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da Cruz Nizer WS, Adams ME, Allison KN, Montgomery MC, Mosher H, Cassol E, Overhage J. Oxidative stress responses in biofilms. Biofilm 2024; 7:100203. [PMID: 38827632 PMCID: PMC11139773 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioflm.2024.100203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 05/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Oxidizing agents are low-molecular-weight molecules that oxidize other substances by accepting electrons from them. They include reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide anions (O2-), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radicals (HO-), and reactive chlorine species (RCS) including sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and its active ingredient hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and chloramines. Bacteria encounter oxidizing agents in many different environments and from diverse sources. Among them, they can be produced endogenously by aerobic respiration or exogenously by the use of disinfectants and cleaning agents, as well as by the mammalian immune system. Furthermore, human activities like industrial effluent pollution, agricultural runoff, and environmental activities like volcanic eruptions and photosynthesis are also sources of oxidants. Despite their antimicrobial effects, bacteria have developed many mechanisms to resist the damage caused by these toxic molecules. Previous research has demonstrated that growing as a biofilm particularly enhances bacterial survival against oxidizing agents. This review aims to summarize the current knowledge on the resistance mechanisms employed by bacterial biofilms against ROS and RCS, focussing on the most important mechanisms, including the formation of biofilms in response to oxidative stressors, the biofilm matrix as a protective barrier, the importance of detoxifying enzymes, and increased protection within multi-species biofilm communities. Understanding the complexity of bacterial responses against oxidative stress will provide valuable insights for potential therapeutic interventions and biofilm control strategies in diverse bacterial species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Madison Elisabeth Adams
- Department of Health Sciences, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, K1S 5B6, ON, Canada
| | - Kira Noelle Allison
- Department of Health Sciences, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, K1S 5B6, ON, Canada
| | | | - Hailey Mosher
- Department of Health Sciences, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, K1S 5B6, ON, Canada
| | - Edana Cassol
- Department of Health Sciences, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, K1S 5B6, ON, Canada
| | - Joerg Overhage
- Department of Health Sciences, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, K1S 5B6, ON, Canada
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Long L, Wang S, Gao Z, You S, Wei L. Electro-oxidation and UV irradiation coupled method for in-site removing pollutants from human body fluids in swimming pool. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 464:132963. [PMID: 37976850 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
A comprehensive study was conducted to investigate how ultraviolet (UV) irradiation combined with electrochemistry (EC) can efficiently remove human body fluids (HBFs) related pollutants, such as urea/creatinine/hippuric acid, from swimming pool water (SPW). In comparison with the chlorination, UV, EC, and UV/chlorine treatments, the EC/UV treatment exhibited the highest removal rates for these typical pollutants (TPs) from HBFs in synthetic SPW. Specifically, increasing the operating current of the EC/UV process from 20 to 60 mA, as well as NaCl content from 0.5 to 3.0 g/L, improved urea and creatinine degradation while having no influence on hippuric acid. In contrast, EC/UV process was resilient to changes in water parameters (pH, HCO3-, and actual water matrix). Urea removal was primarily attributable to reactive chlorine species (RCS), whereas creatinine and hippuric acid removal were primarily related to hydroxyl radical, UV photolysis, and RCS. In addition, the EC/UV procedure can lessen the propensity for creatinine and hippuric acid to generate disinfection by-products. We can therefore draw the conclusion that the EC/UV process is a green and efficient in-situ technology for removing HBFs related TPs from SPW with the benefits of needless chlorine-based chemical additive, easy operation, continuous disinfection efficiency, and fewer byproducts production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangchen Long
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Shutao Wang
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Zhelu Gao
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Shijie You
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China.
| | - Liangliang Wei
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China.
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3
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Lin HHH, Lin AYC. Peracetic acid as an alternative disinfectant for micropollutants degradation and disinfection byproducts control in outdoor swimming pools. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 464:132988. [PMID: 37979421 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/20/2023]
Abstract
Peracetic acid (PAA) has garnered significant interest as a novel alternative to chlorine-based disinfectants for water treatment due to its broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity and its ability of reactive species generation when exposed to UV light. However, limited studies have investigated micropollutant degradation in the presence of PAA under solar irradiation. This is the first study to comprehensively investigate the photodegradation of caffeine (CAF) and 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC) and the removal of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in the presence of PAA under simulated solar light. The study revealed that the photodegradation of CAF and 4-MBC was significantly enhanced in the presence of PAA, following pseudo-first-order kinetics (R2 > 0.98) with reaction rates (kobs) of 0.220 and 0.111 h-1, respectively. In addition, substantial reduction of 21 DBPs, including trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids and haloacetonitriles, and no DBPs formation were observed in the presence of PAA and simulated solar irradiation. The proportion of coexisting H2O2 in the PAA solution considerably influenced target compounds degradation. CAF and 4-MBC were degraded faster under acidic conditions than under alkaline conditions. Hydroxyl radicals (·OH) dominated the degradation of CAF at different pH values, while direct photolysis and other reactive species played a major role in the degradation of 4-MBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hank Hui-Hsiang Lin
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71, Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Angela Yu-Chen Lin
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71, Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan.
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Koley S, Dash S, Khwairakpam M, Kalamdhad AS. Perspectives and understanding on the occurrence, toxicity and abatement technologies of disinfection by-products in drinking water. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 351:119770. [PMID: 38096765 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are one of the significant emerging contaminants that have caught the attention of researchers worldwide due to their pervasiveness. Their presence in drinking water, even in shallow concentrations (in levels of parts per billion), poses considerable health risks. Therefore, it is crucial to understand their kinetics to understand better their formation and persistence in the water supply systems. This manuscript demonstrates different aspects of research carried out on DBPs in the past. A systematic approach was adopted for the bibliographical research that started with choosing appropriate keywords and identifying the most relevant manuscripts through the screening process. This follows a quantitative assessment of the extracted literature sample, which included the most productive and influential journal sources, the most widely used keywords, the most influential authors active in the research domain, the most cited articles, and the countries most actively engaged in the research field. Critical observations on the literature sample led to the qualitative assessment, wherein the past and current research trends were observed and reported. Finally, we identified the essential gaps in the available literature, which further led to recommending the course ahead in the research domain. This study will prove fruitful for young and established researchers who are or wish to work in this emerging field of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumona Koley
- Centre for the Environment, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India.
| | - Siddhant Dash
- Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering and Sciences, SRM University-AP, Andhra Pradesh, 522502, India; Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Campus Monterey, Monterrey, 64849, Nuevo Leon, Mexico.
| | - Meena Khwairakpam
- School of Agro and Rural Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
| | - Ajay S Kalamdhad
- Centre for the Environment, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India; School of Agro and Rural Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India; Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
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Ahmadpour E, Delpla I, Debia M, Simard S, Proulx F, Sérodes JB, Valois I, Tardif R, Haddad S, Rodriguez M. Full-scale multisampling and empirical modeling of DBPs in water and air of indoor pools. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2023; 195:1128. [PMID: 37650940 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-023-11619-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed in the water in swimming pools due to reactions between disinfectants (chlorine, bromine, ozone) and the organic matter introduced by bathers and supply water. High concentrations of DBPs are also reported in the air of indoor swimming pools. Based on a robust multisampling program, the levels and variations of DBPs in the air (trichloramine [TCAM] and trihalomethanes [THMs]) and water (THM) were assessed, as well as their precursors (total organic carbon, water temperature, pH, free, and total chlorine) and proxies (CO2 and relative humidity) in four indoor chlorinated swimming pools. High-frequency sampling was conducted during one high-attendance day for each pool. This study focused on parameters that are easy to measure in order to develop models for predicting levels of THMs and TCAM in the air. The results showed that the number of bathers had an important impact on the levels of THMs and TCAM, with a two-to-three-fold increase in air chloroform (up to 110 μg/m3) and a two-to-four-fold increase in TCAM (up to 0.52 mg/m3) shortly after pools opened. The results of this study for the first time showed that CO2 and relative humidity can serve as proxies for monitoring variations in airborne THMs and TCAM. Our results highlight the good predictive capacity of the developed models and their potential for use in day-to-day monitoring. This could help optimize and control DBPs formation in the air of indoor swimming pools and reduce contaminant exposure for both pool employees and users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Ahmadpour
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Universite de Montreal, 2900, Boulevard Edouard-Montpetit, Montreal, QC, H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Ianis Delpla
- Ecole superieure d'amenagement du territoire et de developpement regional (ESAD), Université Laval, Pavillon F-A. Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, local 1612, Quebec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada.
