Error-related brain activity in the age of RDoC: A review of the literature

The Balance N1 Is Larger in Children With Anxiety and Associated With the Error-Related Negativity

Background

The error-related negativity (ERN) is a brain response evoked by mistakes in cognitive tasks that is enhanced with anxiety and can predict the subsequent onset or exacerbation of anxiety in children and adolescents. A physical disturbance to standing balance evokes a brain response called the balance N1 that resembles the ERN in scalp topography and in response to a variety of moderating factors. We recently found that the balance N1 and ERN correlate in amplitude across small samples of adults.

Methods

In the current study, we tested the effect of anxiety on the balance N1 in children (ages 9-12 years) with and without diagnosed anxiety disorders (38 children with generalized anxiety, social anxiety, and/or obsessive-compulsive disorder and 50 children without these disorders). We measured the balance N1 in response to sudden release of support from a forward leaning posture, the ERN in response to mistakes on a Go/NoGo task, and anxiety symptoms using child- and parent-report forms of the Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders.

Results

Both the balance N1 and the ERN were larger in the anxious group. The balance N1 was also associated with both the ERN and parent report of child anxiety symptom severity across individuals.

Conclusions

The higher measurement reliability of the balance N1 than the ERN and greater experimental control over errors suggest that balance paradigms may provide a more powerful method for investigating individual differences in error-related brain activity related to anxiety.

Characterizing within-person variance in, and menstrual cycle associations with, event-related potentials associated with positive and negative valence systems: The reward positivity and the error-related negativity

Event-related potentials (ERPs) are widely employed as measures of transdiagnostic cognitive processes that are thought to underlie various clinical disorders (Hajcak et al., 2019). Despite their prevalent use as individual difference measures, the effects of within-person processes, such as the human menstrual cycle, on a broad range of ERPs are poorly understood. The present study leveraged a within-subject design to characterize between- and within-person variance in ERPs as well as effects of the menstrual cycle in two frequently studied ERPs associated with positive and negative valence systems underlying psychopathology-the Reward Positivity (RewP) and the Error- Related Negativity (ERN). Seventy-one naturally-cycling participants completed repeated EEG and ecological momentary assessments of positive and negative affect in the menstrual cycle's early follicular, periovulatory, and mid-luteal phases. We examined the mean degree of change between cycle phases in both ERPs, the between-person variability in the degree of change in both ERPs, and whether an individual's degree of cyclical change in these ERPs show coherence with their degree of cyclical change in positive and negative affect recorded across the cycle. Results revealed no significant changes in positive and negative affect across the cycle and rather small changes in ERP amplitudes. Significant random slopes in our model revealed larger individual differences in trajectories of change in ERP amplitudes and affect, in agreement with prior evidence of heterogeneity in dimensional hormone sensitivity. Additionally, state-variance in these ERPs correlated with positive and negative affect changes across the cycle, suggesting that cycle-mediated ERP changes may have relevance for affect and behavior. Finally, exploratory latent class growth mixture modeling revealed subgroups of individuals that display disparate patterns of change in ERPs that should be further investigated.

No association between error-related ERPs and trait anxiety in a nonclinical sample: Convergence across analytical methods including mass-univariate statistics

Enhanced error monitoring, as indexed by increased amplitude of the error-related negativity (ERN) event-related potential (ERP) component, has been suggested to reflect a vulnerability neuro-marker of anxiety disorders. Another error-related ERP component is the error positivity (Pe), which reflects late-stage error processing. The associations between heightened ERN and Pe amplitudes and anxiety levels in the nonclinical population have been inconsistent. In this preregistered study, we examined the association between anxiety, ERN, and Pe, using different analytical methods (mass-univariate analyses, MUAs and conventional analyses), self-reported anxiety scales (STAI and STICSA), and trial numbers (all correct trials and equal numbers of correct and error trials). In a sample of 82 healthy adults, both conventional and MUAs demonstrated a robust enhancement of the ERN and Pe to errors relative to the correct-response ERPs. However, the mass-univariate approach additionally unveiled a wider array of electrodes and a longer effect duration for this error enhancement. Across the analytic methods, the results showed a lack of consistent correlation between trait anxiety and error-related ERPs. Findings were not modulated by trial numbers, analyses, or anxiety scales. The present results suggest a lack of enhancement of error monitoring by anxious traits in individuals with subclinical anxiety and those with clinical anxiety but without a clinical diagnosis. Importantly, the absence of such correlation questions the validity of the ERN as a neural marker for anxiety disorders. Future studies that investigate neuro-markers of anxiety may explore alternative task designs and employ robust statistics to provide a more comprehensive understanding of anxiety vulnerability.

