and functional food owing to its major bioactive compounds, polysaccharides and triterpenoids. G. lucidum exhibits a broad range of hepatoprotective impacts in various liver disorders, such as hepatic cancer, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), alcohol-induced liver disease, hepatitis B, hepatic fibrosis, and liver injury induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) and α-amanitin. G. lucidum protects the liver through a broad range of mechanisms that include the modulation of liver Phase I and II enzymes, the suppression of β-glucuronidase, antifibrotic and antiviral actions, the regulation of the production of nitric oxide (NO), the maintenance of hepatocellular calcium homeostasis, immunomodulatory activity, and scavenging free radicals. G. lucidum could signify an encouraging approach for the management of various chronic hepatopathies, and its potential mechanisms make it a distinctive agent when used alone or with other drugs and applied as a functional food, nutraceutical supplement, or adjuvant to modern medicine. This review summarizes the hepatoprotective properties of G. lucidum with its various mechanisms of action on different liver ailments. Biologically active substances derived from G. lucidum are still being studied for their potential benefits in treating different liver ailments.

In vitro antiviral effect of ethanolic extracts from Azadirachta indica and Melia azedarach against goat lentivirus in colostrum and milk

This study aimed to evaluate, in vitro, the use of leaf extracts of Azadirachta indica (A. indica) and Melia azedarach (M. azedarach) as antivirals against caprine lentivirus (CLV) in colostrum and milk of goat nannies. These were collected from eight individuals and infected with the standard strain of CLV. Samples were then subdivided into aliquots and treated with 150 µg/mL of crude extract, and with ethyl acetate and methanol fractions for 30, 60, and 90 min. Next, somatic cells from colostrum and milk were co-cultured with cells from the ovine third eyelid. After this step, viral titers of the supernatants collected from treatments with greater efficacy in co-culture were assessed. The organic ethyl acetate fractions of both plants at 90 min possibly inhibited the viral activity of CLV by up to a thousandfold in colostrum. In milk, this inhibition was up to 800 times for the respective Meliaceae. In conclusion, the ethanolic fraction of ethyl acetate from both plants demonstrated efficacy against CLV in samples from colostrum and milk when subjected to treatment, which was more effective in colostrum.

A new strategy to improve Ganoderma polysaccharides production by symbiotic fungi elicitors through activating the biosynthetic pathway

Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (GLP) attract growing attention due to their remarkable bioactivities, but the low content in raw materials remains a bottleneck severely restricting their application. We previously found a higher polysaccharides accumulation in Ganoderma lucidum cultured in continuous cropping soil, and soil symbiotic fungi are presumed as the key among many factors. Herein, 33 symbiotic fungi were isolated from the soil, and fungal elicitors were prepared to investigate their biotic eliciting effect on GLP biosynthesis. Most elicitors were found to significantly improve GLP production, among which the NO.16 molecularly identified as Penicillium citrinum, exhibited the optimum eliciting effect with GLP yield increasing by 3.4 times. Differences in the biosynthetic pathway genes expressions and the monosaccharide components of GLP were further analyzed. The transcriptions of the main genes of GLP biosynthetic pathway were up-regulated under PCE treatments, suggesting it improves GLP production by activating transcriptions of the biosynthetic pathway genes. Moreover, PCE eliciting significantly altered the monosaccharide compositions of GLP with Gal, Man, GalA, GlcA, and Fuc increasing by 8.17 %, 5.68 %, 5.41 %, 2.66 %, and 1.51 % respectively, but Glc decreased by 23.43 %, which may result in the activity change. It can serve as a new strategy to improve GLP production.

A Novel Strain Breeding of Ganoderma lucidum UV119 (Agaricomycetes) with High Spores Yield and Strong Resistant Ability to Other Microbes' Invasions

The spore powder of Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) has been proven to have a variety of pharmacological activities, and it has become a new resource for the development of health products and pharmaceuticals. However, the scarcity of natural resources, strict growth conditions and difficulty in controlling the stable yield, and quality of different culture batches seriously limit the development and utilization of G. lucidum spore powder. In the present study, the strain with the highest spore powder yield, G0109, was selected as the original strain to generate mutants of G. lucidum using ultraviolet ray irradiation. A total of 165 mutagenic strains were obtained, and fifty-five strains were chosen for the cultivation test. Importantly, one mutagenic strain with high spore powder yield and strong resistance to undesired microorganisms was acquired and named strain UV119. More cultivations demonstrated that the fruiting body and basidiospore yields from UV119 were, respectively, 8.67% and 19.27% higher than those of the parent (G0109), and the basidiospore yield was 20.56% higher than that of the current main cultivar "Longzhi No.1". In conclusion, this study suggested that ultraviolet ray irradiation is an efficient and practical method for Ganoderma strain improvement and thus provided a basis for the development and application of G. lucidum spore production and outstanding contributions to the rapid development of the G. lucidum industry.