| | - Maximilien Debia
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Universite de Montreal, 2900, Boulevard Edouard-Montpetit, Montreal, QC, H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Sabrina Simard
- Ecole superieure d'amenagement du territoire et de developpement regional (ESAD), Université Laval, Pavillon F-A. Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, local 1612, Quebec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - François Proulx
- Ecole superieure d'amenagement du territoire et de developpement regional (ESAD), Université Laval, Pavillon F-A. Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, local 1612, Quebec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Jean-Baptiste Sérodes
- Ecole superieure d'amenagement du territoire et de developpement regional (ESAD), Université Laval, Pavillon F-A. Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, local 1612, Quebec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Isabelle Valois
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Universite de Montreal, 2900, Boulevard Edouard-Montpetit, Montreal, QC, H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Robert Tardif
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Universite de Montreal, 2900, Boulevard Edouard-Montpetit, Montreal, QC, H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Sami Haddad
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Universite de Montreal, 2900, Boulevard Edouard-Montpetit, Montreal, QC, H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Manuel Rodriguez
- Ecole superieure d'amenagement du territoire et de developpement regional (ESAD), Université Laval, Pavillon F-A. Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, local 1612, Quebec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
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Peng F, Lu Y, Dong X, Wang Y, Li H, Yang Z. Advances and research needs for disinfection byproducts control strategies in swimming pools. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 454:131533. [PMID: 37146331 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 04/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The control of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in swimming pools is of great significance due to the non-negligible toxicity and widespread existence of DBPs. However, the management of DBPs remains challenging as the removal and regulation of DBPs is a multifactorial phenomenon in pools. This study summarized recent studies on the removal and regulation of DBPs, and further proposed some research needs. Specifically, the removal of DBPs was divided into the direct removal of the generated DBPs and the indirect removal by inhibiting DBP formation. Inhibiting DBP formation seems to be the more effective and economically practical strategy, which can be achieved mainly by reducing precursors, improving disinfection technology, and optimizing water quality parameters. Alternative disinfection technologies to chlorine disinfection have attracted increasing attention, while their applicability in pools requires further investigation. The regulation of DBPs was discussed in terms of improving the standards on DBPs and their preccursors. The development of online monitoring technology for DBPs is essential for implementing the standard. Overall, this study makes a significant contribution to the control of DBPs in pool water by updating the latest research advances and providing detailed perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangyuan Peng
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Yi Lu
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Xuelian Dong
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Yingyang Wang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Haipu Li
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
| | - Zhaoguang Yang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
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Genisoglu M, Minaz M, Tanacan E, Sofuoglu SC, Kaplan-Bekaroglu SS, Kanan A, Ates N, Sardohan-Koseoglu T, Yigit NÖ, Harman BI. Halogenated By-Products in Chlorinated Indoor Swimming Pools: A Long-Term Monitoring and Empirical Modeling Study. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:11364-11372. [PMID: 37008144 PMCID: PMC10061505 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c00091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Monitoring the disinfection process and swimming pool water quality is essential for the prevention of microbial infections and associated diseases. However, carcinogenic and chronic-toxic disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed with reactions between disinfectants and organic/inorganic matters. DBP precursors in swimming pools originate from anthropogenic sources (body secretions, personal care products, pharmaceuticals, etc.) or chemicals used in pools. Temporal (48 weeks) water quality trends of trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), haloacetonitriles (HANs), and halonitromethanes (HNMs) in two swimming pools (SP-A and SP-B) and precursor-DBP relationships were investigated in this study. Weekly samples were taken from swimming pools, and several physical/chemical water quality parameters, absorbable organic halides (AOX), and DBPs were determined. THMs and HAAs were the most detected DBP groups in pool water. While chloroform was determined to be the dominant THM compound, dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid were the dominant HAA compounds. The average AOX concentrations were measured to be 304 and 746 μg/L as Cl- in SP-A and SP-B, respectively. Although the amount of AOX from unknown chlorinated by-products in SP-A did not vary temporally, a significant increase in unknown DBP concentrations in SP-B was observed over time. AOX concentrations of chlorinated pool waters were determined to be an important parameter that can be used to estimate DBP concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mesut Genisoglu
- Department
of Environmental Engineering, Izmir Institute
of Technology, Izmir 35430, Turkey
| | - Mert Minaz
- Department
of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel
University, Isparta 32260, Turkey
- Department
of Aquaculture, Recep Tayyip Erdoǧan
University, Rize 53100, Turkey
| | - Ertac Tanacan
- Department
of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel
University, Isparta 32260, Turkey
| | - Sait Cemil Sofuoglu
- Department
of Environmental Engineering, Izmir Institute
of Technology, Izmir 35430, Turkey
| | | | - Amer Kanan
- Department
of Environment and Earth Sciences, Al-Quds
University, Jerusalem 51000, Palestine
| | - Nuray Ates
- Department
of Environmental Engineering, Erciyes University, Kayseri 38280, Turkey
| | - Tugba Sardohan-Koseoglu
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Applied Sciences
University of Isparta, Isparta 32200, Turkey
| | - Nevzat Özgü Yigit
- Department
of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel
University, Isparta 32260, Turkey
| | - Bilgehan Ilker Harman
- Department
of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel
University, Isparta 32260, Turkey
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Lopes JMS, Batista AA, Araujo PT, Neto NMB. Supramolecular porphyrin as an improved photocatalyst for chloroform decomposition. RSC Adv 2023; 13:5473-5482. [PMID: 36793300 PMCID: PMC9924222 DOI: 10.1039/d2ra07720e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In this work, the outlying decoration of the free-base meso-(4-tetra) pyridyl porphyrin (H2TPyP) with the RuCl(dppb)(5,5'-Me-bipy) ruthenium complex (here named Supra-H2TPyP) is observed as an improved molecular photocatalyst for dye-mediated chloroform (CHCl3) decomposition via one-photon absorption operating in the visible spectral range (532 nm and 645 nm). Supra-H2TPyP offers a better option for CHCl3 photodecomposition when compared to the same process mediated by pristine H2TPyP, which requires either excited-state- or UV absorption. The chloroform photodecomposition rates for Supra-H2TPyP as well as its excitation mechanisms are explored as a function of distinct laser irradiation conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. M. S. Lopes
- Department of Physics, Federal University of RoraimaBoa VistaRRBrazil,Institute of Natural Sciences, Graduate Program in Physics, Federal University of ParáBelémPABrazil
| | - A. A. Batista
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of São CarlosSão CarlosSPBrazil
| | - P. T. Araujo
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of AlabamaTuscaloosaAlabamaUSA
| | - N. M. Barbosa Neto
- Institute of Natural Sciences, Graduate Program in Physics, Federal University of ParáBelémPABrazil
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Wang J, Zhang M, Hu S, Xian Q, Chen H, Gong T. Occurrence and Cytotoxicity of Aliphatic and Aromatic Halogenated Disinfection Byproducts in Indoor Swimming Pool Water and Their Incoming Tap Water. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:17763-17775. [PMID: 36475631 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c07175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in swimming pool water are of wide concern for public health. In this study, the occurrence of five categories of aliphatic halogenated DBPs, i.e., trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), haloacetonitriles (HANs), halonitromethanes (HNMs), and haloketones (HKs), and six categories of aromatic halogenated DBPs, i.e., halophenols (HPs), halonitrophenols (HNPs), halohydroxy-benzaldehydes (HBALs), halohydroxybenzoic acids (HBAs), halobenzoquinones (HBQs), and haloanilines (HAs), was examined in seven indoor swimming pool water and their incoming tap water. The correlations between the DBP concentrations and water quality parameters were explored. Moreover, the cytotoxicity of the aliphatic and aromatic halogenated DBPs was tested with human hepatoma (HepG2) cells, and the concentration-cytotoxicity contributions of different DBP categories were calculated. The results demonstrate that 24 aliphatic (5 THMs, 8 HAAs, 5 HANs, 4 HNMs, and 2 HKs) and 50 aromatic halogenated DBPs (9 HPs, 8 HNPs, 9 HBALs, 8 HBAs, 11 HBQs, and 5 HAs) were present in the swimming pool water, among which 41 aromatic halogenated DBPs were detected in swimming pool water for the first time. The average concentrations of the five categories of aliphatic halogenated DBPs in the swimming pool water were in the order of HAAs > HANs > HKs > THMs > HNMs, while those in their incoming tap water were in the order of THMs > HAAs > HKs > HANs > HNMs. The average concentrations of the aromatic halogenated DBPs in the swimming pool water were significantly lower than those of the aliphatic halogenated DBPs, following the order of HBQs > HPs > HBAs > HBALs > HAs > HNPs, while those in their incoming tap water were in the order of HBALs > HBQs > HPs > HBAs > HAs > HNPs. The average concentration-cytotoxicity contributions of different DBP categories in the swimming pool water followed the order of HAAs > HANs > HNMs > HKs > HBQs > THMs > HPs > HNPs > HBAs > HBALs > HAs, with HAAs, HANs, and HNMs possessing the main concentration-cytotoxicity contributions (93.2% in total) among all DBP categories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing210023, China
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing210096, China
| | - Meiqi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing210023, China
| | - Shaoyang Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing210023, China
| | - Qiming Xian
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing210023, China
| | - Haoran Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing210023, China
| | - Tingting Gong
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing210096, China
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Usman M, Hüben M, Kato T, Zwiener C, Wintgens T, Linnemann V. Occurrence of brominated disinfection by-products in thermal spas. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 845:157338. [PMID: 35843322 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Thermal spas are gaining more and more popularity among the population because they are used for recreational purposes. Disinfecting these baths without losing the health benefits poses a challenge for swimming pool operators. Previous studies have mainly focused on regulated chlorinated DBPs in freshwater pools with no bromide or seawater pools with very high bromide content. Thermal water pools have a low bromide content and in combination with chlorine can lead to chlorinated, brominated and mixed halogenated DBP species. The occurrence of brominated and mixed halogenated DBPs in these types of pools is largely unexplored, with very few or limited studies published on regulated DBPs and even fewer on emerging DBP classes. In the field of swimming pool water disinfection, apart from extensive studies in the field of drinking water disinfection, only a few studies are known in which >39 halogenated and 16 non-halogenated disinfection by-products, including regulated trihalomethanes (THM) and haloacetic acids (HAA), were investigated in swimming pool water. Calculated bromine incorporation factor (BIF) demonstrated that even small amounts of bromide in swimming pool water can lead to a large shift in DBP species towards brominated and mixed halogenated DBPs. Dihaloacetonitriles (DHANs) accounted for >50% of the calculated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity on average. Comparison of the target analysis with the TOX showed that a major part of the measured TOX (69% on average) could be explained by the regulated classes THMs, HAAs, and the unregulated class of HANs. This study aims to help operators of swimming pools with bromide-containing water to gain a better understanding of DBP formation in future monitoring and to fill the knowledge gap that has existed so far on the occurrence of DBPs in thermal water pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Usman
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, Environmental Analytical Laboratory, RWTH Aachen University, Mies-van-der-Rohe-Str.1, 52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Michael Hüben
- Fraunhofer IME, Auf dem Aberg 1, 57392 Schmallenberg, Germany
| | - Takuro Kato
- Analytical Instruments, Mitsubishi Chemical Europe, Willstätterstr. 45, 40549 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Christian Zwiener
- Environmental Analytical Chemistry, Center for Applied Geoscience, University of Tübingen, Schnarrenbergstr. 94-96, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Thomas Wintgens
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, Environmental Analytical Laboratory, RWTH Aachen University, Mies-van-der-Rohe-Str.1, 52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Volker Linnemann
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, Environmental Analytical Laboratory, RWTH Aachen University, Mies-van-der-Rohe-Str.1, 52056 Aachen, Germany.
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11
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Xue P, Wang H, Yang L, Jiang Z, Li H, Liu Q, Zhang Q, Andersen ME, Crabbe MJC, Hao L, Qu W. NRF2-ARE signaling is responsive to haloacetonitrile-induced oxidative stress in human keratinocytes. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2022; 450:116163. [PMID: 35842135 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2022.116163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Humans are exposed to disinfection by-products through oral, inhalation, and dermal routes, during bathing and swimming, potentially causing skin lesions, asthma, and bladder cancer. Nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (NRF2) is a master regulator of the adaptive antioxidant response via the antioxidant reaction elements (ARE) orchestrating the transcription of a large group of antioxidant and detoxification genes. Here we used an immortalized human keratinocyte model HaCaT cells to investigate NRF2-ARE as a responder and protector in the acute cytotoxicity of seven haloacetonitriles (HANs), including chloroacetonitrile (CAN), bromoacetonitrile (BAN), iodoacetonitrile (IAN), bromochloroacetonitrile (BCAN), dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN), dibromoacetonitrile (DBAN), and trichloroacetonitrile (TCAN) found in drinking water and swimming pools. The rank order of cytotoxicity among the HANs tested was IAN ≈ BAN ˃ DBAN ˃ BCAN ˃ CAN ˃ TCAN ˃ DCAN based on their LC50. The HANs induced intracellular reactive oxygen species accumulation and activated cellular antioxidant responses in concentration- and time-dependent fashions, showing elevated NRF2 protein levels and ARE activity, induction of antioxidant genes, and increased glutathione levels. Additionally, knockdown of NRF2 by lentiviral shRNAs sensitized the HaCaT cells to HANs-induced cytotoxicity, emphasizing a protective role of NRF2 against the cytotoxicity of HANs. These results indicate that HANs cause oxidative stress and activate NRF2-ARE-mediated antioxidant response, which in turn protects the cells from HANs-induced cytotoxicity, highlighting that NRF2-ARE activity could be a sensitive indicator to identify and characterize the oxidative stress induced by HANs and other environmental pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Xue
- Key Laboratory of the Public Health Safety, Ministry of Education, Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Huihui Wang
- Program of Environmental Toxicology, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang 110122, China
| | - Lili Yang
- Key Laboratory of the Public Health Safety, Ministry of Education, Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Zhiqiang Jiang
- Key Laboratory of the Public Health Safety, Ministry of Education, Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Hongliang Li
- Pudong New Area Center for Diseases Control & Prevention, Pudong New Area, Shanghai 200120, China
| | - Qinxin Liu
- Key Laboratory of the Public Health Safety, Ministry of Education, Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Qiang Zhang
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, GA 30322, USA
| | | | - M James C Crabbe
- Wolfson College, Oxford University, Oxford OX2 6UD, UK; Institute of Biomedical and Environmental Science & Technology, University of Bedfordshire, Luton LU1 3JU, UK
| | - Lipeng Hao
- Pudong New Area Center for Diseases Control & Prevention, Pudong New Area, Shanghai 200120, China
| | - Weidong Qu
- Key Laboratory of the Public Health Safety, Ministry of Education, Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.