Multiple risk markers for increases in depression symptoms across two years: Evidence from the reward positivity and the error-related negativity

BACKGROUND

Both a blunted Reward Positivity (RewP) and Error-Related Negativity (ERN) have been associated with depression. Associations between these neural markers and depression have been observed cross-sectionally, but evidence that they can prospectively predict the development of, or increases in, symptoms of depression is more limited.

METHOD

In this study, we collected EEG data from 157 young adults at a baseline visit (T1), using the Doors and Flanker Tasks to elicit the RewP and the ERN respectively. Participants also reported on symptoms of depression at T1, and multiple times across two academic years (T2 - T8).

RESULTS

Using a multilevel model with the RewP and the ERN as predictors, we found that the RewP predicted future symptoms of depression, while controlling for symptoms of depression at T1, such that a blunted RewP at baseline predicted higher depressive symptoms later. In our data, however, the ERN was not a significant predictor of increases in depression symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings replicate previous work showing the RewP prospectively predicted increases in depression, and further suggest the specificity of this association. Results support the utility of the RewP as a neurophysiological marker that can help clarify the etiology of depression and inform treatment planning.

A network analysis of affective and motivational individual differences and error monitoring in a non-clinical sample

Error monitoring, which plays a crucial role in shaping adaptive behavior, is influenced by a complex interplay of affective and motivational factors. Understanding these associations often proves challenging due to the intricate nature of these variables. With the aim of addressing previous inconsistencies and methodological gaps, in this study, we utilized network analysis to investigate the relationship between affective and motivational individual differences and error monitoring. We employed six Gaussian Graphical Models on a non-clinical population ($N$ = 236) to examine the conditional dependence between the amplitude of response-related potentials (error-related negativity; correct-related negativity) and 29 self-report measures related to anxiety, depression, obsessive thoughts, compulsive behavior, and motivation while adjusting for covariates: age, handedness, and latency of error-related negativity and correct-related negativity. We then validated our results on an independent sample of 107 participants. Our findings revealed unique associations between error-related negativity amplitudes and specific traits. Notably, more pronounced error-related negativity amplitudes were associated with increased rumination and obsessing, and decreased reward sensitivity. Importantly, in our non-clinical sample, error-related negativity was not directly associated with trait anxiety. These results underscore the nuanced effects of affective and motivational traits on error processing in healthy population.

Error-related brain activity shapes the association between trait neuroticism and internalizing symptomatology in two tasks

The current study examined how individual differences in error-related brain activity might moderate the association between high trait neuroticism and internalizing symptoms. Data were collected from a sample of high-achieving young adults (N = 188) as part of a larger study on risk versus resiliency for psychopathology. Participants completed two behavioral tasks to elicit the error-related negativity (ERN): an arrow Flanker task and a Go/No-Go task. Analyses were constrained to two internalizing symptom dimensions of checking behavior and irritability. Contrary to expectations, ERN amplitude was not related to symptom severity at the bivariate level. However, ERN amplitude moderated the association between trait neuroticism and symptoms of ill temper, such that the neuroticism-irritability association was strongest among individuals with a blunted ERN. In addition, this finding was relatively consistent across tasks and across two complementary methods of scoring the ERN, suggesting an effect of ERN variance that is shared between tasks and that is relatively robust regarding processing differences. In all, the current study represents the first attempt to investigate how the ERN interacts with trait neuroticism to predict transdiagnostic symptom dimensions in adulthood.