Antimicrobial Activities of Ganoderma mbrekobenum Strain EGDA (Agaricomycetes) from Egypt

Ganoderma is a well-known genus of medicinal mushrooms. The biological activity of the fruiting bodies of G. mbrekobenum (previously identified as Ganoderma sp. EGDA, (AC: LN774971) is scarcely studied. The microorganisms including bacteria and fungi were chosen for screening of the antimicrobial activity produced by G. mbrekobenum strain EGDA. The bioactive compounds were extracted from aqueous, petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and methanol extracts. The higher antibacterial activity produced by methanol extract was against Bacillus subtilis and B. cereus (14.13 ± 0.12 mm, 13.03 ± 0.12 mm, respectively). Water fraction showed antibacterial effect against most of the test bacterial strains. The highest antifungal activity produced by methanol extract was against Fusarium oxysporum I and F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (16.37 ± 0.03 mm 15.67 ± 0.19 mm, respectively). Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis of the separated fractions revealed the identification of 46 compounds.

Production of mycelial biomass, proteases and protease inhibitors by Ganoderma lucidum under different submerged fermentation conditions

Ganoderma lucidum is a medicinal mushroom widely recognized as a source of biomolecules with pharmacological properties, however, little is known about the factors that influence the synthesis of bioactive proteins by this fungus when cultivated under submerged fermentation. The objective of this work was to evaluate the production of mycelial biomass and intracellular proteases and protease inhibitors by G. lucidum cultivated under different submerged fermentation conditions. The cultivation was carried out in a medium composed of glucose (10 or 20 g.L-1), soy peptone (2.5 or 5 g.L-1) and yeast extract (5 g.L-1), with incubation under agitation (120 rpm) and non-agitation, totaling 8 experimental conditions. Biomass production was determined from the dry weight, while glucose consumption was estimated by quantification of reducing sugars. The proteins were extracted in NaCl (0.15 M), and the protein extracts were submitted to protein quantification by the Bradford method, total proteolytic activity using azocasein, caseinolytic and fibrinolytic activity in Petri dishes, activity of serine (trypsin and chymotrypsin) and cysteine (papain) protease inhibitors. Cultivation in agitated condition showed higher biomass production with a maximum value of 7 g.L-1, in addition to higher activities of trypsin, chymotrypsin and papain inhibitors, with 154 IU.mg-1, 153 IU.mg-1 e 343 IU.mg-1 of protein, respectively. The non-agitated condition showed a greater potential for obtaining proteins, total proteases, caseinolytic and fibrinolytic enzymes, with maximum values of 433 mg.g-1 of extract, 71 U.mL-1 of extract, 63.62 mm2 and 50.27 mm2, respectively. Thus, a medium composed of soy peptone, yest extract and glucose in a 1:2:4 proportion is recommended, under agitation to produce protease inhibitors, and the non-agitated condition when the target is, mainly caseinolytic and fibrinolytic enzymes.

Nephroprotective Effects of Two Ganoderma Species Methanolic Extracts in an In Vitro Model of Cisplatin Induced Tubulotoxicity

Although cisplatin is used as a first-line therapy in many cancers, its nephrotoxicity remains a real problem. Acute kidney injuries induced by cisplatin can cause proximal tubular necrosis, possibly leading to interstitial fibrosis, chronic dysfunction, and finally to a cessation of chemotherapy. There are only a few nephroprotective actions that can help reduce cisplatin nephrotoxicity. This study aims to identify new prophylactic properties with respect to medicinal mushrooms. Among five Ganoderma species, the methanolic extracts of Ganoderma tuberculosum Murill., Ganoderma parvigibbosum Welti & Courtec. (10 µg/mL), and their association (5 + 5 µg/mL) were selected to study respective in vitro effects on human proximal tubular cells (HK-2) intoxicated by cisplatin. Measurements were performed after a pretreatment of 1 h with the extracts before adding cisplatin (20 µM). A viability assay, antioxidant activity, intracytoplasmic β-catenin, calcium, caspase-3, p53, cytochrome C, IL-6, NFκB, membranous KIM-1, and ROS overproduction were studied. Tests showed that both methanolic extracts and their association prevented a loss of viability, apoptosis, and its signaling pathway. G. parvigibbosum and the association prevented an increase in intracytoplasmic β-catenin. G. parvigibbosum prevented ROS overproduction and exhibited scavenger activity. None of the extracts could interfere with pro-inflammatory markers or calcium homeostasis. Our in vitro data demonstrate that these mushroom extracts have interesting nephroprotective properties. Finally, the chemical content was investigated through a phytochemical screening, and the determination of the total phenolic and triterpenoid content. Further studies about the chemical composition need to be conducted.