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12
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Granger CO, Richardson SD. Do DBPs swim in salt water pools? Comparison of 60 DBPs formed by electrochemically generated chlorine vs. conventional chlorine. J Environ Sci (China) 2022; 117:232-241. [PMID: 35725075 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.04.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 04/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Disinfectants are added to swimming pools to kill harmful pathogens. Although liquid chlorine (sodium hypochlorite) is the most commonly used disinfectant, alternative disinfection techniques like electrochemically generated mixed oxidants or electrochemically generated chlorine, often referred to as salt water pools, are growing in popularity. However, these disinfectants react with natural organic matter and anthropogenic contaminants introduced to the pool water by swimmers to form disinfection byproducts (DBPs). DBPs have been linked to several adverse health effects, such as bladder cancer, adverse birth outcomes, and asthma. In this study, we quantified 60 DBPs using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and assessed the calculated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of an indoor community swimming pool before and after switching to a salt water pool with electrochemically generated chlorine. Interestingly, the total DBPs increased by 15% upon implementation of the salt water pool, but the calculated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity decreased by 45% and 15%, respectively. Predominant DBP classes formed were haloacetic acids, with trichloroacetic acid and dichloroacetic acid contributing 57% of the average total DBPs formed. Haloacetonitriles, haloacetic acids, and haloacetaldehydes were the primary drivers of calculated cytotoxicity, and haloacetic acids were the primary driver of calculated genotoxicity. Diiodoacetic acid, a highly toxic iodinated DBP, is reported for the first time in swimming pool water. Bromide impurities in sodium chloride used to electrochemically generate chlorine led to a 73% increase in brominated DBPs, primarily driven by bromochloroacetic acid. This study presents the most extensive DBP study to-date for salt water pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline O Granger
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, 631 Sumter St., Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Susan D Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, 631 Sumter St., Columbia, SC 29208, USA.
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13
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Yin C, Liu B, Hur K, Dong S. Assessing microbial and chemical exposure risks of Giardia in indoor swimming pool water disinfected by chlorine. J Environ Sci (China) 2022; 117:276-284. [PMID: 35725079 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Swimming pools adopt chlorination to ensure microbial safety. Giardia has attracted attention in swimming pool water because of its occurrence, pathogenicity, and chlorine resistance. To control Giardia concentrations in pool water and reduce the microbial risk, higher chlorine doses are required during disinfection. Unfortunately, this process produces carcinogenic disinfection byproducts that increase the risk of chemical exposure. Therefore, quantitatively evaluating the comparative microbial vs. chemical exposure risks that stem from chlorination inactivation of Giardia in swimming pool water is an issue that demands attention. We simulated an indoor swimming pool disinfection scenario that followed common real-world disinfection practices. A quantitative microbial risk assessment coupled with a chemical exposure risk assessment was employed to compare the Giardia microbial exposure risk (MER) and the trihalomethane chemical exposure risk (CER) to humans. The results demonstrated a 22% decrease in MER- and CER-induced health exposure risk, from 8.45E-5 at 8:00 to 6.60E-5 at 19:00. Both the MER and CER decreased gradually, dropping to 3.26E-5 and 3.35E-5 at 19:00, respectively. However, the CER exceeded the MER after 18:30 and became the dominant factor affecting the total exposure risk. Past the 18 hr mark, the contribution of trihalomethane CER far exceeded the risk aversion from microbial inactivation, leading to a net increase in total exposure risk despite the declining MER. Swimmers may consider swimming after 19:00, when the total exposure risk is the lowest. Lowering water temperature and/or pH were identified as the most sensitive factors to minimize the overall health exposure risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenyue Yin
- Guangdong Engineering Technology Research Center of Water Security Regulation and Control for Southern China, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Bingjun Liu
- Guangdong Engineering Technology Research Center of Water Security Regulation and Control for Southern China, Guangzhou 510275, China; Southern Laboratory of Ocean Science and Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Kyu Hur
- 3-10 Shinohara Nishicho, Kohoku Ward, Yokohama, Kanagawa 222-0025, Japan
| | - Shengkun Dong
- Guangdong Engineering Technology Research Center of Water Security Regulation and Control for Southern China, Guangzhou 510275, China; Southern Laboratory of Ocean Science and Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China.
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14
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Disinfection of Therapeutic Spa Waters: Applicability of Sodium Hypochlorite and Hydrogen Peroxide-Based Disinfectants. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14050690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The microbial water quality of therapeutic pools operating without disinfection is recurrently compromised, posing a risk to bathers’ health. The complex composition of such waters and the sensitivity of their therapeutic components hinder the use of traditional chlorine-based disinfectants. The present study aimed to investigate the applicability of a hydrogen peroxide-based disinfectant in therapeutic water in comparison with hypochlorite. Disinfection efficacy, byproduct formation, and the fate of therapeutic components were tested for both disinfectants under laboratory conditions, applying different doses and contact times. Disinfection efficacy was found to be matrix-dependent, especially that of hydrogen peroxide against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (a 10- to 1000-fold difference). Hypochlorite treatment presented a significant chemical risk through the generation of byproducts, mainly brominated and iodinated compounds and combined chlorine. Of the alleged therapeutic components, sulfide ions were eliminated (≥86% loss) by both disinfectants, and hypochlorite reacted with iodide ions as well (≥70% removal). Based on their composition, only 2% of Hungarian therapeutic waters can be treated by chlorination due to high concentrations of ammonia and/or organic compounds. Hydrogen peroxide is applicable to 82% of the waters, as the presence of sulfide ions is the only limiting factor. Due to the matrix effect, close control of residual disinfectant concentration is necessary to ensure microbial safety.
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15
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Dehghani M, Shahsavani S, Mohammadpour A, Jafarian A, Arjmand S, Rasekhi MA, Dehghani S, Zaravar F, Derakhshan Z, Ferrante M, Oliveri Conti G. Determination of chloroform concentration and human exposure assessment in the swimming pool. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 203:111883. [PMID: 34391733 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This cross-sectional study aimed to examine the concentration of the by-products of chlorination in the swimming pool and estimate human health risk for the swimmers of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences. In this study, the chloroform concentrations of 16 samples were measured using Gas Chromatography (GC). All the measured concentrations were less than the allowed amount announced by the World Health Organization (WHO). The results of the cancer risk (CR) and hazard index (HI) showed that the major exposure routes were found to be dermal during swimming and the 95 percentile of estimated CR and HI for the male group were 1.38 × 10-10 and 1.82 × 10-5 respectively, which is higher than the values of 5.48 × 10-10 and 2.25 × 10-5 respectively, for the women group. Sensitivity analyses indicated that the swimming exposure time (ET), and chloroform concentration were the most relevant variables in the health risk model. Therefore, knowledge about the sources of micro-pollutants in swimming pools might help promote the health methods of the pool environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mansooreh Dehghani
- Research Center for Health Sciences, Institute of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Samaneh Shahsavani
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Amin Mohammadpour
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Arian Jafarian
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Sara Arjmand
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Amin Rasekhi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Samaneh Dehghani
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
| | - Foroozandeh Zaravar
- School of Paramedical Sciences, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
| | - Zahra Derakhshan
- Research Center for Health Sciences, Institute of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Margherita Ferrante
- Environmental and Food Hygiene Laboratories (LIAA) of Department of Medical Sciences, Surgical and Advanced Technologies "G.F. Ingrassia", Hygiene and Public Health, University of Catania, Italy
| | - Gea Oliveri Conti
- Environmental and Food Hygiene Laboratories (LIAA) of Department of Medical Sciences, Surgical and Advanced Technologies "G.F. Ingrassia", Hygiene and Public Health, University of Catania, Italy
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16
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Chen G, Jiang N, Villalobos Solis MI, Kara Murdoch F, Murdoch RW, Xie Y, Swift CM, Hettich RL, Löffler FE. Anaerobic Microbial Metabolism of Dichloroacetate. mBio 2021; 12:e00537-21. [PMID: 33906923 PMCID: PMC8092247 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00537-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Dichloroacetate (DCA) commonly occurs in the environment due to natural production and anthropogenic releases, but its fate under anoxic conditions is uncertain. Mixed culture RM comprising "Candidatus Dichloromethanomonas elyunquensis" strain RM utilizes DCA as an energy source, and the transient formation of formate, H2, and carbon monoxide (CO) was observed during growth. Only about half of the DCA was recovered as acetate, suggesting a fermentative catabolic route rather than a reductive dechlorination pathway. Sequencing of 16S rRNA gene amplicons and 16S rRNA gene-targeted quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) implicated "Candidatus Dichloromethanomonas elyunquensis" strain RM in DCA degradation. An (S)-2-haloacid dehalogenase (HAD) encoded on the genome of strain RM was heterologously expressed, and the purified HAD demonstrated the cofactor-independent stoichiometric conversion of DCA to glyoxylate at a rate of 90 ± 4.6 nkat mg-1 protein. Differential protein expression analysis identified enzymes catalyzing the conversion of DCA to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) via glyoxylate as well as enzymes of the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway. Glyoxylate carboligase, which catalyzes the condensation of two molecules of glyoxylate to form tartronate semialdehyde, was highly abundant in DCA-grown cells. The physiological, biochemical, and proteogenomic data demonstrate the involvement of an HAD and the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway in the anaerobic fermentation of DCA, which has implications for DCA turnover in natural and engineered environments, as well as the metabolism of the cancer drug DCA by gut microbiota.IMPORTANCE Dichloroacetate (DCA) is ubiquitous in the environment due to natural formation via biological and abiotic chlorination processes and the turnover of chlorinated organic materials (e.g., humic substances). Additional sources include DCA usage as a chemical feedstock and cancer drug and its unintentional formation during drinking water disinfection by chlorination. Despite the ubiquitous presence of DCA, its fate under anoxic conditions has remained obscure. We discovered an anaerobic bacterium capable of metabolizing DCA, identified the enzyme responsible for DCA dehalogenation, and elucidated a novel DCA fermentation pathway. The findings have implications for the turnover of DCA and the carbon and electron flow in electron acceptor-depleted environments and the human gastrointestinal tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gao Chen
- Center for Environmental Biotechnology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Nannan Jiang
- Center for Environmental Biotechnology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
- Bredesen Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Graduate Education, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
- University of Tennessee and Oak Ridge National Laboratory (UT-ORNL) Joint Institute for Biological Sciences (JIBS), Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA
| | | | - Fadime Kara Murdoch
- Center for Environmental Biotechnology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
- University of Tennessee and Oak Ridge National Laboratory (UT-ORNL) Joint Institute for Biological Sciences (JIBS), Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA
| | - Robert Waller Murdoch
- Center for Environmental Biotechnology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Yongchao Xie
- Center for Environmental Biotechnology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Cynthia M Swift
- Center for Environmental Biotechnology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Robert L Hettich
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA
| | - Frank E Löffler
- Center for Environmental Biotechnology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Biosystems Engineering & Soil Science, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
- Bredesen Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Graduate Education, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
- Genome Science and Technology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
- University of Tennessee and Oak Ridge National Laboratory (UT-ORNL) Joint Institute for Biological Sciences (JIBS), Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA
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17
