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Keur-Huizinga L, Kramer SE, de Geus EJC, Zekveld AA. A Multimodal Approach to Measuring Listening Effort: A Systematic Review on the Effects of Auditory Task Demand on Physiological Measures and Their Relationship. Ear Hear 2024:00003446-990000000-00297. [PMID: 38880960 DOI: 10.1097/aud.0000000000001508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Listening effort involves the mental effort required to perceive an auditory stimulus, for example in noisy environments. Prolonged increased listening effort, for example due to impaired hearing ability, may increase risk of health complications. It is therefore important to identify valid and sensitive measures of listening effort. Physiological measures have been shown to be sensitive to auditory task demand manipulations and are considered to reflect changes in listening effort. Such measures include pupil dilation, alpha power, skin conductance level, and heart rate variability. The aim of the current systematic review was to provide an overview of studies to listening effort that used multiple physiological measures. The two main questions were: (1) what is the effect of changes in auditory task demand on simultaneously acquired physiological measures from various modalities? and (2) what is the relationship between the responses in these physiological measures? DESIGN Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, relevant articles were sought in PubMed, PsycInfo, and Web of Science and by examining the references of included articles. Search iterations with different combinations of psychophysiological measures were performed in conjunction with listening effort-related search terms. Quality was assessed using the Appraisal Tool for Cross-Sectional Studies. RESULTS A total of 297 articles were identified from three databases, of which 27 were included. One additional article was identified from reference lists. Of the total 28 included articles, 16 included an analysis regarding the relationship between the physiological measures. The overall quality of the included studies was reasonable. CONCLUSIONS The included studies showed that most of the physiological measures either show no effect to auditory task demand manipulations or a consistent effect in the expected direction. For example, pupil dilation increased, pre-ejection period decreased, and skin conductance level increased with increasing auditory task demand. Most of the relationships between the responses of these physiological measures were nonsignificant or weak. The physiological measures varied in their sensitivity to auditory task demand manipulations. One of the identified knowledge gaps was that the included studies mostly used tasks with high-performance levels, resulting in an underrepresentation of the physiological changes at lower performance levels. This makes it difficult to capture how the physiological responses behave across the full psychometric curve. Our results support the Framework for Understanding Effortful Listening and the need for a multimodal approach to listening effort. We furthermore discuss focus points for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Keur-Huizinga
- Amsterdam UMC location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Ear & Hearing, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sophia E Kramer
- Amsterdam UMC location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Ear & Hearing, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eco J C de Geus
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Adriana A Zekveld
- Amsterdam UMC location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Ear & Hearing, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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2
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Mechtenberg H, Giorio C, Myers EB. Pupil Dilation Reflects Perceptual Priorities During a Receptive Speech Task. Ear Hear 2024; 45:425-440. [PMID: 37882091 PMCID: PMC10868674 DOI: 10.1097/aud.0000000000001438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The listening demand incurred by speech perception fluctuates in normal conversation. At the acoustic-phonetic level, natural variation in pronunciation acts as speedbumps to accurate lexical selection. Any given utterance may be more or less phonetically ambiguous-a problem that must be resolved by the listener to choose the correct word. This becomes especially apparent when considering two common speech registers-clear and casual-that have characteristically different levels of phonetic ambiguity. Clear speech prioritizes intelligibility through hyperarticulation which results in less ambiguity at the phonetic level, while casual speech tends to have a more collapsed acoustic space. We hypothesized that listeners would invest greater cognitive resources while listening to casual speech to resolve the increased amount of phonetic ambiguity, as compared with clear speech. To this end, we used pupillometry as an online measure of listening effort during perception of clear and casual continuous speech in two background conditions: quiet and noise. DESIGN Forty-eight participants performed a probe detection task while listening to spoken, nonsensical sentences (masked and unmasked) while recording pupil size. Pupil size was modeled using growth curve analysis to capture the dynamics of the pupil response as the sentence unfolded. RESULTS Pupil size during listening was sensitive to the presence of noise and speech register (clear/casual). Unsurprisingly, listeners had overall larger pupil dilations during speech perception in noise, replicating earlier work. The pupil dilation pattern for clear and casual sentences was considerably more complex. Pupil dilation during clear speech trials was slightly larger than for casual speech, across quiet and noisy backgrounds. CONCLUSIONS We suggest that listener motivation could explain the larger pupil dilations to clearly spoken speech. We propose that, bounded by the context of this task, listeners devoted more resources to perceiving the speech signal with the greatest acoustic/phonetic fidelity. Further, we unexpectedly found systematic differences in pupil dilation preceding the onset of the spoken sentences. Together, these data demonstrate that the pupillary system is not merely reactive but also adaptive-sensitive to both task structure and listener motivation to maximize accurate perception in a limited resource system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Mechtenberg
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
| | - Cristal Giorio
- Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Emily B. Myers
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
- Department of Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
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3
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Ershaid H, Lizarazu M, McLaughlin D, Cooke M, Simantiraki O, Koutsogiannaki M, Lallier M. Contributions of listening effort and intelligibility to cortical tracking of speech in adverse listening conditions. Cortex 2024; 172:54-71. [PMID: 38215511 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2023.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
Cortical tracking of speech is vital for speech segmentation and is linked to speech intelligibility. However, there is no clear consensus as to whether reduced intelligibility leads to a decrease or an increase in cortical speech tracking, warranting further investigation of the factors influencing this relationship. One such factor is listening effort, defined as the cognitive resources necessary for speech comprehension, and reported to have a strong negative correlation with speech intelligibility. Yet, no studies have examined the relationship between speech intelligibility, listening effort, and cortical tracking of speech. The aim of the present study was thus to examine these factors in quiet and distinct adverse listening conditions. Forty-nine normal hearing adults listened to sentences produced casually, presented in quiet and two adverse listening conditions: cafeteria noise and reverberant speech. Electrophysiological responses were registered with electroencephalogram, and listening effort was estimated subjectively using self-reported scores and objectively using pupillometry. Results indicated varying impacts of adverse conditions on intelligibility, listening effort, and cortical tracking of speech, depending on the preservation of the speech temporal envelope. The more distorted envelope in the reverberant condition led to higher listening effort, as reflected in higher subjective scores, increased pupil diameter, and stronger cortical tracking of speech in the delta band. These findings suggest that using measures of listening effort in addition to those of intelligibility is useful for interpreting cortical tracking of speech results. Moreover, reading and phonological skills of participants were positively correlated with listening effort in the cafeteria condition, suggesting a special role of expert language skills in processing speech in this noisy condition. Implications for future research and theories linking atypical cortical tracking of speech and reading disorders are further discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadeel Ershaid
- Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, San Sebastian, Spain.
| | - Mikel Lizarazu
- Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, San Sebastian, Spain.
| | - Drew McLaughlin
- Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, San Sebastian, Spain.
| | - Martin Cooke
- Ikerbasque, Basque Science Foundation, Bilbao, Spain.
| | | | | | - Marie Lallier
- Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, San Sebastian, Spain; Ikerbasque, Basque Science Foundation, Bilbao, Spain.
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4
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Privitera CM, Noah S, Carney T, Klein SA, Lenartowicz A, Hinshaw SP, McCracken JT, Nigg JT, Karalunas SL, Reid RC, Oliva MT, Betts SS, Simpson GV. Pupillary dilations in a Target/Distractor visual task paradigm and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neurosci Lett 2024; 818:137556. [PMID: 37951300 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2023.137556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/13/2023]
Abstract
ADHD is a neurocognitive disorder characterized by attention difficulties, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, often persisting into adulthood with substantial personal and societal consequences. Despite the importance of neurophysiological assessment and treatment monitoring tests, their availability outside of research settings remains limited. Cognitive neuroscience investigations have identified distinct components associated with ADHD, including deficits in sustained attention, inefficient enhancement of attended Targets, and altered suppression of ignored Distractors. In this study, we examined pupil activity in control and ADHD subjects during a sustained visual attention task specifically designed to evaluate the mechanisms underlying Target enhancement and Distractor suppression. Our findings revealed some distinguishing factors between the two groups which we discuss in light of their neurobiological implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio M Privitera
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, United States.