Task-specific relationships between error-related ERPs and behavior: Flanker, Stroop, and Go/Nogo tasks

Performance monitoring has been widely studied during different forced-choice response tasks. Participants typically show longer response times (RTs) and increased accuracy following errors, but there are inconsistencies regarding the connection between error-related event-related brain potentials (ERPs) and behavior, such as RT and accuracy. The specific task in any given study could contribute to these inconsistencies, as different tasks may require distinct cognitive processes that impact ERP-behavior relationships. The present study sought to determine whether task moderates ERP-behavior relationships and whether these relationships are robustly observed when tasks and stimuli are treated as random effects. ERPs and behavioral indices (RTs and accuracy) recorded during flanker, Stroop, and Go/Nogo tasks from 180 people demonstrated a task-specific effect on ERP-behavior relationships, such that larger previous-trial error-related negativity (ERN) predicted longer RTs and greater likelihood of a correct response on subsequent trials during flanker and Stroop tasks but not during Go/Nogo task. Additionally, larger previous-trial error positivity (Pe) predicted faster RTs and smaller variances of RTs on subsequent trials for Stroop and Go/Nogo tasks but not for flanker task. When tasks and stimuli were treated as random effects, ERP-behavior relationships were not observed. These findings support the need to consider the task used for recording performance monitoring measures when interpreting results across studies.

A registered report of a two-site study of variations of the flanker task: ERN experimental effects and data quality

Error-related negativity is a widely used measure of error monitoring, and many projects are independently moving ERN recorded during a flanker task toward standardization, optimization, and eventual clinical application. However, each project uses a different version of the flanker task and tacitly assumes ERN is functionally equivalent across each version. The routine neglect of a rigorous test of this assumption undermines efforts to integrate ERN findings across tasks, optimize and standardize ERN assessment, and widely apply ERN in clinical trials. The purpose of this registered report was to determine whether ERN shows similar experimental effects (correct vs. error trials) and data quality (intraindividual variability) during three commonly used versions of a flanker task. ERN was recorded from 172 participants during three versions of a flanker task across two study sites. ERN scores showed numerical differences between tasks, raising questions about the comparability of ERN findings across studies and tasks. Although ERN scores from all three versions of the flanker task yielded high data quality and internal consistency, one version did outperform the other two in terms of the size of experimental effects and the data quality. Exploratory analyses of the error positivity (Pe) provided tentative support for the other two versions of the task over the paradigm that appeared optimal for ERN. The present study provides a roadmap for how to statistically compare psychometric characteristics of ERP scores across paradigms and gives preliminary recommendations for flanker tasks to use for ERN- and Pe-focused studies.

Domain specificity of error monitoring: An ERP study in young and older adults

Metacognition refers to the ability to monitor and control one's cognitive processes, which plays an important role in decision-making throughout the lifespan. It is still debated whether metacognitive abilities decline with age. Neuroimaging evidence suggests that metacognition is served by domain-specific mechanisms. These domains may differentially decline with increasing age. The current investigates whether the error-related negativity (ERN) and the error positivity (Pe) which reflect error detection and error awareness, respectively, differ across perceptual and memory domains in young and older adults. In total, 38 young adults and 37 older adults completed a classic Flanker Task (perceptual) and an adapted memory-based version. No difference in ERN amplitude was found between young and older adults and across domains. Perceptual ERN peaked earlier than Memory ERN. Memory ΔERN was larger than Perceptual ΔERN. Pe was smaller in older adults and ΔPe was larger for perceptual than memory flanker. Memory Pe peaked earlier in young as compared to older adults. Multivariate analyses of whole scalp data supported cross-domain differences. During the task, ERN decreased in young but not in older adults. Memory Pe decreased in young adults but increased in older adults while no significant change in perceptual Pe was found. The study's findings suggest that neural correlates of error monitoring differ across cognitive domains. Moreover, it was shown that error awareness declines in old age but its within-task dynamics vary across cognitive domains. Possible mechanisms underlying metacognition impairments in aging are discussed.

Disentangling associations between impulsivity, compulsivity, and performance monitoring

Disorders marked by high levels of impulsivity and compulsivity have been linked to changes in performance monitoring, specifically the error-related negativity (ERN). We investigated the relationship between performance monitoring and individual differences in impulsivity and compulsivity. A total of 142 participants were recruited into four groups, each with different combinations of impulsivity and compulsivity, and they performed a flanker task to assess error-related brain activity. We defined error-related brain activity as ERN amplitude and theta power. Single-trial regression was employed to analyze the amplitude differences between incorrect and correct trials within the ERN time window. The findings revealed that impulsivity, compulsivity, and different measures of response processing exhibited distinct interactions, which were influenced by the configuration of impulsivity and compulsivity, but also depended on the measure of response processing. Specifically, high compulsivity predicted larger ERN amplitudes in individuals with low impulsivity, whereas high impulsivity had no significant effect on ERN amplitude in individuals with low compulsivity. Furthermore, when both impulsivity and compulsivity were high, no significant increase in ERN amplitude was observed; instead, there was a reduced difference between incorrect and correct trials. No significant differences were found for theta power. While the association between error-related brain activity and transdiagnostic markers or psychopathology may be smaller than generally assumed, considering the interaction between different transdiagnostic markers and their facets can enhance our understanding of the complex associations that arise during the investigation of neural correlates of performance monitoring, specifically the ERN.