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Peng F, Peng J, Li H, Li Y, Wang B, Yang Z. Health risks and predictive modeling of disinfection byproducts in swimming pools. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 139:105726. [PMID: 32298877 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection is an indispensable water treatment process used to inactivate pathogens and prevent outbreaks of infectious diseases in swimming pools. However, toxic disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are inevitably formed during the process. To improve the supervision and regulation of DBPs in swimming pools, the reliability of using trihalomethanes (THMs) as the sole indicator of organic DBPs and the possibility of using easily detectable water quality parameters as predictors of DBPs were discussed based on the occurrence of 29 typical DBPs in swimming pools. Among the target DBP categories, THMs and haloacetic acids (HAAs) were the prominent species, and the concentrations of HAAs were the highest. The risk assessment results indicated that the total risk values in most pools were higher than the acceptable value (10-6). Compared with nitrosamines and THMs, HAAs were the main contributors to the cancer risks posed by dermal absorption and ingestion. THMs (r = 0.619; p < 0.01) and HAAs (r = 0.989; p < 0.01) were both significantly correlated with total DBPs (the sum of 29 DBPs). A stepwise multivariate regression model was developed by analyzing the correlations between total DBPs and water quality parameters, and the relationship coefficient R2 was 0.756. This study provides important information and perspectives for the improvement and implementation of standards for swimming pool water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangyuan Peng
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Jingjin Peng
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Haipu Li
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
| | - Yue Li
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Beizi Wang
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, Xiangya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha 410078, PR China
| | - Zhaoguang Yang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
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18
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Wang J, Gong T, Xian Q. Formation of haloacetic acids from different organic precursors in swimming pool water during chlorination. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 247:125793. [PMID: 31931310 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Haloacetic acids (HAAs) were reported to be the most abundant category of DBPs in swimming pool water. In this study, the formation of HAAs from different organic precursors in swimming pool water, including UV filters, human body fluids, and natural organic matter (NOM), during chlorination was examined, and the effects of chlorine dose and halide concentrations on the formation of HAAs were evaluated. The results show that the total HAA yields from benzophenone-3 (BP-3) and Suwannee River humic acid (SRHA) were the highest among the nine organic precursors, and the yields of dichloroacetic acid and bromochloroacetic acid were higher than that of the other HAA species. In all the chlorinated samples of different organic precursors, longer chlorination time enhanced HAA formation. Both chlorine dose and bromide concentration significantly affected the formation of HAAs from BP-3 and SRHA during chlorination. With the increasing chlorine dose, the total HAA yields from SRHA and BP-3 significantly increased. Besides, the proportion of trihaloacetic acids (THAAs) rose while that of dihaloacetic acids (DHAAs) and monohaloacetic acids (MHAAs) declined with the increasing chlorine dose. With the increasing bromide concentration, HAA formation from SRHA increased while that of BP-3 decreased. The bromine incorporation factor (BIF) of the formed MHAAs, DHAAs and THAAs from SRHA and BP-3 both increased with the increasing bromide concentration in the following order: BIFDHAAs > BIFTHAAs > BIFMHAAs, indicating that bromine was easier to be incorporated into DHAAs rather than MHAAs or THAAs. Moreover, bromide promoted the formation of Br-HAAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Tingting Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China.
| | - Qiming Xian
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
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19
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Analysis of Free and Combined Chlorine Concentrations in Swimming Pool Water and an Attempt to Determine a Reliable Water Sampling Point. WATER 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/w12020311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The analysis of free chlorine concentrations in swimming pool water makes it possible to assess the antiseptic effect of the disinfectant. The concentration of combined chlorine determines the comfort of swimming and indicates if there is a threat from DBP (disinfection by-products). The distribution of free and combined chlorine concentration was analyzed in four basins differing in seasonality of use and in the applied water flow systems. After considering the distribution of free and combined chlorine content in characteristic points of pools, an attempt was made to determine the most reliable point for assessing the quality of water and its suitability for swimming. Such searches should aim to identify the places with the worst water quality. The most uniform distribution of the concentrations of both free and combined chlorine was observed at the middle point of swimming pools, while at points near the corners and walls of swimming pools a varied distribution was observed. Such a control strategy, based on the least favorable test results at a point considered as characteristic, would make it possible to verify the parameters of the swimming pool water treatment system and thus minimize the risk to swimmers’ health.
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20
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Carter RAA, Allard S, Croué JP, Joll CA. 500 days of swimmers: the chemical water quality of swimming pool waters from the beginning. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:29110-29126. [PMID: 31392609 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-05861-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Many studies of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in pools have focused on haloacetic acids, trihalomethanes, and chloramines, with less studies investigating the occurrence of other DBPs, such as haloketones, haloacetaldehydes, haloacetonitriles, halonitromethanes, and haloacetamides. Furthermore, while many studies have achieved a broadscreen analysis across several pools, fewer studies have followed the water quality of pools over time, with information regarding the production and fate of DBPs in pools over extended periods (e.g. > 1 year) being limited. This study reports the occurrence of 39 DBPs and several general water quality parameters in two newly built and filled swimming pools over 15 months, where investigations began prior to opening. DBP concentrations measured in this study were generally similar to or higher than those previously reported in chlorinated pools, with concentrations of chloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid, and chloral hydrate (trichloroacetaldehyde) in some samples being higher than previously reported maximum concentrations. Considering both pools, lower concentrations of DBPs were measured in the pool where a steady state non-purgeable organic carbon concentration was achieved, highlighting the importance of the establishment of a steady state balance of mineralisation versus addition of organic carbon to reduce precursors for DBP formation in pools. Pools were found to exhibit significantly higher estimated cytotoxicity than their filling water, which reflects the significantly higher concentrations of DBPs measured in the pools in comparison to the filling water. Chloral hydrate accounted for up to 99% the total estimated cytotoxicity and was found to be correlated to the number of pool entries, suggesting that swimmers may be a potential source of chloral hydrate precursors in pools. The presence and subsequent peak of non-purgeable organic carbon and DBPs prior to, and soon after, opening suggest that the building process and/or new pool infrastructure may have had a significant impact on the chemical water quality, particularly on DBP formation. This study includes the first quantification of bromochloroacetaldehyde, bromodichloroacetaldehyde, bromochloronitromethane, and dichloronitromethane in chlorinated swimming pools, and provides important new knowledge on the long-term trends of DBPs in pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhys A A Carter
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre (CWQRC), Chemistry, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia
| | - Sébastien Allard
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre (CWQRC), Chemistry, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia
| | - Jean-Philippe Croué
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre (CWQRC), Chemistry, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia
| | - Cynthia A Joll
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre (CWQRC), Chemistry, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia.
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21
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Liu Y, Chen CY, Wang GS. Bench-scale assessment of the formation and control of disinfection byproducts from human endogenous organic precursors in swimming pools. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 224:607-615. [PMID: 30844592 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.02.141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2018] [Revised: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In this study, a bench-scale system was utilized to assess the disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation from human endogenous organic matter. Perspiration and urine, constituting the main organic substances in swimming pools, were selected to represent the major human endogenous organics. Results revealed that the continuous input of body fluids into the reactor led to rapid accumulation of endogenous organic matter, which contributed to high concentrations of DBPs in the swimming pool. The increase in nonpurgeable organic carbon (NPDOC) concentration from the perspiration precursor was lower than that from urine during the operation. Moreover, the accumulation of swimmers' body fluids leads to increased DBP precursors, as well as increased chlorine demand and DBP formation in swimming pool water. The concentration of the trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) consistently increased during the reaction. More THMs were generated in urine solution, whereas more HAAs were found in perspiration solution. To improve the water quality in swimming pools, ozonation, UV/Chlorine, and UV/H2O2 treatments were evaluated for their efficacy in reducing the DBP precursors. Results revealed that all of the three treatment processes can degrade the DBP precursors in perspiration and urine, eventually decreasing the DBP concentrations. However, only the UV/H2O2 treatment can decrease the formation of DBPs in perspiration and urine. In addition, the results revealed that UV/Chlorine and UV/H2O2 treatments should be operated for a sufficient contact time to prevent the increased production of DBP precursors in water at the early stage of the treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Liu
- Institute of Environmental Health, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Yang Chen
- Institute of Environmental Health, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Gen-Shuh Wang
- Institute of Environmental Health, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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22
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Carter RAA, Allard S, Croué JP, Joll CA. Occurrence of disinfection by-products in swimming pools and the estimated resulting cytotoxicity. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 664:851-864. [PMID: 30769309 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Swimming pools are disinfected to protect against the risk of microbial disease, however, the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) is an unwanted consequence. While many studies have reported the occurrence of commonly investigated DBPs (trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids) in pools, few studies have investigated emerging DBP classes, such as the haloketones or haloacetaldehydes, and the nitrogenous haloacetamides, halonitromethanes, haloacetonitriles and N-nitrosamines. This study investigated the occurrence of sixty four DBPs from the eight aforementioned DBP classes in pools employing different treatment methods. Approximately 70% of the DBPs were detected in at least one of the pools, with most concentrations being equal to or greater than those previously reported. Chloral hydrate (trichloroacetaldehyde) was one of many DBPs detected in all chlorinated waters (202 to 1313 μg/L), and, on a molar basis, was the predominant DBP. Several other DBPs, namely chloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid, dichloroacetamide, dibromoacetamide, dibromochloroacetamide and trichloroacetamide, and many of the N-nitrosamines, were measured at concentrations greater than previously reported: up to 200 to 479 μg/L for the haloacetic acids, 56 to 736 μg/L for the haloacetamides and up to 1093 ng/L for some N-nitrosamines. The higher disinfectant residuals required to be employed in Australian pools, and poor pool management (e.g. of chlorine residual and pH) are likely factors contributing to these relatively high DBP concentrations. Where possible, the cytotoxicity values of the investigated DBPs were evaluated, with chloral hydrate representing over 90% of the total chronic cytotoxicity despite only representing up to 64% of the total molar DBP concentration. This study is the first report of bromodichloroacetaldehyde and bromochloroacetaldehyde in pools and is the first investigation of N-nitrosamines in a brominated pool. Furthermore, this work aids in understanding DBPs in both chlorine and bromine treated pools, the latter being the subject of only limited previous studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhys A A Carter
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre (CWQRC), Chemistry, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Sébastien Allard
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre (CWQRC), Chemistry, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Jean-Philippe Croué
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre (CWQRC), Chemistry, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Cynthia A Joll
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre (CWQRC), Chemistry, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia.