| | - Sean Noah
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, United States; Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, United States
| | - Thom Carney
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, United States
| | - Stanley A Klein
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, United States
| | - Agatha Lenartowicz
- Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Stephen P Hinshaw
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, United States
| | - James T McCracken
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Semel Institute and David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Joel T Nigg
- Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, United States
| | - Sarah L Karalunas
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Rory C Reid
- Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Mercedes T Oliva
- Division of Social Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, United States
| | - Samantha S Betts
- Graduate Program in Neurosciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
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5
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Yang X, Yang B, Tang C, Mo X, Hu B. Visual Attention Quality Research for Social Media Applications: A Case Study on Photo Sharing Applications. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HUMAN–COMPUTER INTERACTION 2023:1-14. [DOI: 10.1080/10447318.2023.2201556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2022] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xian Yang
- School of Art and Design, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bin Yang
- School of Art and Design, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chaolan Tang
- School of Art and Design, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaohong Mo
- School of Art and Design, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bin Hu
- Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macao, China
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6
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Książek P, Zekveld AA, Fiedler L, Kramer SE, Wendt D. Time-specific Components of Pupil Responses Reveal Alternations in Effort Allocation Caused by Memory Task Demands During Speech Identification in Noise. Trends Hear 2023; 27:23312165231153280. [PMID: 36938784 PMCID: PMC10028670 DOI: 10.1177/23312165231153280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Daily communication may be effortful due to poor acoustic quality. In addition, memory demands can induce effort, especially for long or complex sentences. In the current study, we tested the impact of memory task demands and speech-to-noise ratio on the time-specific components of effort allocation during speech identification in noise. Thirty normally hearing adults (15 females, mean age 42.2 years) participated. In an established auditory memory test, listeners had to listen to a list of seven sentences in noise, and repeat the sentence-final word after presentation, and, if instructed, recall the repeated words. We tested the effects of speech-to-noise ratio (SNR; -4 dB, +1 dB) and recall (Recall; Yes, No), on the time-specific components of pupil responses, trial baseline pupil size, and their dynamics (change) along the list. We found three components in the pupil responses (early, middle, and late). While the additional memory task (recall versus no recall) lowered all components' values, SNR (-4 dB versus +1 dB SNR) increased the middle and late component values. Increasing memory demands (Recall) progressively increased trial baseline and steepened decrease of the late component's values. Trial baseline increased most steeply in the condition of +1 dB SNR with recall. The findings suggest that adding a recall to the auditory task alters effort allocation for listening. Listeners are dynamically re-allocating effort from listening to memorizing under changing memory and acoustic demands. The pupil baseline and the time-specific components of pupil responses provide a comprehensive picture of the interplay of SNR and recall on effort.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrycja Książek
- 26066Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Otolaryngology/Head and Neck Surgery, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- 263099Eriksholm Research Centre, Snekkersten, Denmark
| | - Adriana A Zekveld
- 26066Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Otolaryngology/Head and Neck Surgery, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - Sophia E Kramer
- 26066Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Otolaryngology/Head and Neck Surgery, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Dorothea Wendt
- 263099Eriksholm Research Centre, Snekkersten, Denmark
- Department of Health Technology, 5205Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
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7
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Zeeman M, Figeys M, Brimmo T, Burnstad C, Hao J, Kim ES. Task-Evoked Pupillary Response as a Potential Biomarker of Dementia and Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Scoping Review. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen 2023; 38:15333175231160010. [PMID: 36896819 PMCID: PMC10580717 DOI: 10.1177/15333175231160010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
Abstract
Pupil dilation functions as a proxy for cognitive effort and can be measured through automated pupillometry. The aim of this scoping review is to examine how individuals with cognitive impairment differ in task-evoked pupillary responses relative to cognitively healthy individuals. A systematic literature search across six databases was conducted to identify studies examining changes in pupillary responses evoked by cognitive tasks comparing patients with dementia to healthy controls. Eight articles met inclusion criteria and were included for review. Differences in task-evoked pupillary response between cognitively impaired and cognitively healthy participants were observed across studies. Pupil dilation is decreased in patients with Alzheimer's Disease compared to controls, with no difference observed in patients with mild cognitive impairment. A mild, non-significant trend towards reduced pupil dilation in patients with either Parkinson's Disease or Dementia with Lewy Bodies suggests a similar but less pronounced effect than in AD patients. Further research is required to examine the utility of task-evoked pupillary responses as a potential biomarker indexing cognitive decline in individuals transitioning to mild cognitive impairment and/or dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Zeeman
- Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Mathieu Figeys
- Faculty of Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Tolani Brimmo
- Faculty of Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Cleo Burnstad
- Faculty of Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Jasmine Hao
- Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Esther S Kim
- Faculty of Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
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8
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Silverstein SM, Choi JJ, Green KM, Bowles-Johnson KE, Ramchandran RS. Schizophrenia in Translation: Why the Eye? Schizophr Bull 2022; 48:728-737. [PMID: 35640030 PMCID: PMC9212100 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbac050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is increasingly recognized as a systemic disease, characterized by dysregulation in multiple physiological systems (eg, neural, cardiovascular, endocrine). Many of these changes are observed as early as the first psychotic episode, and in people at high risk for the disorder. Expanding the search for biomarkers of schizophrenia beyond genes, blood, and brain may allow for inexpensive, noninvasive, and objective markers of diagnosis, phenotype, treatment response, and prognosis. Several anatomic and physiologic aspects of the eye have shown promise as biomarkers of brain health in a range of neurological disorders, and of heart, kidney, endocrine, and other impairments in other medical conditions. In schizophrenia, thinning and volume loss in retinal neural layers have been observed, and are associated with illness progression, brain volume loss, and cognitive impairment. Retinal microvascular changes have also been observed. Abnormal pupil responses and corneal nerve disintegration are related to aspects of brain function and structure in schizophrenia. In addition, studying the eye can inform about emerging cardiovascular, neuroinflammatory, and metabolic diseases in people with early psychosis, and about the causes of several of the visual changes observed in the disorder. Application of the methods of oculomics, or eye-based biomarkers of non-ophthalmological pathology, to the treatment and study of schizophrenia has the potential to provide tools for patient monitoring and data-driven prediction, as well as for clarifying pathophysiology and course of illness. Given their demonstrated utility in neuropsychiatry, we recommend greater adoption of these tools for schizophrenia research and patient care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven M Silverstein
- To whom correspondence should be addressed; Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA; tel: +1 585-275-6742, e-mail:
| | - Joy J Choi
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Kyle M Green
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | | | - Rajeev S Ramchandran
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA,Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
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9
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Nonuniformity of Whole-Cerebral Neural Resource Allocation, a Neuromarker of the Broad-Task Attention. eNeuro 2022; 9:ENEURO.0358-21.2022. [PMID: 35228309 PMCID: PMC8925723 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0358-21.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural basis of attention is thought to involve the allocation of limited neural resources. However, the quantitative validation of this hypothesis remains challenging. Here, we provide quantitative evidence that the nonuniform allocation of neural resources across the whole cerebral gray matter reflects the broad-task process of sustained attention. We propose a neural measure for the nonuniformity of whole-cerebral allocation using functional magnetic resonance imaging. We found that this measure was significantly correlated with conventional indicators of attention level, such as task difficulty and pupil dilation. We further found that the broad-task neural correlates of the measure belong to frontoparietal and dorsal attention networks. Finally, we found that patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder showed abnormal decreases in the level of the proposed measure, reflecting the executive dysfunction. This study proposes a neuromarker suggesting that the nonuniform allocation of neural resources may be the broad-task neural basis of sustained attention.
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10
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Dingemanse G, Goedegebure A. Listening Effort in Cochlear Implant Users: The Effect of Speech Intelligibility, Noise Reduction Processing, and Working Memory Capacity on the Pupil Dilation Response. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH : JSLHR 2022; 65:392-404. [PMID: 34898265 DOI: 10.1044/2021_jslhr-21-00230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to evaluate the effect of speech recognition performance, working memory capacity (WMC), and a noise reduction algorithm (NRA) on listening effort as measured with pupillometry in cochlear implant (CI) users while listening to speech in noise. METHOD Speech recognition and pupil responses (peak dilation, peak latency, and release of dilation) were measured during a speech recognition task at three speech-to-noise ratios (SNRs) with an NRA in both on and off conditions. WMC was measured with a reading span task. Twenty experienced CI users participated in this study. RESULTS With increasing SNR and speech recognition performance, (a) the peak pupil dilation decreased by only a small amount, (b) the peak latency decreased, and (c) the release of dilation after the sentences increased. The NRA had no effect on speech recognition in noise or on the peak or latency values of the pupil response but caused less release of dilation after the end of the sentences. A lower reading span score was associated with higher peak pupil dilation but was not associated with peak latency, release of dilation, or speech recognition in noise. CONCLUSIONS In CI users, speech perception is effortful, even at higher speech recognition scores and high SNRs, indicating that CI users are in a chronic state of increased effort in communication situations. The application of a clinically used NRA did not improve speech perception, nor did it reduce listening effort. Participants with a relatively low WMC exerted relatively more listening effort but did not have better speech reception thresholds in noise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gertjan Dingemanse
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - André Goedegebure
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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11
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Lim SJ, Carter YD, Njoroge JM, Shinn-Cunningham BG, Perrachione TK. Talker discontinuity disrupts attention to speech: Evidence from EEG and pupillometry. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2021; 221:104996. [PMID: 34358924 PMCID: PMC8515637 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2021.104996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 07/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Speech is processed less efficiently from discontinuous, mixed talkers than one consistent talker, but little is known about the neural mechanisms for processing talker variability. Here, we measured psychophysiological responses to talker variability using electroencephalography (EEG) and pupillometry while listeners performed a delayed recall of digit span task. Listeners heard and recalled seven-digit sequences with both talker (single- vs. mixed-talker digits) and temporal (0- vs. 500-ms inter-digit intervals) discontinuities. Talker discontinuity reduced serial recall accuracy. Both talker and temporal discontinuities elicited P3a-like neural evoked response, while rapid processing of mixed-talkers' speech led to increased phasic pupil dilation. Furthermore, mixed-talkers' speech produced less alpha oscillatory power during working memory maintenance, but not during speech encoding. Overall, these results are consistent with an auditory attention and streaming framework in which talker discontinuity leads to involuntary, stimulus-driven attentional reorientation to novel speech sources, resulting in the processing interference classically associated with talker variability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Joo Lim
- Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, Boston University, United States.
| | - Yaminah D Carter
- Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, Boston University, United States
| | - J Michelle Njoroge
- Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, Boston University, United States
| | | | - Tyler K Perrachione
- Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, Boston University, United States.