Altered Error Monitoring and Decreased Flanker Task Accuracy in Pediatric Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

The error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe) are components of the event-related potential following an error that are potential mechanistic biomarkers of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The study examined the ERN, Pe, flanker task accuracy, and clinical measures in 105 OCD cases and 105 matched healthy controls (HC) ages 8-18 years. Higher flanker task accuracy in all participants was associated with an increased ERN amplitude and increased difference between Pe and correct positivity amplitudes (ΔPe). Compared to HC, OCD cases had an increased ERN but decreased ΔPe and flanker task accuracy. Those differences were also significant in tic-related and non-tic-related OCD cases compared to HC. A lower ΔPe was associated in cases with an earlier age at OCD symptom onset. The results support the hypothesis that OCD involves defects in an error monitoring system and suggest a reduced ΔPe may compromise error signaling and cause uncertainty about the correctness of a response.

Multiple Adaptive Attention-Bias-Modification Programs to Alter Normative Increase in the Error-Related Negativity in Adolescents

In the current article, we examined the impact of two home-delivered attentional-bias-modification (ABM) programs on a biomarker of anxiety (i.e., the error-related negativity [ERN]). The ERN is sensitivity to ABM-related changes; however, it is unclear whether ABM exerts its influence on the ERN and anxiety by increasing general attentional control or by disengaging spatial allocation of attention. In this study, we measured the ERN, anxiety, attention bias, and attention control before and after two versions of ABM training and a waitlist control group in 546 adolescents. An ABM designed to increase attention control modulated the ERN but had no impact on anxiety. An ABM designed to reduce attentional bias changed bias and self-reported anxiety in youths but had no impact on the ERN or parent-reported anxiety. These results suggest that the ERN and normative anxiety may be modified using attention training.

The Relationship Between Emotion Dysregulation and Error Monitoring in Adolescents with ADHD

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is emblematic of the limitations of existing diagnostic categories. One potential solution, consistent with the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiative, is to interrogate psychological mechanisms at the behavioral and physiological level together to try and identify meaningful subgroups within existing categories. Such approaches provide a way to revise diagnostic boundaries and clarify individual variation in mechanisms. Here, we illustrate this approach to help resolve heterogeneity in ADHD using a combination of behaviorally-rated temperament measures from the Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire; cognitive performance on three difference conditions of an emotional go/no-go task; and electroencephalogram (EEG)-measured variation in multiple stages of error processing, including the error-related negativity (ERN) and positivity (Pe). In a large (N = 342), well-characterized sample of adolescents with ADHD, latent profile analysis identified two ADHD temperament subgroups: 1) emotionally regulated and 2) emotionally dysregulated (with high negative affect). Cognitive and EEG assessment in a subset of 272 adolescents (nADHD = 151) found that the emotionally dysregulated group showed distinct patterns of change in early neural response to errors (ERN) across emotional task conditions as compared to emotionally-regulated ADHD adolescents and typically-developing controls. Both ADHD groups showed blunted later response to errors (Pe) that was stable across emotional task conditions. Overall, neural response patterns identified important differences in how trait and state emotion interact to affect cognitive processing. Results highlight important temperament variation within ADHD that helps clarify its relationship to the ERN, one of the most prominent putative neural biomarkers for psychopathology.

The psychometric upgrade psychophysiology needs

Although biological measurements are constrained by the same fundamental psychometric principles as self-report measurements, these essential principles are often neglected in most fields of neuroscience, including psychophysiology. Potential reasons for this neglect could include a lack of understanding of appropriate measurement theory or a lack of accessible software for psychometric analysis. Generalizability theory is a flexible and multifaceted measurement theory that is well suited to handling the nuances of psychophysiological data, such as the often unbalanced number of trials and intraindividual variability of scores of event-related brain potential (ERP) data. The ERP Reliability Analysis Toolbox (ERA Toolbox) was designed for psychophysiologists and is tractable software that can support the routine evaluation of psychometrics using generalizability theory. Psychometrics can guide task refinement, data-processing decisions, and selection of candidate biomarkers for clinical trials. The present review provides an extensive treatment of additional psychometric characteristics relevant to studies of psychophysiology, including validity and validation, standardization, dimensionality, and measurement invariance. Although the review focuses on ERPs, the discussion applies broadly to psychophysiological measures and beyond. The tools needed to rigorously assess psychometric reliability and validate psychophysiological measures are now readily available. With the profound implications that psychophysiological research can have on understanding brain-behavior relationships and the identification of biomarkers, there is simply too much at stake to ignore the crucial processes of evaluating psychometric reliability and validity.