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23
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Effecting Partial Elimination of Isocyanuric Acid from Swimming Pool Water Systems. WATER 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/w11040712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
It is essential to disinfect the water in swimming pools in order to deactivate pathogenic microorganisms. Chlorination of swimming pool water provides rapid and long-lasting disinfection, but leads to the formation of potentially toxic compounds, including isocyanuric acid, that are used to stabilize chlorine in pool water. Hygiene and health guidelines require an isocyanuric acid concentration in swimming pools of 25 to 75 ppm and that there be no level in excess of 100 ppm. This paper provides a new method to partially remove isocyanuric acid from the water of swimming pool systems with the use of melamine-based reagents. A melamine-photometry process stabilizes the isocyanuric acid. The melamine-based reagent that is added to the raw water reacts with the isocyanuric acid and forms a precipitated salt. The reaction also creates turbidity that is proportional to the isocyanuric acid concentration in the water. It was noted in this study that the optimum functioning range of melamine doses in the raw water was 0.04 to 0.06 g/L and that the reduction of isocyanuric acid in raw water increased as the dose of melamine was increased. Thus, it is necessary to obtain an estimate of the dose of melamine that is necessary to reduce the isocyanuric acid in the water without needing to add fresh water from the network to dilute it. Finally, it can be stated that eliminating isocyanuric acid that has accumulated in a pool’s water by treatment with melamine provides an efficient process, as it eliminates the amount of isocyanuric acid that is necessary to conform to the human health criteria of the European Union Directive 2006/7/EC. Treatment with melamine also reduces water network consumption and sewer discharge by successive purges that eventually will become unnecessary. Therefore, this proposed method is environmentally and economically beneficial.
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24
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Dudziak M, Wyczarska-Kokot J, Łaskawiec E, Stolarczyk A. Application of Ultrafiltration in a Swimming Pool Water Treatment System. MEMBRANES 2019; 9:membranes9030044. [PMID: 30934567 PMCID: PMC6468349 DOI: 10.3390/membranes9030044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Swimming pool water was treated using an ultrafiltration process using ceramic and polymer membranes for comparison. It was determined that the efficiency of the process depended on the type of membrane used. The polymer membrane decreased the absorbance and concentration of combined chlorine in the pool water to a greater extent than the ceramic membrane. In the case of a ceramic membrane, the concentration of combined chlorine in the permeate exceeded the limit values. During the ultrafiltration process, the permeate flux decreased, causing the blockage of membrane pores. The extent of this phenomenon was similar for both tested membranes. In the case of the ceramic membrane, flushing it with water could significantly restore its initial performance. For both tested membranes, a high regeneration efficiency was observed during chemical treatment with an alkaline solution. SEM photos of the polymer membrane showed low resistance of this polymer to the chlorine present in the swimming pool water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariusz Dudziak
- Institute of Water and Wastewater Engineering, Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Joanna Wyczarska-Kokot
- Institute of Water and Wastewater Engineering, Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Edyta Łaskawiec
- Institute of Water and Wastewater Engineering, Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka Stolarczyk
- Department of Physical Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, Faculty of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, M. Strzody 9, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
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25
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Ilyas H, Masih I, van der Hoek JP. An exploration of disinfection by-products formation and governing factors in chlorinated swimming pool water. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2018; 16:861-892. [PMID: 30540262 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2018.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
This paper investigates disinfection by-products (DBPs) formation and their relationship with governing factors in chlorinated swimming pools. The study compares concentrations of DBPs with WHO guidelines for drinking water quality recommended to screen swimming pool water quality. The statistical analysis is based on a global database of 188 swimming pools accumulated from 42 peer-reviewed journal publications from 16 countries. The mean and standard deviation of dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid were estimated as 282 ± 437 and 326 ± 517 μg L-1, respectively, which most often surpassed the WHO guidelines. Similarly, more than half of the examined pools had higher values of chloral hydrate (102 ± 128 μg L-1). The concentration of total chloramines (650 ± 490 μg L-1) was well above the WHO guidelines in all reported cases. Nevertheless, the reported values remained below the guidelines for most of the studied pools in the case of total trihalomethanes (134 ± 160 μg L-1), dichloroacetonitrile (12 ± 12 μg L-1) and dibromoacetonitrile (8 ± 11 μg L-1). Total organic carbon, free residual chlorine, temperature, pH, total nitrogen and bromide ions play a pivotal role in DBPs formation processes. Therefore, proper management of these governing factors could significantly reduce DBPs formation, thereby, contributing towards a healthy swimming pool environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huma Ilyas
- Water Treatment and Management Consultancy B.V., 2289 ED Rijswijk, The Netherlands E-mail:
| | - Ilyas Masih
- Water Treatment and Management Consultancy B.V., 2289 ED Rijswijk, The Netherlands E-mail: ; IHE Delft, Institute for Water Education, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Peter van der Hoek
- Department of Water Management, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands and Strategic Centre, Waternet, 1096 AC Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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26
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Yang L, Chen X, She Q, Cao G, Liu Y, Chang VWC, Tang CY. Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 121:1039-1057. [PMID: 30392941 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Revised: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The microbial safety of swimming pool waters (SPWs) becomes increasingly important with the popularity of swimming activities. Disinfection aiming at killing microbes in SPWs produces disinfection by-products (DBPs), which has attracted considerable public attentions due to their high frequency of occurrence, considerable concentrations and potent toxicity. We reviewed the latest research progress within the last four decades on the regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of DBPs in the context of SPWs. This paper specifically discussed DBP regulations in different regions, formation mechanisms related with disinfectants, precursors and other various conditions, human exposure assessment reflected by biomarkers or epidemiological evidence, and the control and treatment of DBPs. Compared to drinking water with natural organic matter as the main organic precursor of DBPs, the additional human inputs (i.e., body fluids and personal care products) to SPWs make the water matrix more complicated and lead to the formation of more types and greater concentrations of DBPs. Dermal absorption and inhalation are two main exposure pathways for trihalomethanes while ingestion for haloacetic acids, reflected by DBP occurrence in human matrices including exhaled air, urine, blood, and plasma. Studies show that membrane filtration, advanced oxidation processes, biodegradation, thermal degradation, chemical reduction, and some hybrid processes are the potential DBP treatment technologies. The removal efficiency, possible mechanisms and future challenges of these DBP treatment methods are summarized in this review, which may facilitate their full-scale applications and provide potential directions for further research extension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyan Yang
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore; Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Xueming Chen
- Process and Systems Engineering Center (PROSYS), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Qianhong She
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Guomin Cao
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Yongdi Liu
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Victor W-C Chang
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - Chuyang Y Tang
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
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27
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Valeriani F, Margarucci LM, Romano Spica V. Recreational Use of Spa Thermal Waters: Criticisms and Perspectives for Innovative Treatments. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:E2675. [PMID: 30487383 PMCID: PMC6313452 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15122675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Natural spa springs are diffused all over the world and their use in pools is known since ancient times. This review underlines the cultural and social spa context focusing on hygiene issues, public health guidelines and emerging concerns regarding water management in wellness or recreational settings. The question of the "untouchability" of therapeutic natural waters and their incompatibility with traditional disinfection processes is addressed considering the demand for effective treatments that would respect the natural properties. Available strategies and innovative treatments are reviewed, highlighting potentials and limits for a sustainable management. Alternative approaches comprise nanotechnologies, photocatalysis systems, advanced filtration. State of the art and promising perspectives are reported considering the chemical-physical component and the biological natural complexity of the spa water microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Valeriani
- Public Health Unit, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome 00135, Italy.
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28
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Mao Y, Zhang L, Dong H. Formation of trihalomethanes in swimming pool waters using sodium dichloroisocyanurate as an alternative disinfectant. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2018; 78:1633-1641. [PMID: 30500787 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2018.439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection is essential to preventing infection caused by microbial pathogens in swimming pool water. The most commonly used disinfection methods are chlorine disinfectant, including sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and sodium dichloroisocyanurate (SDIC, C3O3N3Cl2Na) with characteristics of available chlorine formation and stability. In this study, we estimate the formation of trihalomethanes (THM4) in indoor swimming pools filled with seawater that adopt these disinfection methods, and we investigated the factors influencing the formation of THM4. Formation of THM4 by free chlorine (FC) and SDIC respectively is 327.8 μg L-1 and 307.6 μg L-1; Br-THMs is 226.7 μg L-1 for FC, 198 μg L-1 for SDIC. SDIC has less THM4 formation than FC in the same molar Br- dosage (10 μM) and total chlorine dosage (20 μM), and bromoform is the main Br-THMs species. The occurrence of THM4 is inhibited at high dosages of natural organic matter and Br-. The total Br-THMs increase from 75 μg L-1 to 189.7 μg L-1 and from 64.6 μg L-1 to 190 μg L-1 by FC and SDIC at pH 5.0-9.0, both of which are highly dependent on pH. In real water, similar results were found in Br--containing water (1 mg-Br- L-1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanxiang Mao
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing 100083, China E-mail: ; Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco- Environmental Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 18 Shuang-qing Road, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Liping Zhang
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing 100083, China E-mail:
| | - Huiyu Dong
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco- Environmental Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 18 Shuang-qing Road, Beijing 100085, China
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29
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Abstract
The present study investigated the occurrence of selected micropollutants, including emerging contaminants from a group of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in water samples from swimming pool systems. The study area was selected based on the lack of available information regarding suspected contamination of swimming pool water by PPCPs. The variety and concentration of chemical compounds in these aquatic systems can be quite diversified, presenting a challenge in terms of both purification and quality control. Determination of PPCPs requires very sensitive analytical methods that make it possible to confirm the presence of tested compounds in a complex organic extract. In this field, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) can be used. With this system, selected ion monitoring can be performed, which reduces the detection limits of the investigated analyte. This paper aims to present an analytical method and strategy that can be adapted to obtain information on the composition of water in swimming pool systems. The sample preparation methodology, including Solid Phase Extraction, has been developed for the trace determination of two pharmaceuticals—caffeine, carbamazepine—and one sunscreen constituent—benzophenone-3—in swimming pool water samples.
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30
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Franco ES, Pádua VL, Giani A, Rodríguez M, Silva DF, Ferreira AFA, Júnior ICS, Pereira MC, Rodrigues JL. Validation of a robust LLE-GC-MS method for determination of trihalomethanes in environmental samples. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2018; 190:473. [PMID: 30022338 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-018-6835-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
An analytical liquid-liquid extraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (LLE-GC-MS) method was developed and validated for the determination of trihalomethanes (THMs) in environmental samples. The compounds studied were trichloromethane (TCM), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), dibromochloromethane (DBCM), and tribromomethane (TBM). The calibration curves for the THMs showed high linearity in the range of 1-1000 μg L-1. Studies of intra-day and inter-day precision, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), accuracy, and recovery were performed with low (10 μg L-1), medium (40 μg L-1), and high (200 μg L-1) concentrations of THMs. The intra-day and inter-day precision RSD varied in the ranges of 0.17-6.95% and 0.26-15.70%, respectively. No statistical differences were observed between the analysis of the concentration of certified reference materials (CRM 4M8140-U) and the values reported by CRM, indicating the good accuracy of the proposed method. The recovery was 88.75-119.21%. The LOD and LOQ were smaller than 0.13 and 0.40 μg L-1. Compared with reported LLE-GC-MS methods, the validated method had similar LOD and enhanced LOQ, precision, accuracy, and recovery. Also, the method is robust, selective to THMs, and the total time for the extraction and GC separation of THMs is about 18 min. The method was useful for detecting and quantifying low concentrations of TCM (40-80 μg L-1) formed by water chlorination in the presence of Microcystis aeruginosa cyanobacteria, thus demonstrating its applicability for monitoring THMs in real samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elton S Franco
- Instituto de Ciência, Engenharia e Tecnologia (ICET), Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri (UFVJM), Teófilo Otoni, Minas Gerais, 39803-371, Brazil
| | - Válter L Pádua
- Departamento de Engenharia Sanitária e Ambiental (DESA), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Alessandra Giani
- Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Mariandry Rodríguez
- Instituto de Ciência, Engenharia e Tecnologia (ICET), Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri (UFVJM), Teófilo Otoni, Minas Gerais, 39803-371, Brazil
| | - Diego F Silva
- Instituto de Ciência, Engenharia e Tecnologia (ICET), Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri (UFVJM), Teófilo Otoni, Minas Gerais, 39803-371, Brazil
| | - Ana F A Ferreira
- Instituto de Ciência, Engenharia e Tecnologia (ICET), Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri (UFVJM), Teófilo Otoni, Minas Gerais, 39803-371, Brazil
| | - Israel C S Júnior
- Instituto de Ciência, Engenharia e Tecnologia (ICET), Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri (UFVJM), Teófilo Otoni, Minas Gerais, 39803-371, Brazil
| | - Márcio C Pereira
- Instituto de Ciência, Engenharia e Tecnologia (ICET), Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri (UFVJM), Teófilo Otoni, Minas Gerais, 39803-371, Brazil
| | - Jairo L Rodrigues
- Instituto de Ciência, Engenharia e Tecnologia (ICET), Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri (UFVJM), Teófilo Otoni, Minas Gerais, 39803-371, Brazil.