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12
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Ayasse ND, Hodson AJ, Wingfield A. The Principle of Least Effort and Comprehension of Spoken Sentences by Younger and Older Adults. Front Psychol 2021; 12:629464. [PMID: 33796047 PMCID: PMC8007979 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.629464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
There is considerable evidence that listeners' understanding of a spoken sentence need not always follow from a full analysis of the words and syntax of the utterance. Rather, listeners may instead conduct a superficial analysis, sampling some words and using presumed plausibility to arrive at an understanding of the sentence meaning. Because this latter strategy occurs more often for sentences with complex syntax that place a heavier processing burden on the listener than sentences with simpler syntax, shallow processing may represent a resource conserving strategy reflected in reduced processing effort. This factor may be even more important for older adults who as a group are known to have more limited working memory resources. In the present experiment, 40 older adults (M age = 75.5 years) and 20 younger adults (M age = 20.7) were tested for comprehension of plausible and implausible sentences with a simpler subject-relative embedded clause structure or a more complex object-relative embedded clause structure. Dilation of the pupil of the eye was recorded as an index of processing effort. Results confirmed greater comprehension accuracy for plausible than implausible sentences, and for sentences with simpler than more complex syntax, with both effects amplified for the older adults. Analysis of peak pupil dilations for implausible sentences revealed a complex three-way interaction between age, syntactic complexity, and plausibility. Results are discussed in terms of models of sentence comprehension, and pupillometry as an index of intentional task engagement.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Arthur Wingfield
- Volen National Center for Complex Systems, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA, United States
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13
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Zhang Y, Lehmann A, Deroche M. Disentangling listening effort and memory load beyond behavioural evidence: Pupillary response to listening effort during a concurrent memory task. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0233251. [PMID: 33657100 PMCID: PMC7928507 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0233251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent research has demonstrated that pupillometry is a robust measure for quantifying listening effort. However, pupillary responses in listening situations where multiple cognitive functions are engaged and sustained over a period of time remain hard to interpret. This limits our conceptualisation and understanding of listening effort in realistic situations, because rarely in everyday life are people challenged by one task at a time. Therefore, the purpose of this experiment was to reveal the dynamics of listening effort in a sustained listening condition using a word repeat and recall task. Words were presented in quiet and speech-shaped noise at different signal-to-noise ratios (SNR): 0dB, 7dB, 14dB and quiet. Participants were presented with lists of 10 words, and required to repeat each word after its presentation. At the end of the list, participants either recalled as many words as possible or moved on to the next list. Simultaneously, their pupil dilation was recorded throughout the whole experiment. When only word repeating was required, peak pupil dilation (PPD) was bigger in 0dB versus other conditions; whereas when recall was required, PPD showed no difference among SNR levels and PPD in 0dB was smaller than repeat-only condition. Baseline pupil diameter and PPD followed different variation patterns across the 10 serial positions within a block for conditions requiring recall: baseline pupil diameter built up progressively and plateaued in the later positions (but shot up when listeners were recalling the previously heard words from memory); PPD decreased at a pace quicker than in repeat-only condition. The current findings demonstrate that additional cognitive load during a speech intelligibility task could disturb the well-established relation between pupillary response and listening effort. Both the magnitude and temporal pattern of task-evoked pupillary response differ greatly in complex listening conditions, urging for more listening effort studies in complex and realistic listening situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Zhang
- Department of Otolaryngology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
- Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, Montreal, Canada
- Laboratory for Brain, Music and Sound Research, Montreal, Canada
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Music Media and Technology, Montreal, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Alexandre Lehmann
- Department of Otolaryngology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
- Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, Montreal, Canada
- Laboratory for Brain, Music and Sound Research, Montreal, Canada
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Music Media and Technology, Montreal, Canada
| | - Mickael Deroche
- Department of Otolaryngology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
- Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, Montreal, Canada
- Laboratory for Brain, Music and Sound Research, Montreal, Canada
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Music Media and Technology, Montreal, Canada
- Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada
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14
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Książek P, Zekveld AA, Wendt D, Fiedler L, Lunner T, Kramer SE. Effect of Speech-to-Noise Ratio and Luminance on a Range of Current and Potential Pupil Response Measures to Assess Listening Effort. Trends Hear 2021; 25:23312165211009351. [PMID: 33926329 PMCID: PMC8111552 DOI: 10.1177/23312165211009351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In hearing research, pupillometry is an established method of studying listening effort. The focus of this study was to evaluate several pupil measures extracted from the Task-Evoked Pupil Responses (TEPRs) in speech-in-noise test. A range of analysis approaches was applied to extract these pupil measures, namely (a) pupil peak dilation (PPD); (b) mean pupil dilation (MPD); (c) index of pupillary activity; (d) growth curve analysis (GCA); and (e) principal component analysis (PCA). The effect of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR; Data Set A: -20 dB, -10 dB, +5 dB SNR) and luminance (Data Set B: 0.1 cd/m2, 360 cd/m2) on the TEPRs were investigated. Data Sets A and B were recorded during a speech-in-noise test and included TEPRs from 33 and 27 normal-hearing native Dutch speakers, respectively. The main results were as follows: (a) A significant effect of SNR was revealed for all pupil measures extracted in the time domain (PPD, MPD, GCA, PCA); (b) Two time series analysis approaches (GCA, PCA) provided modeled temporal profiles of TEPRs (GCA); and time windows spanning subtasks performed in a speech-in-noise test (PCA); and (c) All pupil measures revealed a significant effect of luminance. In conclusion, multiple pupil measures showed similar effects of SNR, suggesting that effort may be reflected in multiple aspects of TEPR. Moreover, a direct analysis of the pupil time course seems to provide a more holistic view of TEPRs, yet further research is needed to understand and interpret its measures. Further research is also required to find pupil measures less sensitive to changes in luminance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrycja Książek
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Ear and Hearing, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Eriksholm Research Centre, Snekkersten, Denmark
| | - Adriana A. Zekveld
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Ear and Hearing, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Dorothea Wendt
- Eriksholm Research Centre, Snekkersten, Denmark
- Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | | | | | - Sophia E. Kramer
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Ear and Hearing, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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15
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Wong HK, Epps J, Chen S. A Comparison of Methods for Mitigating Within-Task Luminance Change for Eyewear-Based Cognitive Load Measurement. IEEE Trans Cogn Dev Syst 2020. [DOI: 10.1109/tcds.2018.2876348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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16
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Clewett D, Gasser C, Davachi L. Pupil-linked arousal signals track the temporal organization of events in memory. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4007. [PMID: 32782282 PMCID: PMC7421896 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-17851-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Everyday life unfolds continuously, yet we tend to remember past experiences as discrete event sequences or episodes. Although this phenomenon has been well documented, the neuromechanisms that support the transformation of continuous experience into distinct and memorable episodes remain unknown. Here, we show that changes in context, or event boundaries, elicit a burst of autonomic arousal, as indexed by pupil dilation. Event boundaries also lead to the segmentation of adjacent episodes in later memory, evidenced by changes in memory for the temporal duration, order, and perceptual details of recent event sequences. These subjective and objective changes in temporal memory are also related to distinct temporal features of pupil dilations to boundaries as well as to the temporal stability of more prolonged pupil-linked arousal states. Collectively, our findings suggest that pupil measures reflect both stability and change in ongoing mental context representations, which in turn shape the temporal structure of memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Clewett
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Camille Gasser
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lila Davachi
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
- Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, USA.