Brain response to errors in children who stutter

PURPOSE

Heightened rates of social anxiety have been reported in adults who stutter (AWS), but it is unclear whether anxiety is heightened also in children who stutter (CWS). Objective neurophysiological responses such as the error-related negativity (ERN) have been associated with anxiety, and ERN was reported to be increased in AWS. In this study, we examined whether ERN and error positivity (Pe) are increased in CWS. We further characterized ERN associations with age and anxiety in CWS relative to children who do not stutter (CWNS).

METHODS

EEG data were recorded from twenty-four CWS and twenty-four matched CWNS aged 3-9 years as they performed a Go/No-Go task. Parent-reported anxiety, and child-reported speech-associated attitude measures were collected. Linear regression models tested the effects of age, group, and their interaction, and the effects of anxiety, group, and their interaction on ERN and Pe.

RESULTS

Contrary to expectations, no ERN or Pe difference were observed between CWS and CWNS. However, larger ERN amplitudes were associated with older age in CWS but not CWNS, suggesting altered development of the error monitoring system in CWS. Association of Pe with anxiety also differed between groups: smaller Pe amplitudes were associated with higher level of parent-reported child anxiety in CWNS but not in CWS. Neither anxiety nor self-reported communication attitude differed between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Brain responses to errors were overall comparable between CWS and CWNS. However, CWS differed in how error monitoring responses varied with age and with anxiety levels. More research is warranted to examine how these factors contribute to persistent stuttering.

Beyond single paradigms, pipelines, and outcomes: Embracing multiverse analyses in psychophysiology

Psychophysiological research is an inherently complex undertaking due to the nature of the data, and its analysis is characterized by many decision points that shape the final dataset and a study's findings. These decisions create a "multiverse" of possible outcomes, and each decision from study conceptualization to statistical analysis can lead to different results and interpretations. This review describes the concept of multiverse analyses, a methodological approach designed to understand the impact of different decisions on the robustness of a study's findings and interpretation. The emphasis is on transparently showcasing different reasonable approaches for constructing a final dataset and on highlighting the influence of various decision points, from experimental design to data processing and outcome selection. For example, the choice of an experimental task can significantly impact event-related brain potential (ERP) scores or skin conductance responses (SCRs), and different tasks might elicit unique variances in each measure. This review underscores the importance of transparently embracing the flexibility inherent in psychophysiological research and the potential consequences of not understanding the fragility or robustness of experimental findings. By navigating the intricate terrain of the psychophysiological multiverse, this review serves as an introduction, helping researchers to make informed decisions, improve the collective understanding of psychophysiological findings, and push the boundaries of the field.

Altered Error Monitoring and Decreased Flanker Task Accuracy in Pediatric Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

The error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe) are components of the event-related potential following an error that are potential mechanistic biomarkers of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The study examined the ERN, Pe, flanker task accuracy, and clinical measures in 105 OCD cases and 105 matched healthy controls (HC), ages 8 to 18 years, with 21 cases having a tic disorder history. Higher flanker task accuracy in all participants was associated with an increased ERN amplitude and increased difference between Pe and correct positivity amplitudes (ΔPe). Compared to HC, OCD cases had an increased ERN but decreased flanker task accuracy and ΔPe. Those differences were also significant in tic-related and non-tic-related OCD cases compared to HC. A lower ΔPe was associated in OCD cases with an earlier age at OCD symptom onset. The results support the hypothesis that OCD involves defects in an error monitoring system and suggest a reduced ΔPe may compromise error signaling and cause uncertainty about the correctness of a response.