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31
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Disinfection Methods for Swimming Pool Water: Byproduct Formation and Control. WATER 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/w10060797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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32
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Carter RAA, Joll CA. Occurrence and formation of disinfection by-products in the swimming pool environment: A critical review. J Environ Sci (China) 2017; 58:19-50. [PMID: 28774608 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2017.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Revised: 06/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection of water for human use is essential to protect against microbial disease; however, disinfection also leads to formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs), some of which are of health concern. From a chemical perspective, swimming pools are a complex matrix, with continual addition of a wide range of natural and anthropogenic chemicals via filling waters, disinfectant addition, pharmaceuticals and personal care products and human body excretions. Natural organic matter, trace amounts of DBPs and chlorine or chloramines may be introduced by the filling water, which is commonly disinfected distributed drinking water. Chlorine and/or bromine is continually introduced via the addition of chemical disinfectants to the pool. Human body excretions (sweat, urine and saliva) and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (sunscreens, cosmetics, hair products and lotions) are introduced by swimmers. High addition of disinfectant leads to a high formation of DBPs from reaction of some of the chemicals with the disinfectant. Swimming pool air is also of concern as volatile DBPs partition into the air above the pool. The presence of bromine leads to the formation of a wide range of bromo- and bromo/chloro-DBPs, and Br-DBPs are more toxic than their chlorinated analogues. This is particularly important for seawater-filled pools or pools using a bromine-based disinfectant. This review summarises chemical contaminants and DBPs in swimming pool waters, as well as in the air above pools. Factors that have been found to affect DBP formation in pools are discussed. The impact of the swimming pool environment on human health is reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhys A A Carter
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre, Department of Chemistry, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia 6102, Australia
| | - Cynthia A Joll
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre, Department of Chemistry, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia 6102, Australia.
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Boudenne JL, Parinet J, Demelas C, Manasfi T, Coulomb B. Monitoring and factors affecting levels of airborne and water bromoform in chlorinated seawater swimming pools. J Environ Sci (China) 2017; 58:262-270. [PMID: 28774617 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2017.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2017] [Revised: 05/13/2017] [Accepted: 05/14/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Water and air quality of eight seawater swimming pools using chlorine disinfection was measured during four sampling campaigns, spread on one full-year, and in four thalassotherapy centers located in Southeast of France. Concentrations of trihalomethanes (THMs) in air and in water as well as concentrations of parameters, including nonpurgeable organic carbon (NPOC), free residual chlorine (Clf), pH, Kjeldhal Nitrogen (KN), salinity, conductivity, bromide ions and, water and air temperature, were measured. Water and air samples were collected in triplicates morning - at the opening of the pools -, noon and night - at the closing of the pools -, in summer and winter. Data analysis was performed by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and rotated component matrix, from both data quality and other parameters such as TOC, aromaticity (UV254), pH, hygrometry, and free residual chlorine (Clf). This statistical analysis demonstrates a high correlation between TOC, Clf and UV254 and THM levels found in air and water, particularly for the major ones (CHBr3 in water: 300.0μg/L mean, 1029.0μg/L maximum; CHBr3 in air: 266.1μg/m3 mean, 1600.0μg/m3 maximum, and CHClBr2 in water: 18.9μg/L mean, 81.0μg/L maximum; CHClBr2 in air: 13.6μg/m3 mean, 150.0μg/m3 maximum). These high levels of bromoform (CHBr3) are particularly worrisome in such health institutions, even these levels do not exceed the Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) of 5mg/m3 as an 8hour time-weighted average currently fixed by various administrations, such as Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Tarek Manasfi
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, LCE, 13331 Marseille, France
| | - Bruno Coulomb
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, LCE, 13331 Marseille, France
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Tardif R, Rodriguez M, Catto C, Charest-Tardif G, Simard S. Concentrations of disinfection by-products in swimming pool following modifications of the water treatment process: An exploratory study. J Environ Sci (China) 2017; 58:163-172. [PMID: 28774605 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2017.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Revised: 05/11/2017] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The formation and concentration of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in pool water and the ambient air vary according to the type of water treatment process used. This exploratory study was aimed at investigating the short-term impact of modifications of the water treatment process on traditional DBP levels (e.g., trihalomethanes (THMs), chloramines) and emerging DBPs (e.g., Halonitromethanes, Haloketones, NDMA) in swimming pool water and/or air. A sampling program was carried to understand the impact of the following changes made successively to the standard water treatment process: activation of ultraviolet (UV) photoreactor, halt of air stripping with continuation of air extraction from the buffer tank, halt of air stripping and suppression of air extraction from the buffer tank, suppression of the polyaluminium silicate sulfate (PASS) coagulant. UV caused a high increase of Halonitromethanes (8.4 fold), Haloketones (2.1 fold), and THMs in the water (1.7 fold) and, of THMs in the air (1.6 fold) and contributed to reducing the level of chloramines in the air (1.6 fold) and NDMA in the water (2.1 fold). The results highlight the positive impact of air stripping in reducing volatile contaminants. The PASS did not change the presence of DBPs, except for the THMs, which decrease slightly with the use of this coagulant. This study shows that modifications affecting the water treatment process can rapidly produce important and variable impacts on DBP levels in water and air and suggests that implementation of any water treatment process to reduce DBP levels should take into account the specific context of each swimming pool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Tardif
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Université de Montréal, Canada.
| | - Manuel Rodriguez
- NSERC Industrial Research Chair on Drinking Water, Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
| | - Cyril Catto
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Université de Montréal, Canada
| | - Ginette Charest-Tardif
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Université de Montréal, Canada
| | - Sabrina Simard
- NSERC Industrial Research Chair on Drinking Water, Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
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Beane Freeman LE, Cantor KP, Baris D, Nuckols JR, Johnson A, Colt JS, Schwenn M, Ward MH, Lubin JH, Waddell R, Hosain GM, Paulu C, McCoy R, Moore LE, Huang AT, Rothman N, Karagas MR, Silverman DT. Bladder Cancer and Water Disinfection By-product Exposures through Multiple Routes: A Population-Based Case-Control Study (New England, USA). ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2017; 125:067010. [PMID: 28636529 PMCID: PMC5743617 DOI: 10.1289/ehp89] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Revised: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/28/2016] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ingestion of disinfection byproducts has been associated with bladder cancer in multiple studies. Although associations with other routes of exposure have been suggested, epidemiologic evidence is limited. OBJECTIVES We evaluated the relationship between bladder cancer and total, chlorinated, and brominated trihalomethanes (THMs) through various exposure routes. METHODS In a population-based case–control study in New England (n=(1,213) cases; n=(1,418) controls), we estimated lifetime exposure to THMs from ingestion, showering/bathing, and hours of swimming pool use. We calculated odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) using unconditional logistic regression adjusted for confounders. RESULTS Adjusted ORs for bladder cancer comparing participants with exposure above the 95th percentile with those in the lowest quartile of exposure (based on the distribution in controls) were statistically significant for average daily intake mg/d of total THMs [OR=1.53 (95% CI: 1.01, 2.32), p-trend=0.16] and brominated THMs [OR=1.98 (95% CI: 1.19, 3.29), p-trend=0.03]. For cumulative intake mg, the OR at the 95th percentile of total THMs was 1.45 (95% CI: 0.95, 2.2), p-trend=0.13; the ORs at the 95th percentile for chlorinated and brominated THMs were 1.77 (95% CI: 1.05, 2,.99), p-trend=0.07 and 1.78 (95% CI: 1.05, 3.00), p-trend=0.02, respectively. The OR in the highest category of showering/bathing for brominated THMs was 1.43 (95% CI: 0.80, 2.42), p-trend=0.10. We found no evidence of an association for bladder cancer and hours of swimming pool use. CONCLUSIONS We observed a modest association between ingestion of water with higher THMs (>95th percentile vs.<25th percentile) and bladder cancer. Brominated THMs have been a particular concern based on toxicologic evidence, and our suggestive findings for multiple metrics require further study in a population with higher levels of these exposures. Data from this population do not support an association between swimming pool use and bladder cancer. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP89.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E Beane Freeman
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute (NCI), Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Dalsu Baris
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute (NCI), Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - John R Nuckols
- Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
- JRN Environmental Health Sciences, North Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Joanne S Colt
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute (NCI), Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Mary H Ward
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute (NCI), Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Jay H Lubin
- Biostatistics Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, NCI, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Richard Waddell
- Department of Epidemiology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA
| | | | - Chris Paulu
- Graduate Program in Public Health, Muskie School of Public Service, University of Southern Maine, Portland, Maine, USA
| | - Richard McCoy
- Vermont Department of Health, Burlington, Vermont, USA
| | - Lee E Moore
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute (NCI), Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - An-Tsun Huang
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute (NCI), Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Nat Rothman
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute (NCI), Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Margaret R Karagas
- Department of Epidemiology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Debra T Silverman
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute (NCI), Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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Occurrence, origin, and toxicity of disinfection byproducts in chlorinated swimming pools: An overview. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2017; 220:591-603. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Manasfi T, Temime-Roussel B, Coulomb B, Vassalo L, Boudenne JL. Occurrence of brominated disinfection byproducts in the air and water of chlorinated seawater swimming pools. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2017; 220:583-590. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Cheema WA, Kaarsholm KMS, Andersen HR. Combined UV treatment and ozonation for the removal of by-product precursors in swimming pool water. WATER RESEARCH 2017; 110:141-149. [PMID: 28006704 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Revised: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Both UV treatment and ozonation are used to reduce different types of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pools. UV treatment is the most common approach, as it is particularly efficient at removing combined chlorine. However, the UV treatment of pool water increases chlorine reactivity and the formation of chloro-organic DBPs such as trihalomethanes. Based on the similar selective reactivity of ozone and chlorine, we hypothesised that the created reactivity to chlorine, as a result of the UV treatment of dissolved organic matter in swimming pool water, might also be expressed as increased reactivity to ozone. Moreover, ozonation might saturate the chlorine reactivity created by UV treatment and mitigate increased formation of a range of volatile DBPs. We found that UV treatment makes pool water highly reactive to ozone. The subsequent reactivity to chlorine decreases with increasing ozone dosage prior to contact with chlorine. Furthermore, ozone had a half-life of 5 min in non-UV treated pool water whereas complete consumption of ozone was obtained in less than 2 min in UV treated pool water. The ozonation of UV-treated pool water induced the formation of some DBPs that are not commonly reported in this medium, in particular trichloronitromethane, which is noteworthy for its genotoxicity, though this issue was removed by UV treatment when repeated combined UV/ozone treatment interchanging with chlorination was conducted over a 24-h period. The discovered reaction could form the basis for a new treatment method for swimming pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waqas A Cheema
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark; National University of Sciences & Technology, H-12, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
| | - Kamilla M S Kaarsholm
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Henrik R Andersen
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
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Manasfi T, De Méo M, Di Giorgio C, Coulomb B, Boudenne JL. Assessing the genotoxicity of two commonly occurring byproducts of water disinfection: Chloral hydrate and bromal hydrate. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2017; 813:37-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2016.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Revised: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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E Y, Bai H, Lian L, Li J, Blatchley ER. Effect of chloride on the formation of volatile disinfection byproducts in chlorinated swimming pools. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 105:413-420. [PMID: 27664542 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Revised: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 09/11/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Chloride can accumulate in chlorinated swimming pool water. Although substantial efforts have been made to examine the effects of halide ions on the formation of volatile disinfection byproducts (DBPs), most have focused on bromide. The effects of chloride ion concentration on the formation of volatile DBPs in swimming pools remain largely unstudied. In this study, chlorination of typical precursors and body fluid analogue (BFA) were investigated with variable chloride concentration and pH. The formation of three volatile DBPs (NCl3, CHCl3 and CNCHCl2) was observed to be linearly correlated with chloride concentration, both in bench experiments and in actual swimming pool water samples. Free chlorine consumption was also observed to increase with chloride concentration. These behaviors appear to be attributable to shifts in speciation of free chlorine, with higher chloride resulting in higher concentration of molecular chlorine (Cl2), which is much more reactive than HOCl. The results of this work suggest that changes in pool management strategies to promote low chloride concentration could be important for control of volatile DBPs in pools and to economize free chlorine usage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue E
- Department of Applied Chemistry, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Hui Bai
- Department of Applied Chemistry, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Lushi Lian
- Department of Applied Chemistry, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Jing Li
- Department of Applied Chemistry, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China.