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17
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Castner N, Appel T, Eder T, Richter J, Scheiter K, Keutel C, Hüttig F, Duchowski A, Kasneci E. Pupil diameter differentiates expertise in dental radiography visual search. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0223941. [PMID: 32469952 PMCID: PMC7259659 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0223941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Expert behavior is characterized by rapid information processing abilities, dependent on more structured schemata in long-term memory designated for their domain-specific tasks. From this understanding, expertise can effectively reduce cognitive load on a domain-specific task. However, certain tasks could still evoke different gradations of load even for an expert, e.g., when having to detect subtle anomalies in dental radiographs. Our aim was to measure pupil diameter response to anomalies of varying levels of difficulty in expert and student dentists’ visual examination of panoramic radiographs. We found that students’ pupil diameter dilated significantly from baseline compared to experts, but anomaly difficulty had no effect on pupillary response. In contrast, experts’ pupil diameter responded to varying levels of anomaly difficulty, where more difficult anomalies evoked greater pupil dilation from baseline. Experts thus showed proportional pupillary response indicative of increasing cognitive load with increasingly difficult anomalies, whereas students showed pupillary response indicative of higher cognitive load for all anomalies when compared to experts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora Castner
- Human-Computer Interaction, Institute of Computer Science, University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Tobias Appel
- Human-Computer Interaction, Institute of Computer Science, University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Thérése Eder
- Multiple Representations Lab, Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Juliane Richter
- Multiple Representations Lab, Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Katharina Scheiter
- Multiple Representations Lab, Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tübingen, Germany
- University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Constanze Keutel
- Department of Oral- and Maxillofacial Radiology, University Clinic for Dentistry, Oral Medicine, and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Fabian Hüttig
- Department of Prosthodontics, University Clinic for Dentistry, Oral Medicine, and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andrew Duchowski
- Visual Computing, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Enkelejda Kasneci
- Human-Computer Interaction, Institute of Computer Science, University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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18
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Silverstein SM, Fradkin SI, Demmin DL. Schizophrenia and the retina: Towards a 2020 perspective. Schizophr Res 2020; 219:84-94. [PMID: 31708400 PMCID: PMC7202990 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2019.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2019] [Revised: 09/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Differences between people with schizophrenia and psychiatrically healthy controls have been consistently demonstrated on measures of retinal function such as electroretinography (ERG), and measures of retinal structure such as optical coherence tomography (OCT). Since our 2015 review of this literature, multiple new studies have been published using these techniques. At the same time, the accumulation of data has highlighted the "fault lines" in these fields, suggesting methodological considerations that need greater attention in future studies. METHODS We reviewed studies of ERG and OCT in schizophrenia, as well as data from studies whose findings are relevant to interpreting these papers, such as those on effects of the following on ERG and OCT data: comorbid medical conditions that are over-represented in schizophrenia, smoking, antipsychotic medication, substance abuse, sex and gender, obesity, attention, motivation, and influences of brain activity on retinal function. RESULTS Recent ERG and OCT studies continue to support the hypothesis of retinal structural and functional abnormalities in schizophrenia, and suggest that these are relevant to understanding broader aspects of pathophysiology, neurodevelopment, and neurodegeneration in this disorder. However, there are differences in findings which suggest that the effects of multiple variables on ERG and OCT data need further clarification. CONCLUSIONS The retina, as the only component of the CNS that can be imaged directly in live humans, has potential to clarify important aspects of schizophrenia. With greater attention to specific methodological issues, the true potential of ERG and OCT as biomarkers for important clinical phenomena in schizophrenia should become apparent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven M Silverstein
- Rutgers University Behavioral Health Care, United States; Rutgers University, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Departments of Psychiatry and Ophthalmology, United States.
| | | | - Docia L Demmin
- Rutgers University, Department of Psychology, United States.
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19
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Investigating sex differences, cognitive effort, strategy, and performance on a computerised version of the mental rotations test via eye tracking. Sci Rep 2019; 9:19430. [PMID: 31857671 PMCID: PMC6923419 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-56041-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Mental rotation tests (MRTs) have previously shown one of the most prominent sex differences in cognitive psychology, marked by a large male performance advantage. However, debate continues over the reasons for these sex differences. Previously, we used pupillometry to demonstrate sex differences in the cognitive effort invoked during the original MRT. Here, we evaluated the magnitude of sex differences during performance on a computerized version of the Vandenberg and Kuse MRT. Secondly, we examined whether fixation metrics could illuminate strategy use by participants. Finally, we used pupillometry to investigate whether cognitive effort differed between sexes and trials of different difficulty. While our results demonstrate no performance differences between sexes on the computerized MRT, fixation patterns provided evidence that gaze strategy was associated with performance on different parts of the test. Moreover, we show the cognitive demand of the V&K MRT, evidenced by large task dependent increases in participants’ pupil diameters.
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20
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Wong HK, Epps J, Chen S. Automatic Pupillary Light Reflex Detection in Eyewear Computing. IEEE Trans Cogn Dev Syst 2019. [DOI: 10.1109/tcds.2018.2880664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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21
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Gutjahr MO, Ellermeier W, Hardy S, Göbel S, Wiemeyer J. The pupil response as an indicator of user experience in a digital exercise game. Psychophysiology 2019; 56:e13418. [PMID: 31206737 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2018] [Revised: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
To study whether psychophysiological indicators are suitable measures of user experience in a digital exercise game (exergame), a laboratory study employing both psychophysiological and self-report measures was conducted. Sixty-six participants cycled for 10 min on an ergometer while pupil diameter, skin conductance, and heart rate were measured; afterward, they completed a user experience questionnaire. The participants performed under three experimental conditions varying between subjects: active gaming (participants controlled the altitude of a digital bird by varying their pedal rate in order to catch letters flying across the screen), observing a game (they observed a replay of another participant's game), and no-game (blank screen). Only the gaming condition showed evidence for statistically significant pupil dilations-indicating emotional arousal-in response to game events (catching a letter) or corresponding points in time. The observational condition did not differ statistically from the no-game control condition. Self-reports also indicated that the gaming condition was rated most fun and least demanding. Other psychophysiological indicators (heart rate, skin conductance) showed no systematic effects in response to game events, rather they steadily increased during training. Thus, pupil responses were shown to be suitable indicators of positive emotional reactions to game events and user experience in a (training) game.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael O Gutjahr
- Institute of Psychology, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Ellermeier
- Institute of Psychology, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Sandro Hardy
- Department of Electrical Engineering & Information Technology, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Stefan Göbel
- Department of Electrical Engineering & Information Technology, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Josef Wiemeyer
- Institute of Sports Science, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
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22
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Peinkhofer C, Knudsen GM, Moretti R, Kondziella D. Cortical modulation of pupillary function: systematic review. PeerJ 2019; 7:e6882. [PMID: 31119083 PMCID: PMC6510220 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.6882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The pupillary light reflex is the main mechanism that regulates the pupillary diameter; it is controlled by the autonomic system and mediated by subcortical pathways. In addition, cognitive and emotional processes influence pupillary function due to input from cortical innervation, but the exact circuits remain poorly understood. We performed a systematic review to evaluate the mechanisms behind pupillary changes associated with cognitive efforts and processing of emotions and to investigate the cerebral areas involved in cortical modulation of the pupillary light reflex. METHODOLOGY We searched multiple databases until November 2018 for studies on cortical modulation of pupillary function in humans and non-human primates. Of 8,809 papers screened, 258 studies were included. RESULTS Most investigators focused on pupillary dilatation and/or constriction as an index of cognitive and emotional processing, evaluating how changes in pupillary diameter reflect levels of attention and arousal. Only few tried to correlate specific cerebral areas to pupillary changes, using either cortical activation models (employing micro-stimulation of cortical structures in non-human primates) or cortical lesion models (e.g., investigating patients with stroke and damage to salient cortical and/or subcortical areas). Results suggest the involvement of several cortical regions, including the insular cortex (Brodmann areas 13 and 16), the frontal eye field (Brodmann area 8) and the prefrontal cortex (Brodmann areas 11 and 25), and of subcortical structures such as the locus coeruleus and the superior colliculus. CONCLUSIONS Pupillary dilatation occurs with many kinds of mental or emotional processes, following sympathetic activation or parasympathetic inhibition. Conversely, pupillary constriction may occur with anticipation of a bright stimulus (even in its absence) and relies on a parasympathetic activation. All these reactions are controlled by subcortical and cortical structures that are directly or indirectly connected to the brainstem pupillary innervation system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Costanza Peinkhofer
- Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Medical Faculty, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Gitte M. Knudsen
- Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Neurobiology Research Unit, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Faculty of Health and Medical Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Rita Moretti
- Medical Faculty, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
- Department of Medical, Surgical and Health Sciences, Neurological Unit, Trieste University Hospital, Cattinara, Trieste, Italy
| | - Daniel Kondziella
- Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Faculty of Health and Medical Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Neuroscience, Norwegian University of Technology and Science, Trondheim, Norway
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23
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van Rij J, Hendriks P, van Rijn H, Baayen RH, Wood SN. Analyzing the Time Course of Pupillometric Data. Trends Hear 2019; 23:2331216519832483. [PMID: 31081486 PMCID: PMC6535748 DOI: 10.1177/2331216519832483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Revised: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
This article provides a tutorial for analyzing pupillometric data. Pupil dilation has become increasingly popular in psychological and psycholinguistic research as a measure to trace language processing. However, there is no general consensus about procedures to analyze the data, with most studies analyzing extracted features from the pupil dilation data instead of analyzing the pupil dilation trajectories directly. Recent studies have started to apply nonlinear regression and other methods to analyze the pupil dilation trajectories directly, utilizing all available information in the continuously measured signal. This article applies a nonlinear regression analysis, generalized additive mixed modeling, and illustrates how to analyze the full-time course of the pupil dilation signal. The regression analysis is particularly suited for analyzing pupil dilation in the fields of psychological and psycholinguistic research because generalized additive mixed models can include complex nonlinear interactions for investigating the effects of properties of stimuli (e.g., formant frequency) or participants (e.g., working memory score) on the pupil dilation signal. To account for the variation due to participants and items, nonlinear random effects can be included. However, one of the challenges for analyzing time series data is dealing with the autocorrelation in the residuals, which is rather extreme for the pupillary signal. On the basis of simulations, we explain potential causes of this extreme autocorrelation, and on the basis of the experimental data, we show how to reduce their adverse effects, allowing a much more coherent interpretation of pupillary data than possible with feature-based techniques.