Pharmacological Efficacy of Probiotics in Respiratory Viral Infections: A Comprehensive Review

Mortality and morbidity from influenza and other respiratory viruses are significant causes of concern worldwide. Infections in the respiratory tract are often underappreciated because they tend to be mild and incapacitated. On the other hand, these infections are regarded as a common concern in clinical practice. Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections, albeit this is becoming more challenging since many of the more prevalent infection causes have acquired a wide range of antimicrobial resistance. Resistance to frontline treatment medications is constantly rising, necessitating the development of new antiviral agents. Probiotics are one of several medications explored to treat respiratory viral infection (RVI). As a result, certain probiotics effectively prevent gastrointestinal dysbiosis and decrease the likelihood of secondary infections. Various probiotic bacterias and their metabolites have shown immunomodulating and antiviral properties. Unfortunately, the mechanisms by which probiotics are effective in the fight against viral infections are sometimes unclear. This comprehensive review has addressed probiotic strains, dosage regimens, production procedures, delivery systems, and pre-clinical and clinical research. In particular, novel probiotics' fight against RVIs is the impetus for this study. Finally, this review may explore the potential of probiotic bacterias and their metabolites to treat RVIs. It is expected that probiotic-based antiviral research would be benefitted from this review's findings.

Ganoderma Lucidum Triterpenoids Improve Maternal Separation-Induced Anxiety- and Depression-like Behaviors in Mice by Mitigating Inflammation in the Periphery and Brain

Although early life stress (ELS) can increase susceptibility to adulthood psychiatric disorders and produce a greater inflammatory response in a stressful event, targeted preventive and therapeutic drugs still remain scarce. Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids (GLTs) can exert anti-inflammatory effects in the periphery and central nervous systems. This study employed a combined model of “childhood maternal separation + adulthood sub-stress” to explore whether GLTs may alleviate anxiety- and depression-like behaviors in male and female mice by mitigating inflammation. Male and female pups were separated from their mothers for four hours per day from postnatal day 1 (PND 1) to PND 21; starting from PND 56, GLTs were administered intraperitoneally once daily for three weeks and followed by three days of sub-stress. Results showed that maternal separation increased the anxiety- and depression-like behaviors in both male and female mice, which disappeared after the preemptive GLTs treatment (40 mg/kg) before adulthood sub-stress. Maternal separation up-regulated the pro-inflammatory markers in the periphery and brain, and activated microglia in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. All the abnormalities were reversed by GLTs administration, with no adverse effects on immune organ indices, liver, and renal function. Our findings suggest that GLTs can be a promising candidate in treating ELS-induced psychiatric disorders.

Ganoderic acids-rich ethanol extract from Ganoderma lucidum protects against alcoholic liver injury and modulates intestinal microbiota in mice with excessive alcohol intake

Alcoholic liver injury is mainly caused by excessive alcohol consumption and has become a global public health problem threatening human health. It is well known that Ganoderma lucidum possesses various excellent beneficial effects on liver function and lipid metabolism. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the underlying protective effect and action mechanism of ganoderic acids-rich G. lucidum ethanol extract (GLE) on alcohol-induced liver injury in mice with excessive alcohol intake. Results showed that oral administration of GLE could obviously inhibit the abnormal increases of serum triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and also significantly protect the liver against alcohol-induced excessive hepatic lipid accumulation and pathological changes. In addition, alcohol-induced oxidative stress in liver was significantly ameliorated by the dietary intervention of GLE through reducing the hepatic levels of maleic dialdehyde (MDA) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and increasing the hepatic levels of glutathione (GSH), catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). Compared with the model group, GLE intervention significantly ameliorated the intestinal microbial disorder by elevating the relative abundance of Ruminiclostridium_9, Prevotellaceae_UCG-001, Oscillibacter, [Eubacterium]_xylanophilum_group, norank_f_Clostridiates_vadinBB60_group, GCA-900066225, Bilophila, Ruminococcaceae_UCG-009, norank_f_Desulfovibrionaceae and Hydrogenoanaerobacterium, but decreasing the proportion of Clostridium_sensu_stricto_1. Furthermore, liver metabolomic profiling suggested that GLE intervention had a significant regulatory effect on the composition of liver metabolites in mice with excessive alcohol intake, especially the levels of some biomarkers involved in primary bile acid biosynthesis, riboflavin metabolism, tryptophan metabolism, biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids, fructose and mannose metabolism, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis. Additionally, dietary supplementation with GLE significantly regulated the mRNA levels of key genes related to fatty acids metabolism, ethanol catabolism and inflammatory response in liver. Conclusively, these findings indicate that GLE has a potentially beneficial effect on alleviating alcohol-induced liver injury and may be developed as a promising functional food ingredient.