| | - Ernest R Blatchley
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA; Division of Environmental & Ecological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
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Daiber EJ, DeMarini DM, Ravuri SA, Liberatore HK, Cuthbertson AA, Thompson-Klemish A, Byer JD, Schmid JE, Afifi MZ, Blatchley ER, Richardson SD. Progressive Increase in Disinfection Byproducts and Mutagenicity from Source to Tap to Swimming Pool and Spa Water: Impact of Human Inputs. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:6652-62. [PMID: 27124361 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b00808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Pools and spas are enjoyed throughout the world for exercise and relaxation. However, there are no previous studies on mutagenicity of disinfected spa (hot tub) waters or comprehensive identification of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) formed in spas. Using 28 water samples from seven sites, we report the first integrated mutagenicity and comprehensive analytical chemistry of spas treated with chlorine, bromine, or ozone, along with pools treated with these same disinfectants. Gas chromatography (GC) with high-resolution mass spectrometry, membrane-introduction mass spectrometry, and GC-electron capture detection were used to comprehensively identify and quantify DBPs and other contaminants. Mutagenicity was assessed by the Salmonella mutagenicity assay. More than 100 DBPs were identified, including a new class of DBPs, bromoimidazoles. Organic extracts of brominated pool/spa waters were 1.8× more mutagenic than chlorinated ones; spa waters were 1.7× more mutagenic than pools. Pool and spa samples were 2.4 and 4.1× more mutagenic, respectively, than corresponding tap waters. The concentration of the sum of 21 DBPs measured quantitatively increased from finished to tap to pool to spa; and mutagenic potency increased from finished/tap to pools to spas. Mutagenic potencies of samples from a chlorinated site correlated best with brominated haloacetic acid concentrations (Br-HAAs) (r = 0.98) and nitrogen-containing DBPs (N-DBPs) (r = 0.97) and the least with Br-trihalomethanes (r = 0.29) and Br-N-DBPs (r = 0.04). The mutagenic potencies of samples from a brominated site correlated best (r = 0.82) with the concentrations of the nine HAAs, Br-HAAs, and Br-DBPs. Human use increased significantly the DBP concentrations and mutagenic potencies for most pools and spas. These data provide evidence that human precursors can increase mutagenic potencies of pools and spas and that this increase is associated with increased DBP concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Daiber
- Student Services Authority, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Athens, Georgia 30605, United States
| | - David M DeMarini
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, United States
| | - Sridevi A Ravuri
- Student Services Authority, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Athens, Georgia 30605, United States
| | - Hannah K Liberatore
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina , 631 Sumter St., Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Amy A Cuthbertson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina , 631 Sumter St., Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Alexis Thompson-Klemish
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina , 631 Sumter St., Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Jonathan D Byer
- LECO Corp., 3000 Lakeview Ave., St. Joseph, Michigan 49085, United States
| | - Judith E Schmid
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, United States
| | - Mehrnaz Z Afifi
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University , 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Ernest R Blatchley
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University , 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Division of Environmental & Ecological Engineering, Purdue University , 500 Central Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Susan D Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina , 631 Sumter St., Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
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Huang X, Qu Y, Cid CA, Finke C, Hoffmann MR, Lim K, Jiang SC. Electrochemical disinfection of toilet wastewater using wastewater electrolysis cell. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 92:164-72. [PMID: 26854604 PMCID: PMC4773403 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.01.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2015] [Revised: 01/08/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The paucity of proper sanitation facilities has contributed to the spread of waterborne diseases in many developing countries. The primary goal of this study was to demonstrate the feasibility of using a wastewater electrolysis cell (WEC) for toilet wastewater disinfection. The treated wastewater was designed to reuse for toilet flushing and agricultural irrigation. Laboratory-scale electrochemical (EC) disinfection experiments were performed to investigate the disinfection efficiency of the WEC with four seeded microorganisms (Escherichia coli, Enterococcus, recombinant adenovirus serotype 5, and bacteriophage MS2). In addition, the formation of organic disinfection byproducts (DBPs) trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAA5) at the end of the EC treatment was also investigated. The results showed that at an applied cell voltage of +4 V, the WEC achieved 5-log10 reductions of all four seeded microorganisms in real toilet wastewater within 60 min. In contrast, chemical chlorination (CC) disinfection using hypochlorite [NaClO] was only effective for the inactivation of bacteria. Due to the rapid formation of chloramines, less than 0.5-log10 reduction of MS2 was observed in toilet wastewater even at the highest [NaClO] dosage (36 mg/L, as Cl2) over a 1 h reaction. Experiments using laboratory model waters showed that free reactive chlorine generated in situ during EC disinfection process was the main disinfectant responsible for the inactivation of microorganisms. However, the production of hydroxyl radicals [OH], and other reactive oxygen species by the active bismuth-doped TiO2 anode were negligible under the same electrolytic conditions. The formation of THMs and HAA5 were found to increase with higher applied cell voltage. Based on the energy consumption estimates, the WEC system can be operated using solar energy stored in a DC battery as the sole power source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Huang
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, United States
| | - Yan Qu
- Linde+Robinson Laboratories, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, United States
| | - Clément A Cid
- Linde+Robinson Laboratories, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, United States
| | - Cody Finke
- Linde+Robinson Laboratories, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, United States
| | - Michael R Hoffmann
- Linde+Robinson Laboratories, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, United States
| | - Keahying Lim
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, United States
| | - Sunny C Jiang
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, United States.
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Manasfi T, De Méo M, Coulomb B, Di Giorgio C, Boudenne JL. Identification of disinfection by-products in freshwater and seawater swimming pools and evaluation of genotoxicity. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2016; 88:94-102. [PMID: 26735347 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2015.12.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Revised: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 12/19/2015] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in swimming pools has been linked to adverse health effects. Numerous DBPs that occur in swimming pools are genotoxic and carcinogenic. This toxicity is of a greater concern in the case of brominated DBPs that have been shown to have substantially greater toxicities than their chlorinated analogs. In chlorinated seawater swimming pools, brominated DBPs are formed due to the high content of bromide. Nevertheless, very little data is reported about DBP occurrence and mutagenicity of water in these pools. In the present study, three seawater and one freshwater swimming pools located in Southeastern France were investigated to determine qualitatively and quantitatively their DBP contents. An evaluation of the genotoxic properties of water samples of the freshwater pool and a seawater pool was conducted through the Salmonella assay (Ames test). The predominant DBPs identified in the freshwater pool were chlorinated species and included trichloroacetic acid, chloral hydrate, dichloroacetonitrile, 1,1,1-trichloropropanone and chloroform. In the seawater pools, brominated DBPs were the predominant species and included dibromoacetic acid, bromoform and dibromoacetonitile. Bromal hydrate levels were also reported. In both types of pools, haloacetic acids were the most prevalent chemical class among the analyzed DBP classes. The distribution of other DBP classes varied depending on the type of pool. As to genotoxicity, the results of Ames test showed higher mutagenicity in the freshwater pool as a consequence of its considerably higher DBP contents in comparison to the tested seawater pool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarek Manasfi
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, LCE UMR 7376, 13331 Marseille, France.
| | - Michel De Méo
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, IRD, Avignon Université, IMBE UMR 7263, Laboratoire de Mutagénèse Environnementale, 13385, Marseille, France.
| | - Bruno Coulomb
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, LCE UMR 7376, 13331 Marseille, France.
| | - Carole Di Giorgio
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, IRD, Avignon Université, IMBE UMR 7263, Laboratoire de Mutagénèse Environnementale, 13385, Marseille, France.
| | - Jean-Luc Boudenne
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, LCE UMR 7376, 13331 Marseille, France.
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Hang C, Zhang B, Gong T, Xian Q. Occurrence and health risk assessment of halogenated disinfection byproducts in indoor swimming pool water. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 543:425-431. [PMID: 26599142 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.11.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Revised: 11/10/2015] [Accepted: 11/10/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Swimming pool disinfection byproducts (DBPs) have become a concern in many countries all over the world. In this study, the concentrations of several categories of DBPs, including trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), haloacetonitriles (HANs), haloketones (HKs) and trichloronitromethane (TCNM), in 13 public indoor swimming pools in Nanjing, China were determined, the correlations between DBPs and water quality parameters as well as between different DBP categories were evaluated, and the health risks of the DBPs to human were examined. The results indicate that the DBP levels in the swimming pools in Nanjing were relatively high, with HAAs as the most dominant category, followed by THMs, HANs, HKs and TCNM sequentially. Bromochloroacetic acid (BCAA), trichloromethane (TCM), dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN), and 1,1,1-trichloropropanone (1,1,1-TCP) were the most dominant species among HAAs, THMs, HANs, and HKs, respectively. For all the different categories of DBPs, the concentrations in the pool disinfected with ozonation/chlorination were lower than those in the pool disinfected with chlorination. The DBP levels were generally not affected by the number of swimmers and the DBP levels on different dates were relatively stable. Besides, the chlorine residual seemed to be a critical concern in most of the swimming pools in this study. Moreover, there were some correlations between DBPs and water quality parameters as well as between different DBP categories. It is to be noted that the predicted cancer and health risks of the DBPs in these swimming pools were generally higher than the regulatory limits by USEPA, and thus DBPs in these swimming pools should be concerned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Hang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, China
| | - Beibei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, China
| | - Tingting Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, China.
| | - Qiming Xian
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, China.