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24
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Abstract
Effort-based decision making paradigms are increasingly utilized to gain insight into the nature of motivation deficits. Although these tasks are being used to assess effort and motivation in schizophrenia, little work has been done to confirm that effort-based decision making tasks validly manipulate effort. In the current study, we adapted the effort component a cognitive effort-based decision making task (the Deck Choice Effort Task) for use with pupillometric assessment. We sought to confirm with psychophysiology that cognitive effort is manipulated. We also examined correlations between physiological indicators of effort exertion and cognition and negative symptoms. The results confirmed manipulation of cognitive effort: there was a significant difference in pupillary responses between easy and difficult task conditions. Pupillary responses were also correlated with cognitive ability, and with negative symptoms when controlling for cognition. Thus, our findings offer physiological validation of an effort manipulation included in a cognitive effort-based decision making task for schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Felice Reddy
- Department of Veterans Affairs VISN 22 Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Los Angeles, CA, United States; UCLA Semel Institute for Neuroscience & Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, United States.
| | - Eric A Reavis
- Department of Veterans Affairs VISN 22 Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Los Angeles, CA, United States; UCLA Semel Institute for Neuroscience & Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, United States
| | - Jonathan K Wynn
- Department of Veterans Affairs VISN 22 Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Los Angeles, CA, United States; UCLA Semel Institute for Neuroscience & Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, United States
| | - Michael F Green
- Department of Veterans Affairs VISN 22 Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Los Angeles, CA, United States; UCLA Semel Institute for Neuroscience & Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, United States
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25
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Nowack K, Van Der Meer E. The synchrony effect revisited: chronotype, time of day and cognitive performance in a semantic analogy task. Chronobiol Int 2018; 35:1647-1662. [DOI: 10.1080/07420528.2018.1500477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kati Nowack
- Department of Applied Media Science, Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus-Senftenberg, Cottbus, Germany
| | - Elke Van Der Meer
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Berlin, Germany
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26
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Winn MB, Wendt D, Koelewijn T, Kuchinsky SE. Best Practices and Advice for Using Pupillometry to Measure Listening Effort: An Introduction for Those Who Want to Get Started. Trends Hear 2018; 22:2331216518800869. [PMID: 30261825 PMCID: PMC6166306 DOI: 10.1177/2331216518800869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Revised: 08/07/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Within the field of hearing science, pupillometry is a widely used method for quantifying listening effort. Its use in research is growing exponentially, and many labs are (considering) applying pupillometry for the first time. Hence, there is a growing need for a methods paper on pupillometry covering topics spanning from experiment logistics and timing to data cleaning and what parameters to analyze. This article contains the basic information and considerations needed to plan, set up, and interpret a pupillometry experiment, as well as commentary about how to interpret the response. Included are practicalities like minimal system requirements for recording a pupil response and specifications for peripheral, equipment, experiment logistics and constraints, and different kinds of data processing. Additional details include participant inclusion and exclusion criteria and some methodological considerations that might not be necessary in other auditory experiments. We discuss what data should be recorded and how to monitor the data quality during recording in order to minimize artifacts. Data processing and analysis are considered as well. Finally, we share insights from the collective experience of the authors and discuss some of the challenges that still lie ahead.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B. Winn
- Speech-Language-Hearing Sciences,
University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Dorothea Wendt
- Eriksholm Research Centre, Snekkersten,
Denmark
- Hearing Systems, Department of
Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby,
Denmark
| | - Thomas Koelewijn
- Section Ear & Hearing, Department of
Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, VU
University Medical Center, the Netherlands
| | - Stefanie E. Kuchinsky
- National Military Audiology and Speech
Pathology Center, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, MD,
USA
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27
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Trani A, Verhaeghen P. Foggy windows: Pupillary responses during task preparation. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2018; 71:2235-2248. [PMID: 30226439 DOI: 10.1177/1747021817740856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We investigated pupil dilation in 96 subjects during task preparation and during a post-trial interval in a visual search task and an auditory working memory task. Completely informative difficulty cues (easy, medium, or hard) were presented right before task preparation to examine whether pupil dilation indicated advance mobilisation of attentional resources; functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have argued for the existence of such task preparation, and the literature shows that pupil dilation tracks attentional effort during task performance. We found, however, little evidence for such task preparation. In the working memory task, pupil size was identical across cues, and although pupil dilation in the visual search task tracked the cue, pupil dilation predicted subsequent performance in neither task. Pupil dilation patterns in the post-trial interval were more consistent with an effect of emotional reactivity. Our findings suggest that the mobilisation of attentional resources in the service of the task does not occur during the preparatory interval, but is delayed until the task itself is initiated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Trani
- School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Paul Verhaeghen
- School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
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28
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Pupil to pupil: The effect of a partner's pupil size on (dis)honest behavior. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2017.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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29
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Mosaly PR, Mazur LM, Marks LB. Quantification of baseline pupillary response and task-evoked pupillary response during constant and incremental task load. ERGONOMICS 2017; 60:1369-1375. [PMID: 28140793 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2017.1288930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The methods employed to quantify the baseline pupil size and task-evoked pupillary response (TEPR) may affect the overall study results. To test this hypothesis, the objective of this study was to assess variability in baseline pupil size and TEPR during two basic working memory tasks: constant load of 3-letters memorisation-recall (10 trials), and incremental load memorisation-recall (two trials of each load level), using two commonly used methods (1) change from trail/load specific baseline, (2) change from constant baseline. Results indicated that there was a significant shift in baseline between the trails for constant load, and between the load levels for incremental load. The TEPR was independent of shifts in baseline using method 1 only for constant load, and method 2 only for higher levels of incremental load condition. These important findings suggest that the assessment of both the baseline and methods to quantify TEPR are critical in ergonomics application, especially in studies with small number of trials per subject per condition. Practitioner Summary: Quantification of TEPR can be affected by shifts in baseline pupil size that are most likely affected by non-cognitive factors when other external factors are kept constant. Therefore, quantification methods employed to compute both baseline and TEPR are critical in understanding the information processing of humans in practical ergonomics settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prithima R Mosaly
- a Division of Healthcare Engineering, Department of Radiation Oncology , University of North Carolina Chapel Hill , NC , USA
- b Carolina Health Informatics Program , School of Information and Library Science, University of North Carolina , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | - Lukasz M Mazur
- a Division of Healthcare Engineering, Department of Radiation Oncology , University of North Carolina Chapel Hill , NC , USA
- b Carolina Health Informatics Program , School of Information and Library Science, University of North Carolina , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | - Lawrence B Marks
- a Division of Healthcare Engineering, Department of Radiation Oncology , University of North Carolina Chapel Hill , NC , USA
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30
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Eckstein MK, Guerra-Carrillo B, Miller Singley AT, Bunge SA. Beyond eye gaze: What else can eyetracking reveal about cognition and cognitive development? Dev Cogn Neurosci 2017; 25:69-91. [PMID: 27908561 PMCID: PMC6987826 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2016.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 247] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Revised: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
This review provides an introduction to two eyetracking measures that can be used to study cognitive development and plasticity: pupil dilation and spontaneous blink rate. We begin by outlining the rich history of gaze analysis, which can reveal the current focus of attention as well as cognitive strategies. We then turn to the two lesser-utilized ocular measures. Pupil dilation is modulated by the brain's locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system, which controls physiological arousal and attention, and has been used as a measure of subjective task difficulty, mental effort, and neural gain. Spontaneous eyeblink rate correlates with levels of dopamine in the central nervous system, and can reveal processes underlying learning and goal-directed behavior. Taken together, gaze, pupil dilation, and blink rate are three non-invasive and complementary measures of cognition with high temporal resolution and well-understood neural foundations. Here we review the neural foundations of pupil dilation and blink rate, provide examples of their usage, describe analytic methods and methodological considerations, and discuss their potential for research on learning, cognitive development, and plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria K Eckstein
- Department of Psychology, University of California at Berkeley, United States
| | | | | | - Silvia A Bunge
- Department of Psychology, University of California at Berkeley, United States; Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California at Berkeley, United States.
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Naqvi RA, Arsalan M, Park KR. Fuzzy System-Based Target Selection for a NIR Camera-Based Gaze Tracker. SENSORS 2017; 17:s17040862. [PMID: 28420114 PMCID: PMC5424739 DOI: 10.3390/s17040862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Revised: 03/29/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Gaze-based interaction (GBI) techniques have been a popular subject of research in the last few decades. Among other applications, GBI can be used by persons with disabilities to perform everyday tasks, as a game interface, and can play a pivotal role in the human computer interface (HCI) field. While gaze tracking systems have shown high accuracy in GBI, detecting a user’s gaze for target selection is a challenging problem that needs to be considered while using a gaze detection system. Past research has used the blinking of the eyes for this purpose as well as dwell time-based methods, but these techniques are either inconvenient for the user or requires a long time for target selection. Therefore, in this paper, we propose a method for fuzzy system-based target selection for near-infrared (NIR) camera-based gaze trackers. The results of experiments performed in addition to tests of the usability and on-screen keyboard use of the proposed method show that it is better than previous methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rizwan Ali Naqvi
- Division of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Dongguk University, 30 Pildong-ro 1-gil, Jung-gu, Seoul 100-715, Korea.
| | - Muhammad Arsalan
- Division of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Dongguk University, 30 Pildong-ro 1-gil, Jung-gu, Seoul 100-715, Korea.
| | - Kang Ryoung Park
- Division of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Dongguk University, 30 Pildong-ro 1-gil, Jung-gu, Seoul 100-715, Korea.