[Formula: see text] Neural and behavioral indicators of cognitive control in preschoolers with and without prenatal opioid exposure

Prenatal opioid exposure is one consequence of the opioid epidemic, but effects on child development remain poorly understood. There is emerging evidence that children exposed to opioids in utero exhibit elevated emotional and behavioral problems, which may be partially due to alterations in cognitive control. Using multiple methods (i.e., neuropsychological, behavioral, and event-related potential [ERP] assessments), the present study examined differences in emotional, behavioral, and cognitive control difficulties in preschool-aged children with (n = 21) and without (n = 23) prenatal opioid exposure (Mage = 4.30, SD = 0.77 years). Child emotional and behavioral problems were measured with a caregiver questionnaire, indicators of cognitive control were measured using developmentally appropriate behavioral (i.e., delay discounting, Go/No-Go) and neuropsychological (i.e., Statue) tasks, and electroencephalogram was recorded to error and correct responses in a Go/No-Go task. ERP analyses focused on the error-related negativity (ERN), an ERP that reflects error monitoring, and correct-response negativity (CRN), a component reflecting performance monitoring more generally. Opioid exposure was associated with elevated difficulties across domains and a blunted ERN, reflecting altered cognitive control at the neural level, but groups did not significantly differ on behavioral measures of cognitive control. These result replicate prior studies indicating an association between prenatal opioid exposure and behavioral problems in preschool-aged children. Further, our findings suggest these differences may be partially due to children with prenatal opioid exposure exhibiting difficulties with cognitive control at the neural level. The ERN is a potential target for future research and intervention efforts to address the sequelae of prenatal opioid exposure.

Registered replication report of the construct validity of the error-related negativity (ERN): A multi-site study of task-specific ERN correlations with internalizing and externalizing symptoms

Intact cognitive control is critical for goal-directed behavior and is widely studied using the error-related negativity (ERN). A common assumption in such studies is that ERNs recorded during different experimental paradigms reflect the same construct or functionally equivalent processes and that ERN is functionally distinct from other error-monitoring event-related brain potentials (ERPs; error positivity [Pe]), other neurophysiological indices of cognitive control (N2), and even other theoretically unrelated indices (visual N1). The present registered report represents a replication-plus-extension study of the psychometric validity of cognitive control ERPs and evaluated the convergent and divergent validity of ERN, Pe, N2, and visual N1 recorded during flanker, Stroop, and Go/no-go tasks. Data from 182 participants were collected from two study sites, and ERP psychometric reliability and validity were evaluated. Findings supported replication of convergent and divergent validity of ERN, Pe, and ΔPe (error minus correct)-these ERPs correlated more with themselves across tasks than with other ERPs measured during the same task. Convergent validity of ΔERN across tasks was not replicated, despite high internal consistency. ERN strongly correlated with N2 at levels similar or higher than those in support of convergent validity for other ERPs, and the present study failed to provide evidence of divergent validity for ERN and Pe from N2 or N1. ERN and ΔERN were unrelated to internalizing or externalizing symptoms. Findings underscore the importance of considering the psychometric validity of ERPs, as it provides a foundation for interpreting and comparing ERPs across tasks and studies.

Effects of feedback reliability on event-related potentials in an arrow flanker task

The processing of feedback is essential for learning, error detection, and correction. However, the underlying mechanisms of the feedback's characteristics, such as its reliability, valence, and expectations in the processing of error information, are not completely clear. The two degrees of feedback reliability, reliable feedback and unreliable feedback, respectively, were established by manipulating the feedback valence. The time course of event-related potentials (ERP) during the arrow flanker tasks was used to investigate the effects of feedback reliability and responses on brain activity. Three ERP components, the error-related negativity (ERN), feedback-related negativity (FRN), and P3, respectively, were measured. The impacts of feedback reliability and responses on ERN, FRN, and P3 had a different profile. Specifically, ERN and P3 are associated with the responses but not the feedback reliability, while FRN is associated with feedback reliability and feedback expectations but not the responses. The ERN, FRN, and P3 reflect distinct cognitive processes in the processing of error information.