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Llana-Belloch S, Priego Quesada JI, Pérez-Soriano P, Lucas-Cuevas ÁG, Salvador-Pascual A, Olaso-González G, Moliner-Martinez Y, Verdú-Andres J, Campins-Falco P, Gómez-Cabrera MC. Disinfection by-products effect on swimmers oxidative stress and respiratory damage. Eur J Sport Sci 2015; 16:609-17. [DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2015.1080306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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46
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Chowdhury S. Predicting human exposure and risk from chlorinated indoor swimming pool: a case study. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2015; 187:502. [PMID: 26164734 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-015-4719-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
This study predicted human exposure to disinfection by-products (DBPs) in a chlorinated indoor swimming pool. Human exposure was predicted through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal routes while ingestion exposure was accidental with water intake of 18-34 mL/h. The number of pool attendants and duration and frequency of swimming were in the ranges of 14-62 persons/day, 40-85 min/event, and 26-48 times/year, respectively. Trihalomethanes (THMs) in pool water and air were 28.7-95.5 μg/L and 44.1-133.6 μg/m(3), respectively, while haloacetic acids (HAAs) in pool water were 68.9-158.9 μg/L. The brominated THMs in water and air were 95.4 and 94.3% of total THMs, respectively, while brominated HAAs were 94.4 % of total HAAs. Chronic daily intakes of THMs and HAAs were 2.16 × 10(-5)-3.14 × 10(-3) and 8.4 × 10(-8)-4.6 × 10(-6) mg/kg-day, respectively. The cancer risk from three THMs and two HAAs was 2.46 × 10(-5) with a range of 8.1 × 10(-6)-5.7 × 10(-5), in which THMs contributed 99.6% of total risks. Approximately 99.3% of risks were through inhalation and dermal routes, indicating that the ingestion route may be insignificant. The cancer risks from THMs in swimming pool were 4.06-6.64 times to the cancer risks from THMs in drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakhawat Chowdhury
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia,
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Spiliotopoulou A, Hansen KMS, Andersen HR. Secondary formation of disinfection by-products by UV treatment of swimming pool water. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 520:96-105. [PMID: 25804876 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.03.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2014] [Revised: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2015] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) during experimental UV treatment of pool water has previously been reported with little concurrence between laboratory studies, field studies and research groups. In the current study, changes in concentration of seven out of eleven investigated volatile DBPs were observed in experiments using medium pressure UV treatment, with and without chlorine and after post-UV chlorination. Results showed that post-UV chlorine consumption increased, dose-dependently, with UV treatment dose. A clear absence of trihalomethane formation by UV and UV with chlorine was observed, while small yet statistically significant increases in dichloroacetonitrile and dichloropropanone concentrations were detected. Results indicate that post-UV chlorination clearly induced secondary formation of several DBPs. However, the formation of total trihalomethanes was no greater than what could be replicated by performing the DBP formation assay with higher chlorine concentrations to simulate extended chlorination. Post-UV chlorination of water from a swimming pool that continuously uses UV treatment to control combined chlorine could not induce secondary formation for most DBPs. Concurrence for induction of trihalomethanes was identified between post-UV chlorination treatments and simulated extended chlorination time treatment. Trihalomethanes could not be induced by UV treatment of water from a continuously UV treated pool. This indicates that literature reports of experimentally induced trihalomethane formation by UV may be a result of kinetic increase in formation by UV. However, this does not imply that higher trihalomethane concentrations would occur in pools that apply continuous UV treatment. The bromine fraction of halogens in formed trihalomethanes increased with UV dose. This indicates that UV removes bromine atoms from larger molecules that participate in trihalomethane production during post-UV chlorination. Additionally, no significant effect on DBP formation was observed due to photo-inducible radical forming molecules NO3- (potentially present in high concentrations in pool water) and H2O2 (added as part of commercially employed DBP reducing practices).
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Affiliation(s)
- Aikaterini Spiliotopoulou
- Water ApS, Farum Gydevej 64, 3520 Farum, Denmark; Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Miljøvej, Building 113, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Kamilla M S Hansen
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Miljøvej, Building 113, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Henrik R Andersen
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Miljøvej, Building 113, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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Teo TLL, Coleman HM, Khan SJ. Chemical contaminants in swimming pools: Occurrence, implications and control. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2015; 76:16-31. [PMID: 25497109 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Revised: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 11/17/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A range of trace chemical contaminants have been reported to occur in swimming pools. Current disinfection practices and monitoring of swimming pool water quality are aimed at preventing the spread of microbial infections and diseases. However, disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed when the disinfectants used react with organic and inorganic matter in the pool. Additional chemicals may be present in swimming pools originating from anthropogenic sources (bodily excretions, lotions, cosmetics, etc.) or from the source water used where trace chemicals may already be present. DBPs have been the most widely investigated trace chemical contaminants, including trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), halobenzoquinones (HBQs), haloacetonitriles (HANs), halonitromethanes (HNMs), N-nitrosamines, nitrite, nitrates and chloramines. The presence and concentrations of these chemical contaminants are dependent upon several factors including the types of pools, types of disinfectants used, disinfectant dosages, bather loads, temperature and pH of swimming pool waters. Chemical constituents of personal care products (PCPs) such as parabens and ultraviolet (UV) filters from sunscreens have also been reported. By-products from reactions of these chemicals with disinfectants and UV irradiation have been reported and some may be more toxic than their parent compounds. There is evidence to suggest that exposure to some of these chemicals may lead to health risks. This paper provides a detailed review of various chemical contaminants reported in swimming pools. The concentrations of chemicals present in swimming pools may also provide an alternative indicator to swimming pool water quality, providing insights to contamination sources. Alternative treatment methods such as activated carbon filtration and advanced oxidation processes may be beneficial in improving swimming pool water quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany L L Teo
- UNSW Water Research Centre, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | - Heather M Coleman
- Nanotechnology and Integrated BioEngineering Centre, School of Engineering, University of Ulster, Jordanstown, County Antrim BT37 0QB, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.
| | - Stuart J Khan
- UNSW Water Research Centre, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia.
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Postigo C, Jeong CH, Richardson SD, Wagner ED, Plewa MJ, Simmons JE, Barceló D. Analysis, Occurrence, and Toxicity of Haloacetaldehydes in Drinking Waters: Iodoacetaldehyde as an Emerging Disinfection By-Product. ACS SYMPOSIUM SERIES 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/bk-2015-1190.ch002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Postigo
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute for Environmental Assessment and WaterResearch, (IDAEA-CSIC), Carrer Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Crop Sciences and the Center of Advanced Materials for the Purification of Water with Systems, Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, JM Palms Centre for GSR, 631 Sumter Street, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, (NHEERL-U.S. EPA), 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, United States
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Parc Científic i Tecnològic de la Universitat de Girona, Edifici H2O, Carrer d’Emili Grahit, 101, 17003 Girona, Spain
| | - Clara H. Jeong
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute for Environmental Assessment and WaterResearch, (IDAEA-CSIC), Carrer Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Crop Sciences and the Center of Advanced Materials for the Purification of Water with Systems, Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, JM Palms Centre for GSR, 631 Sumter Street, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, (NHEERL-U.S. EPA), 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, United States
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Parc Científic i Tecnològic de la Universitat de Girona, Edifici H2O, Carrer d’Emili Grahit, 101, 17003 Girona, Spain
| | - Susan D. Richardson
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute for Environmental Assessment and WaterResearch, (IDAEA-CSIC), Carrer Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Crop Sciences and the Center of Advanced Materials for the Purification of Water with Systems, Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, JM Palms Centre for GSR, 631 Sumter Street, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, (NHEERL-U.S. EPA), 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, United States
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Parc Científic i Tecnològic de la Universitat de Girona, Edifici H2O, Carrer d’Emili Grahit, 101, 17003 Girona, Spain
| | - Elizabeth D. Wagner
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute for Environmental Assessment and WaterResearch, (IDAEA-CSIC), Carrer Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Crop Sciences and the Center of Advanced Materials for the Purification of Water with Systems, Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, JM Palms Centre for GSR, 631 Sumter Street, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, (NHEERL-U.S. EPA), 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, United States
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Parc Científic i Tecnològic de la Universitat de Girona, Edifici H2O, Carrer d’Emili Grahit, 101, 17003 Girona, Spain
| | - Michael J. Plewa
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute for Environmental Assessment and WaterResearch, (IDAEA-CSIC), Carrer Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Crop Sciences and the Center of Advanced Materials for the Purification of Water with Systems, Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, JM Palms Centre for GSR, 631 Sumter Street, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, (NHEERL-U.S. EPA), 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, United States
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Parc Científic i Tecnològic de la Universitat de Girona, Edifici H2O, Carrer d’Emili Grahit, 101, 17003 Girona, Spain
| | - Jane Ellen Simmons
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute for Environmental Assessment and WaterResearch, (IDAEA-CSIC), Carrer Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Crop Sciences and the Center of Advanced Materials for the Purification of Water with Systems, Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, JM Palms Centre for GSR, 631 Sumter Street, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, (NHEERL-U.S. EPA), 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, United States
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Parc Científic i Tecnològic de la Universitat de Girona, Edifici H2O, Carrer d’Emili Grahit, 101, 17003 Girona, Spain
| | - Damià Barceló
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute for Environmental Assessment and WaterResearch, (IDAEA-CSIC), Carrer Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Crop Sciences and the Center of Advanced Materials for the Purification of Water with Systems, Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, JM Palms Centre for GSR, 631 Sumter Street, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, (NHEERL-U.S. EPA), 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, United States
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Parc Científic i Tecnològic de la Universitat de Girona, Edifici H2O, Carrer d’Emili Grahit, 101, 17003 Girona, Spain
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Ahmadi M, Ramavandi B. The formation potential of haloacetonitriles in the Dez River water, Iran. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2014; 35:2347-2355. [PMID: 25145188 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2014.903301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The formation potential of haloacetonitriles (HANsFP) from chlorination of raw water of the Dez River in Iran was determined. Samples were collected before treatment at an intake of a water treatment plant. Tests were carried out to determine the effect of the reaction time (5-120 h), water pH (4-10), total organic carbon (TOC) content (2-8 mg L(-1)), chlorine dosage (3-25 mg L(-l)), water temperature (5-30 degrees C) and usual coagulants on HANsFP in the Dez River water. Increasing chlorine reaction time up to 80 h led to the remarkable increase in HANsFP and after that the HANsFP was gradually increased. Over 90% of the HANs was formed during 80 h reaction time. Linear relationships were found between the HANsFP and the chlorine dosage. The result showed that the HANsFP increased by increasing TOC content up to 6 mg L(-1), while further increases in the TOC level did not lead to any significant changes in the HANsFP level. The acidic water pH resulted in the highest HANsFP. An increase in water temperature enhanced the HANsFP; this factor should be considered for tropical waterworks. The ferric chloride had a high efficiency for the removal of HANsFP (72%). Overall, the Dez River water had a high potential for forming the HANs (approximately 17 microg L(-1)).
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