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Pupillary response indexes the metrical hierarchy of unattended rhythmic violations. Brain Cogn 2016; 111:95-103. [PMID: 27816784 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2016.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Revised: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The perception of music is a complex interaction between what we hear and our interpretation. This is reflected in beat perception, in which a listener infers a regular pulse from a musical rhythm. Although beat perception is a fundamental human ability, it is still unknown whether attention to the music is necessary to establish the perception of stronger and weaker beats, or meter. In addition, to what extent beat perception is dependent on musical expertise is still a matter of debate. Here, we address these questions by measuring the pupillary response to omissions at different metrical positions in drum rhythms, while participants attended to another task. We found that the omission of the salient first beat elicited a larger pupil dilation than the omission of the less-salient second beat. This result shows that participants not only detected the beat without explicit attention to the music, but also perceived a metrical hierarchy of stronger and weaker beats. This suggests that hierarchical beat perception is an automatic process that requires no or minimal attentional resources. In addition, we found no evidence for the hypothesis that hierarchical beat perception is affected by musical expertise, suggesting that elementary beat perception might be independent from musical expertise. Finally, our results show that pupil dilation reflects surprise without explicit attention, demonstrating that the pupil is an accessible index to signatures of unattentive processing.
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Winn MB. Rapid Release From Listening Effort Resulting From Semantic Context, and Effects of Spectral Degradation and Cochlear Implants. Trends Hear 2016; 20:2331216516669723. [PMID: 27698260 PMCID: PMC5051669 DOI: 10.1177/2331216516669723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Revised: 08/26/2016] [Accepted: 08/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
People with hearing impairment are thought to rely heavily on context to compensate for reduced audibility. Here, we explore the resulting cost of this compensatory behavior, in terms of effort and the efficiency of ongoing predictive language processing. The listening task featured predictable or unpredictable sentences, and participants included people with cochlear implants as well as people with normal hearing who heard full-spectrum/unprocessed or vocoded speech. The crucial metric was the growth of the pupillary response and the reduction of this response for predictable versus unpredictable sentences, which would suggest reduced cognitive load resulting from predictive processing. Semantic context led to rapid reduction of listening effort for people with normal hearing; the reductions were observed well before the offset of the stimuli. Effort reduction was slightly delayed for people with cochlear implants and considerably more delayed for normal-hearing listeners exposed to spectrally degraded noise-vocoded signals; this pattern of results was maintained even when intelligibility was perfect. Results suggest that speed of sentence processing can still be disrupted, and exertion of effort can be elevated, even when intelligibility remains high. We discuss implications for experimental and clinical assessment of speech recognition, in which good performance can arise because of cognitive processes that occur after a stimulus, during a period of silence. Because silent gaps are not common in continuous flowing speech, the cognitive/linguistic restorative processes observed after sentences in such studies might not be available to listeners in everyday conversations, meaning that speech recognition in conventional tests might overestimate sentence-processing capability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B. Winn
- Department of Speech & Hearing Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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Toscano-Zapién AL, Velázquez-López D, Velázquez-Martínez DN. Attentional Mechanisms during the Performance of a Subsecond Timing Task. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0158508. [PMID: 27467762 PMCID: PMC4965134 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0158508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
There is evidence that timing processes in the suprasecond scale are modulated by attentional mechanisms; in addition, some studies have shown that attentional mechanisms also affect timing in the subsecond scale. Our aim was to study eye movements and pupil diameter during a temporal bisection task in the subsecond range. Subjects were trained to discriminate anchor intervals of 200 or 800 msec, and were then confronted with intermediate durations. Eye movements revealed that subjects used different cognitive strategies during the bisection timing task. When the stimulus to be timed appeared randomly at a central or 4 peripheral positions on a screen, some subjects choose to maintain their gaze toward the central area while other followed the peripheral placement of the stimulus; some others subjects used both strategies. The time of subjective equality did not differ between subjects who employed different attentional mechanisms. However, differences emerged in the timing variance and attentional indexes (time taken to initial fixation, latency to respond, pupil dilatation and duration and number of fixations to stimulus areas). Timing in the subsecond range seems invariant despite the use of different attentional strategies. Future research should determine whether the selection of attentional mechanisms is related to particular timing tasks or instructions or whether it represents idiosyncratic cognitive “styles”.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna L. Toscano-Zapién
- Departamento de Psicofisiologia, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, D.F. México, 04510, México
| | - Daniel Velázquez-López
- Departamento de Matemáticas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, D.F. México, 04510, México
| | - David N. Velázquez-Martínez
- Departamento de Psicofisiologia, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, D.F. México, 04510, México
- * E-mail:
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Verney SP, Granholm E, Marshall SP, Malcarne VL, Saccuzzo DP. Culture-Fair Cognitive Ability Assessment. Assessment 2016; 12:303-19. [PMID: 16123251 DOI: 10.1177/1073191105276674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Valid assessment with diverse populations requires tools that are not influenced by cultural elements. This study investigated the relationships between culture, information processing efficiency, and general cognitive capacities in samples of Caucasian and Mexican American college students. Consistent with the neural efficiency hypothesis, pupillary responses (indexing mental effort) and detection accuracy scores on a visual backward-masking task were both significantly related to the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) Full Scale scores. These measures of information processing efficiency were similar in the two groups. However, they were related only to Caucasian American, but not to a comparable sample of Mexican American, students’ WAIS-R scores. Therefore, the differential validity in prediction suggests that the WAIS-R test may contain cultural influences that reduce the validity of the WAIS-R as a measure of cognitive ability for Mexican American students. Information processing and psychophysiological approaches may be helpful in developing culture-fair cognitive ability measures.
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Wendt D, Dau T, Hjortkjær J. Impact of Background Noise and Sentence Complexity on Processing Demands during Sentence Comprehension. Front Psychol 2016; 7:345. [PMID: 27014152 PMCID: PMC4785151 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Speech comprehension in adverse listening conditions can be effortful even when speech is fully intelligible. Acoustical distortions typically make speech comprehension more effortful, but effort also depends on linguistic aspects of the speech signal, such as its syntactic complexity. In the present study, pupil dilations, and subjective effort ratings were recorded in 20 normal-hearing participants while performing a sentence comprehension task. The sentences were either syntactically simple (subject-first sentence structure) or complex (object-first sentence structure) and were presented in two levels of background noise both corresponding to high intelligibility. A digit span and a reading span test were used to assess individual differences in the participants' working memory capacity (WMC). The results showed that the subjectively rated effort was mostly affected by the noise level and less by syntactic complexity. Conversely, pupil dilations increased with syntactic complexity but only showed a small effect of the noise level. Participants with higher WMC showed increased pupil responses in the higher-level noise condition but rated sentence comprehension as being less effortful compared to participants with lower WMC. Overall, the results demonstrate that pupil dilations and subjectively rated effort represent different aspects of effort. Furthermore, the results indicate that effort can vary in situations with high speech intelligibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothea Wendt
- Hearing Systems, Hearing Systems Group, Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of DenmarkKongens Lyngby, Denmark; Eriksholm Research CentreSnekkersten, Denmark
| | - Torsten Dau
- Hearing Systems, Hearing Systems Group, Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Jens Hjortkjær
- Hearing Systems, Hearing Systems Group, Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of DenmarkKongens Lyngby, Denmark; Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Centre for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University Hospital HvidovreHvidovre, Denmark
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Ong Lai Teik D, Lee XS, Lim CJ, Low CM, Muslima M, Aquili L. Ginseng and Ginkgo Biloba Effects on Cognition as Modulated by Cardiovascular Reactivity: A Randomised Trial. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0150447. [PMID: 26938637 PMCID: PMC4777384 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0150447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Accepted: 02/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background There is some evidence to suggest that ginseng and Ginkgo biloba can improve cognitive performance, however, very little is known about the mechanisms associated with such improvement. Here, we tested whether cardiovascular reactivity to a task is associated with cognitive improvement. Methodology/Principal findings Using a double-blind, placebo controlled, crossover design, participants (N = 24) received two doses of Panax Ginseng (500, 1000 mg) or Ginkgo Biloba (120, 240 mg) (N = 24), and underwent a series of cognitive tests while systolic, diastolic, and heart rate readings were taken. Ginkgo Biloba improved aspects of executive functioning (Stroop and Berg tasks) in females but not in males. Ginseng had no effect on cognition. Ginkgo biloba in females reversed the initial (i.e. placebo) increase in cardiovascular reactivity (systolic and diastolic readings increased compared to baseline) to cognitive tasks. This effect (reversal) was most notable after those tasks (Stroop and Iowa) that elicited the greatest cardiovascular reactivity during placebo. In males, although ginkgo also decreased cardiovascular readings, it did so from an initial (placebo) blunted response (i.e. decrease or no change from baseline) to cognitive tasks. Ginseng, on the contrary, increased cardiovascular readings compared to placebo. Conclusions/Significance These results suggest that cardiovascular reactivity may be a mechanism by which ginkgo but not ginseng, in females is associated with certain forms of cognitive improvement. Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02386852
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Xiao Shiang Lee
- Department of Psychology, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
| | - Chu Jian Lim