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Phytochemical analysis revealed that ethanol extract of Gaoderma lucidum (GLE) is rich in ganoderic acids.

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GLE ameliorated lipid metabolism, antioxidant function and inflammatory response in mice with excessive alcohol intake.

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Liver metabolomics based on UPLC-QTOF/MS was performed to reveal the underlying hepatoprotective effect of GLE.

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GLE intervention alleviated alcoholic liver injury partly through regulating the “gut-liver-metabolite”axis.

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Hepatic gene transcriptions related to lipid metabolism and inflammation were remarkablyinfluenced by GLE intervention.

β-Glucans from Trametes versicolor (L.) Lloyd Is Effective for Prevention of Influenza Virus Infection

Coriolus versicolor (C. versicolor) is a higher fungi or mushroom which is now known by its accepted scientific names as Trametes versicolor (L.) Lloyd. Many studies have shown that β-glucans from C. versicolor have various physiological activities, including activating macrophages to protect against Salmonella infection. However, whether β-glucans have antiviral effects has not been reported. Hence, the objective of this study was to confirm whether β-glucans could boost the immune response to combat influenza virus in mouse and chick models. The results show that β-glucans induced the expression of Dectin-1, costimulatory molecules (CD80/86) and cytokines IL-6, IL-1β, IFN-β and IL-10 in murine bone marrow dendritic cells (BMDCs). In addition, orally administered β-glucans reduced weight loss, mortality and viral titers in the lungs of mice infected with influenza virus and attenuated pathological lung damage caused by the virus in the mice. Orally administered β-glucans improved survival and reduced lung viral titers in chickens infected with H9N2 avian influenza virus. These results suggest that β-glucans have a significant antiviral effect. Therefore, β-glucans could become a potential immunomodulator against influenza virus.

Beta-Glucans from Fungi: Biological and Health-Promoting Potential in the COVID-19 Pandemic Era

Beta-glucans comprise a group of polysaccharides of natural origin found in bacteria, algae, and plants, e.g., cereal seeds, as well as microfungi and macrofungi (mushrooms), which are characterized by diverse structures and functions. They are known for their metabolic and immunomodulatory properties, including anticancer, antibacterial, and antiviral. Recent reports suggest a potential of beta-glucans in the prevention and treatment of COVID-19. In contrast to β-glucans from other sources, β-glucans from mushrooms are characterized by β-1,3-glucans with short β-1,6-side chains. This structure is recognized by receptors located on the surface of immune cells; thus, mushroom β-glucans have specific immunomodulatory properties and gained BRM (biological response modifier) status. Moreover, mushroom beta-glucans also owe their properties to the formation of triple helix conformation, which is one of the key factors influencing the bioactivity of mushroom beta-glucans. This review summarizes the latest findings on biological and health-promoting potential of mushroom beta-glucans for the treatment of civilization and viral diseases, with particular emphasis on COVID-19.

A Comprehensive Review about the Molecular Structure of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): Insights into Natural Products against COVID-19

In 2019, the world suffered from the emergence of COVID-19 infection, one of the most difficult pandemics in recent history. Millions of confirmed deaths from this pandemic have been reported worldwide. This disaster was caused by SARS-CoV-2, which is the last discovered member of the family of Coronaviridae. Various studies have shown that natural compounds have effective antiviral properties against coronaviruses by inhibiting multiple viral targets, including spike proteins and viral enzymes. This review presents the classification and a detailed explanation of the SARS-CoV-2 molecular characteristics and structure-function relationships. We present all currently available crystal structures of different SARS-CoV-2 proteins and emphasized on the crystal structure of different virus proteins and the binding modes of their ligands. This review also discusses the various therapeutic approaches for COVID-19 treatment and available vaccinations. In addition, we highlight and compare the existing data about natural compounds extracted from algae, fungi, plants, and scorpion venom that were used as antiviral agents against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Moreover, we discuss the repurposing of select approved therapeutic agents that have been used in the treatment of other viruses.