An Experimental Therapeutics Approach to the Development of a Novel Computerized Treatment Targeting Error-Related Brain Activity in Young Children

In the current study, we utilize an experimental medicine approach to examine the extent to which a single-session, computerized intervention impacts a transdiagnostic neural marker of risk (i.e., the error-related negativity [ERN]) in 70 children between the ages of 6 and 9 years. The ERN is a deflection in the event-related potential occurring after an individual makes a mistake on a lab-based task and has been shown to be transdiagnostically associated with a variety of anxiety disorders (e.g., social anxiety, generalized anxiety), obsessive-compulsive disorder, and depressive disorders in over 60 studies to date. Building on these findings, work has been done to link an increased ERN to negative reactions to, and avoidance of, making mistakes (i.e., error sensitivity). In the current study, we capitalize on this previous work by examining the extent to which a single-session, computerized intervention may engage the target of "error sensitivity" (measured by the ERN, as well as self-report of error sensitivity). We examine the convergence of multiple measures of the construct of "error sensitivity" (i.e., child self-report, parent report on child, and child electroencephalogram [EEG]). We also examine relationships between these three measures of "error sensitivity" and child anxiety symptoms. Overall, results suggested that treatment condition predicted changes in self-reported error sensitivity but not changes in ERN. Based on the lack of previous work in this area, we view this study as a novel, preliminary, first step toward using an experimental medicine approach to examine our ability to engage the target of the ERN (i.e., error sensitivity) early in development.

Transdiagnostic Approach and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

The categorical approach of traditional psychiatric nosology has been a forceful approach for a very long time for explaining psychological disorders which are defined by symptom based diagnostic categories. However, in recent years, the importance of the "transdiagnostic" approach which is a new classification system is increasing. The transdiagnostic approach aims to examine dimensionally the common cognitive, behavioral, interpersonal and biological processes underlying many psychopathologies away from the categorical approach that classifies psychopathologies according to observable symptoms. This approach intends to treat the disorders through the common underlying processes and risk factors, thus heterogeneous and comorbid symptoms are better addressed and diagnostic categories that may change during treatment are avoided. In this review study, the current problems in diagnosing based on classification and gaps in the field were examined, and the approach itself was proposed as a solution. RDoC (Research Domain Criteria) which is a new classification system for psychiatric disorders within the scope of the approach, has created a new structure using modern research approaches in genetics, neuroscience and behavioral sciences. In the present study, the definition and emergence of the transdiagnostic approach, obsessive compulsive disorder and RDoC in the context of transdiagnostic approach and transdiagnostic treatment are explained. This review is intended to be a resource for both basic psychopathology research and the development of treatment methods within the framework of a transdiagnostic approach.

Updating the relationship of the Ne/ERN to task-related behavior: A brief review and suggestions for future research

The error negativity/error-related negativity (Ne/ERN) is one of the most well-studied event-related potential (ERP) components in the electroencephalography (EEG) literature. Peaking about 50 ms after the commission of an error, the Ne/ERN is a negative deflection in the ERP waveform that is thought to reflect error processing in the brain. While its relationships to trait constructs such as anxiety are well-documented, there is still little known about how the Ne/ERN may subsequently influence task-related behavior. In other words, does the occurrence of the Ne/ERN trigger any sort of error corrective process, or any other behavioral adaptation to avoid errors? Several theories have emerged to explain how the Ne/ERN may implement or affect behavior on a task, but evidence supporting each has been mixed. In the following manuscript, we review these theories, and then systematically discuss the reasons that there may be discrepancies in the literature. We review both the inherent biological factors of the neural regions that underlie error-processing in the brain, and some of the researcher-induced factors in analytic and experimental choices that may be exacerbating these discrepancies. We end with a table of recommendations for future researchers who aim to understand the relationship between the Ne/ERN and behavior.

Electrophysiological evidence of mal-adaptation to error in remitted depression

Identifying risk markers for major depressive disorder (MDD) that persist into remission is key to address MDD's high rate of recurrence. Central to MDD recurrence are the disorder's negative information processing biases, such as heightened responses to errors, which may subsequently impair abilities to monitor performance and adjust behaviors based on environmental demands. However, little is known regarding the neurophysiological correlates of post-error adaptation in depression. The current study investigated event-related potentials (ERPs) and behavioral performance following errors from a flanker task in 58 participants with remitted MDD (rMDD) and 118 healthy controls (HC). Specifically, using trial-level data, we tested: (a) the impact of errors on response-locked ERPs of the current and post-error trials (error-related negativity [ERN] and correct response negativity [CRN]) and (b) longer-term adaptation to errors (ERN/CRN) over the course of the task. Compared to HC, rMDD participants showed a larger ERN to the current trial and smaller habituation in ERN over time. On trials immediately following errors, rMDD participants showed slower reaction times that were predicted by the previous-trial ERN amplitude but comparable accuracy to HC, suggesting a deficient ability to disengage from errors and/or a compensatory effort to mitigate accuracy decrements. Critically, this pattern of responding: (a) was concurrently associated with greater levels of anhedonia symptoms, more severe MDD history, and interpersonal impairment (but lower impairment in life activities) and (b) predicted more anhedonia symptoms at one-year follow-up. Collectively, a hyperactive performance monitoring system may be a useful risk marker for future MDD recurrence.