- Department of Psychology, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
| | - Chia Mei Low
- Department of Psychology, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
| | - Mariyam Muslima
- Department of Psychology, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
| | - Luca Aquili
- Department of Psychology, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
- * E-mail:
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Cross-Modal and Intra-Modal Characteristics of Visual Function and Speech Perception Performance in Postlingually Deafened, Cochlear Implant Users. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0148466. [PMID: 26848755 PMCID: PMC4743927 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0148466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Accepted: 01/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence of visual-auditory cross-modal plasticity in deaf individuals has been widely reported. Superior visual abilities of deaf individuals have been shown to result in enhanced reactivity to visual events and/or enhanced peripheral spatial attention. The goal of this study was to investigate the association between visual-auditory cross-modal plasticity and speech perception in post-lingually deafened, adult cochlear implant (CI) users. Post-lingually deafened adults with CIs (N = 14) and a group of normal hearing, adult controls (N = 12) participated in this study. The CI participants were divided into a good performer group (good CI, N = 7) and a poor performer group (poor CI, N = 7) based on word recognition scores. Visual evoked potentials (VEP) were recorded from the temporal and occipital cortex to assess reactivity. Visual field (VF) testing was used to assess spatial attention and Goldmann perimetry measures were analyzed to identify differences across groups in the VF. The association of the amplitude of the P1 VEP response over the right temporal or occipital cortex among three groups (control, good CI, poor CI) was analyzed. In addition, the association between VF by different stimuli and word perception score was evaluated. The P1 VEP amplitude recorded from the right temporal cortex was larger in the group of poorly performing CI users than the group of good performers. The P1 amplitude recorded from electrodes near the occipital cortex was smaller for the poor performing group. P1 VEP amplitude in right temporal lobe was negatively correlated with speech perception outcomes for the CI participants (r = -0.736, P = 0.003). However, P1 VEP amplitude measures recorded from near the occipital cortex had a positive correlation with speech perception outcome in the CI participants (r = 0.775, P = 0.001). In VF analysis, CI users showed narrowed central VF (VF to low intensity stimuli). However, their far peripheral VF (VF to high intensity stimuli) was not different from the controls. In addition, the extent of their central VF was positively correlated with speech perception outcome (r = 0.669, P = 0.009). Persistent visual activation in right temporal cortex even after CI causes negative effect on outcome in post-lingual deaf adults. We interpret these results to suggest that insufficient intra-modal (visual) compensation by the occipital cortex may cause negative effects on outcome. Based on our results, it appears that a narrowed central VF could help identify CI users with poor outcomes with their device.
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Costs of storing colour and complex shape in visual working memory: Insights from pupil size and slow waves. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2015; 158:67-77. [PMID: 25939139 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2015.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2014] [Revised: 03/17/2015] [Accepted: 04/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the impact of perceptual processing demands on visual working memory of coloured complex random polygons during change detection. Processing load was assessed by pupil size (Exp. 1) and additionally slow wave potentials (Exp. 2). Task difficulty was manipulated by presenting different set sizes (1, 2, 4 items) and by making different features (colour, shape, or both) task-relevant. Memory performance in the colour condition was better than in the shape and both condition which did not differ. Pupil dilation and the posterior N1 increased with set size independent of type of feature. In contrast, slow waves and a posterior P2 component showed set size effects but only if shape was task-relevant. In the colour condition slow waves did not vary with set size. We suggest that pupil size and N1 indicates different states of attentional effort corresponding to the number of presented items. In contrast, slow waves reflect processes related to encoding and maintenance strategies. The observation that their potentials vary with the type of feature (simple colour versus complex shape) indicates that perceptual complexity already influences encoding and storage and not only comparison of targets with memory entries at the moment of testing.
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Lee G, Ojha A, Kang JS, Lee M. Modulation of resource allocation by intelligent individuals in linguistic, mathematical and visuo-spatial tasks. Int J Psychophysiol 2015; 97:14-22. [PMID: 25931113 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2014] [Revised: 04/21/2015] [Accepted: 04/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This study investigates two questions: first, how individuals with high-intelligence allocate cognitive resources while solving linguistic, mathematical and visuo-spatial tasks with varying degree of difficulty as compared to individuals with low intelligence? Second, how to distinguish between high and low intelligent individuals by analyzing pupil dilation and eye blink together? We measured the response time, error rates along with pupil dilation and eye blink rate that indicate resource allocation. We divided the whole processing into three stages namely: pre-stimuli (5s prior to stimuli onset), during stimuli and post stimuli (until 5s after the response) for better assessment of preparation and resource allocation strategies. Individuals with high intelligence showed greater task evoked pupil dilation, decreased eye blink with less response time and error rates during-stimuli stage (processing) of tough linguistic and visuo-spatial tasks but not during mathematical tasks. The finding suggests that individuals with high intelligence allocate more resources if the task demands are high else they allocate less resources. Greater pre-stimuli pupil dilation and increased eye blink of high intelligent individuals in all tasks indicated their attentiveness and preparedness. The result of our study shows that individuals with high intelligence are more attentive and flexible in terms of altering the resource allocation strategy according to task demand. Eye-blinks along with pupil dilation and other behavioral parameters can be reliably used to assess the intelligence of an individual and the analysis of pupil dilation and blink rate at pre-stimuli stage can be crucial in distinguishing individuals with varying intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giyoung Lee
- School of Electronics Engineering, Kyungpook National University, 1370 Sankyuk-Dong, Puk-Gu, Taegu 702-701, Republic of Korea.
| | - Amitash Ojha
- School of Electronics Engineering, Kyungpook National University, 1370 Sankyuk-Dong, Puk-Gu, Taegu 702-701, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jun-Su Kang
- School of Electronics Engineering, Kyungpook National University, 1370 Sankyuk-Dong, Puk-Gu, Taegu 702-701, Republic of Korea.
| | - Minho Lee
- School of Electronics Engineering, Kyungpook National University, 1370 Sankyuk-Dong, Puk-Gu, Taegu 702-701, Republic of Korea.
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Erstenyuk V, Swanson MR, Siller M. Pupillary responses during a joint attention task are associated with nonverbal cognitive abilities and sub-clinical symptoms of autism. RESEARCH IN AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS 2014; 8:644-653. [PMID: 25821516 PMCID: PMC4376279 DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2014.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Measures of pupillary dilation provide a temporally sensitive, quantitative indicator of cognitive resource allocation. The current study included 39 typically developing children between 3 and 9 years of age. Children completed a free-viewing task designed to elicit gaze following, a core deficit of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Results revealed a negative association between children's pupil dilation and a standardized measure of nonverbal intelligence, suggesting that children with lower intelligence allocated more cognitive resources than children with higher intelligence. In addition, the results revealed a negative association between pupil dilation and a parent-report measure of sub-clinical symptoms of ASD, suggesting that children with fewer ASD-related symptoms allocated more cognitive resources than children who showed more sub-clinical symptoms of ASD. Both associations were independent of each other and could not be explained by variation in chronological age. These findings extend previous research demonstrating associations between basic aspects of visual processing and intelligence. In addition, these findings comport with recent theories of ASD that emphasize reduced sensitivity to the reward value of social situations. When confronted with social ambiguity, children with more ASD-related symptoms allocated fewer cognitive resources to resolving this ambiguity than children who showed fewer sub-clinical symptoms of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentyna Erstenyuk
- Hunter College, City University of New York, 695 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Meghan R. Swanson
- Hunter College, City University of New York, 695 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
- The Graduate Center of City University of New York, 365 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10016-4309, USA
| | - Michael Siller
- Hunter College, City University of New York, 695 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
- The Graduate Center of City University of New York, 365 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10016-4309, USA
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Nowack K, van der Meer E. Impact of chronotype and time perspective on the processing of scripts. Int J Psychophysiol 2014; 92:49-58. [PMID: 24548429 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2014.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2013] [Revised: 02/07/2014] [Accepted: 02/11/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the impact of temporal orientation (chronotype; time perspective) on cognitive performance. This study adopted a psychophysiological approach to explore how chronotype (morningness-eveningness) and time perspective (present; future) influence time succession as another aspect of psychological time that is entailed within script knowledge. In a temporal judgment task, participants decided which of the two presented sub-events (e.g., get new batteries-set right time on alarm clock) comes earlier (or later) within a given script (e.g., changing batteries in an alarm clock). Behavioral and pupillary data suggest a differential impact of chronotype and time perspective on script knowledge and cognitive performance. The impact of time perspective on the processing of temporal information entailed in script knowledge appears linked to match or mismatch conditions between a strong focus on future outcomes associated with future time perspective and the task of identifying either the later (future-oriented) or the earlier (past-oriented) sub-event. Concerning the chronotype, evening types process items in which chronological time succession is violated (i.e., reversely presented items) more accurately than morning types. Indexed by pupillary data, the impact of chronotype may relate to more general cognitive abilities. The psychophysiological data derived in this study suggests that evening types typically outperform morning types in various measures such working memory capacity and verbal intelligence simply because they invest more cognitive resources than morning types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kati Nowack
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt University Berlin, Germany.
| | - Elke van der Meer
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt University Berlin, Germany; Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Germany
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Zekveld AA, Kramer SE. Cognitive processing load across a wide range of listening conditions: Insights from pupillometry. Psychophysiology 2014; 51:277-84. [DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2012] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Adriana A. Zekveld
- ENT/Audiology and the EMGO+ Institute for Health and Care Research; VU University Medical Center; Amsterdam The Netherlands
- Department of Behavioural Sciences and Learning; Linköping University; Linköping Sweden
- Linnaeus Centre HEAD; The Swedish Institute for Disability Research; Linköping and Örebro Universities; Linköping Sweden
| | - Sophia E. Kramer
- ENT/Audiology and the EMGO+ Institute for Health and Care Research; VU University Medical Center; Amsterdam The Netherlands
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Burge WK, Ross LA, Amthor FR, Mitchell WG, Zotov A, Visscher KM. Processing speed training increases the efficiency of attentional resource allocation in young adults. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 7:684. [PMID: 24151461 PMCID: PMC3799007 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2013] [Accepted: 09/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive training has been shown to improve performance on a range of tasks. However, the mechanisms underlying these improvements are still unclear. Given the wide range of transfer effects, it is likely that these effects are due to a factor common to a wide range of tasks. One such factor is a participant's efficiency in allocating limited cognitive resources. The impact of a cognitive training program, Processing Speed Training (PST), on the allocation of resources to a set of visual tasks was measured using pupillometry in 10 young adults as compared to a control group of a 10 young adults (n = 20). PST is a well-studied computerized training program that involves identifying simultaneously presented central and peripheral stimuli. As training progresses, the task becomes increasingly more difficult, by including peripheral distracting stimuli and decreasing the duration of stimulus presentation. Analysis of baseline data confirmed that pupil diameter reflected cognitive effort. After training, participants randomized to PST used fewer attentional resources to perform complex visual tasks as compared to the control group. These pupil diameter data indicated that PST appears to increase the efficiency of attentional resource allocation. Increases in cognitive efficiency have been hypothesized to underlie improvements following experience with action video games, and improved cognitive efficiency has been hypothesized to underlie the benefits of PST in older adults. These data reveal that these training schemes may share a common underlying mechanism of increasing cognitive efficiency in younger adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wesley K Burge
- Department of Psychology, Roybal Center for Research on Applied Gerontology, University of Alabama at Birmingham Birmingham, AL, USA
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Zekveld AA, Festen JM, Kramer SE. Task difficulty differentially affects two measures of processing load: the pupil response during sentence processing and delayed cued recall of the sentences. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH : JSLHR 2013; 56:1156-1165. [PMID: 23785182 DOI: 10.1044/1092-4388(2012/12-0058)] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE In this study, the authors assessed the influence of masking level (29% or 71% sentence perception) and test modality on the processing load during language perception as reflected by the pupil response. In addition, the authors administered a delayed cued stimulus recall test to examine whether processing load affected the encoding of the stimuli in memory. METHOD Participants performed speech and text reception threshold tests, during which the pupil response was measured. In the cued recall test, the first half of correctly perceived sentences was presented, and participants were asked to complete the sentences. Reading and listening span tests of working memory capacity were presented as well. RESULTS Regardless of test modality, the pupil response indicated higher processing load in the 29% condition than in the 71% correct condition. Cued recall was better for the 29% condition. CONCLUSIONS The consistent effect of masking level on the pupil response during listening and reading support the validity of the pupil response as a measure of processing load during language perception. The absent relation between pupil response and cued recall may suggest that cued recall is not directly related to processing load, as reflected by the pupil response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana A Zekveld
- The EMGO+ Institute for Health and Care Research, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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Ren P, Barreto A, Huang J, Gao Y, Ortega FR, Adjouadi M. Off-line and on-line stress detection through processing of the pupil diameter signal. Ann Biomed Eng 2013; 42:162-76. [PMID: 23904050 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-013-0880-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2013] [Accepted: 07/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The pupil diameter (PD), controlled by the autonomic nervous system, seems to provide a strong indication of affective arousal, as found by previous research, but it has not been investigated fully yet. In this study, new approaches based on monitoring and processing the PD signal for off-line and on-line "relaxation" vs. "stress" differentiation are proposed. For the off-line approach, wavelet denoising, Kalman filtering, data normalization, and feature extraction are sequentially utilized. For the on-line approach, a hard threshold, a moving average window and three stress detection steps are implemented. In order to use only the most reliable data, two types of data selection methods (paired t test based on galvanic skin response (GSR) data and subject self-evaluation) are applied, achieving average classification accuracies up to 86.43 and 87.20% for off-line and 72.30 and 73.55% for on-line algorithms, with each set of selected data, respectively. The GSR was also monitored and processed in our experiments for comparison purposes, with the highest classification rate achieved being only 63.57% (based on the off-line processing algorithm). The overall results show that the PD signal is more effective and robust for differentiating "relaxation" vs. "stress," in comparison with the traditionally used GSR signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Ren
- Biomedical Engineering Department, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33174, USA,
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Wykowska A, Anderl C, Schubö A, Hommel B. Motivation modulates visual attention: evidence from pupillometry. Front Psychol 2013; 4:59. [PMID: 23407868 PMCID: PMC3569841 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2012] [Accepted: 01/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that action planning does not only affect the preparation and execution of overt actions but also "works back" to tune the perceptual system toward action-relevant information. We investigated whether the amount of this impact of action planning on perceptual selection varies as a function of motivation for action, which was assessed online by means of pupillometry (Experiment 1) and visual analog scales (VAS, Experiment 2). Findings replicate the earlier observation that searching for size-defined targets is more efficient in the context of grasping than in the context of pointing movements (Wykowska et al., 2009). As expected, changes in tonic pupil size (reflecting changes in effort and motivation) across the sessions, as well as changes in motivation-related scores on the VAS were found to correlate with changes in the size of the action-perception congruency effect. We conclude that motivation and effort might play a crucial role in how much participants prepare for an action and activate action codes. The degree of activation of action codes in turn influences the observed action-related biases on perception.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christine Anderl
- Ludwig Maximilian UniversityMunich, Germany
- Leiden UniversityLeiden, Netherlands
- Goethe UniversityFrankfurt, Germany
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Nowack K, Milfont TL, van der Meer E. Future versus present: Time perspective and pupillary response in a relatedness judgment task investigating temporal event knowledge. Int J Psychophysiol 2013; 87:173-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2012.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2012] [Revised: 12/07/2012] [Accepted: 12/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Kuchinsky SE, Ahlstrom JB, Vaden KI, Cute SL, Humes LE, Dubno JR, Eckert MA. Pupil size varies with word listening and response selection difficulty in older adults with hearing loss. Psychophysiology 2012; 50:23-34. [PMID: 23157603 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2012.01477.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2012] [Accepted: 09/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Listening to speech in noise can be exhausting, especially for older adults with impaired hearing. Pupil dilation is thought to track the difficulty associated with listening to speech at various intelligibility levels for young and middle-aged adults. This study examined changes in the pupil response with acoustic and lexical manipulations of difficulty in older adults with hearing loss. Participants identified words at two signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) among options that could include a similar-sounding lexical competitor. Growth Curve Analyses revealed that the pupil response was affected by an SNR × Lexical competition interaction, such that it was larger and more delayed and sustained in the harder SNR condition, particularly in the presence of lexical competition. Pupillometry detected these effects for correct trials and across reaction times, suggesting it provides additional evidence of task difficulty than behavioral measures alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie E Kuchinsky
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charlston, South Carolina 29425, USA. or
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Anderson CJ, Colombo J, Unruh KE. Pupil and salivary indicators of autonomic dysfunction in autism spectrum disorder. Dev Psychobiol 2012; 55:465-82. [PMID: 22644965 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2011] [Accepted: 05/02/2012] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Dysregulated tonic pupil size has been reported in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Among the possible sources of this dysregulation are disruptions in the feedback loop between norepinephrine (NE) and hypothalamic systems. In the current study, we examined afternoon levels of salivary alpha-amylase (sAA, a putative correlate of NE) and cortisol (used to assess stress-based responses) in two independent samples of children with ASD. We found a larger pupil size and lower sAA levels in ASD, compared to typical and clinical age-matched controls. This was substantiated at the individual level, as sAA levels were strongly correlated with tonic pupil size. Relatively little diurnal variation in sAA taken in the home environment in the ASD group was also observed, while typical controls showed a significant linear increase throughout the day. Results are discussed in terms of potential early biomarkers and the elucidation of underlying neural dysfunction in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christa J Anderson
- Life Span Institute, Neurocognitive Development of Autism Research Laboratory, The University of Kansas, 1000 Sunnyside Avenue, Room 1052, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA.
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