Narcissism and the perception of failure - evidence from the error-related negativity and the error positivity

The literature on narcissism suggests two contradictory ways how highly narcissistic individuals deal with their failures: They might avoid consciously recognising their failures to protect their ego or they might vigilantly turn towards their failures to process cues that are important for maintaining their grandiosity. We tried to dissolve these contradictory positions by studying event-related potential components of error processing and their variations with narcissism. With a speeded go/no-go task, we examined how the error-related negativity (Ne; reflecting an early, automatic processing stage) and the error positivity (Pe; associated with conscious error detection) vary with Admiration and Rivalry, two narcissism dimensions, under ego-threatening conditions. Using multilevel models, we showed that participants with high Rivalry displayed higher Ne amplitudes suggesting a heightened trait of defensive reactivity. We did not find variations of either narcissism dimension with the Pe, which would have pointed to weaker error awareness. Thus, our results only supported the second position: a heightened vigilance to errors in narcissism at early, rather automatic processing stages.

Rethinking the risk for depression using the RDoC: A psychophysiological perspective

Considering that the classical categorical approach to mental disorders does not allow a clear identification of at-risk conditions, the dimensional approach provided by the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) is useful in the exploration of vulnerability to psychopathology. In the RDoC era, psychophysiological models have an important role in the reconceptualization of mental disorders. Indeed, progress in the study of depression vulnerability has increasingly been informed by psychophysiological models. By adopting an RDoC lens, this narrative review focuses on how psychophysiological models can be used to advance our knowledge of the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying depression vulnerability. Findings from psychophysiological research that explored multiple RDoC domains in populations at-risk for depression are reviewed and discussed. Future directions for the application of psychophysiological research in reaching a more complete understanding of depression vulnerability and, ultimately, improving clinical utility, are presented.

Associations of neural error-processing with symptoms and traits in a dimensional sample recruited across the obsessive-compulsive spectrum

The error-related negativity (ERN), a neural response to errors, has been associated with several forms of psychopathology and assumed to represent a neural risk marker for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and anxiety disorders. Yet, it is still unknown which specific symptoms or traits best explain ERN variation. This study investigated performance-monitoring in participants (N = 100) recruited across a spectrum of obsessive-compulsive characteristics (n = 26 patients with OCD; n = 74 healthy participants including n = 24 with low, n = 24 with medium, and n = 26 with high OC-characteristics). Several compulsivity- and anxiety-associated characteristics were assessed and submitted to exploratory principal axis factor analysis. Associations of raw measures and derived factors with ERN and correct-related negativity (CRN) were examined. Patients with OCD showed increased ERN amplitudes compared to healthy participants. The ERN was associated with a variety of traits related to anxiety and negative affect. Factor analysis results revealed a most prominent association of the ERN with a composite measure of anxiety and neuroticism, whereas the CRN was specifically associated with compulsivity. Results support differential associations for the ERN and CRN and demonstrate that a dimensional recruitment approach and use of composite measures can improve our understanding of characteristics underlying variation in neural performance monitoring.

Error-related brain activity in pediatric major depressive disorder: An ERP and time-frequency investigation

BACKGROUND

The error-related negativity (ERN) reflects individual differences in error monitoring. However, findings on the ERN in adult and adolescent depression have been inconsistent. Analyzing electroencephalographic (EEG) data in both the time- and time-frequency domain can be useful to better quantify neural response to errors. The present study aimed at examining electrocortical measures of error monitoring in early adolescents with and without depression.

METHOD

EEG activity was collected during an arrowhead version of the flanker task in 29 (25 females) early adolescents with depression and 34 without MDD (29 females).

RESULTS

The depression group showed reduced ERN amplitude, reduced error-related theta power and increased error-related beta power compared to the control group. When all variables that related to MDD diagnosis were considered simultaneously, both theta and beta power, but not the ERN, were independently related to an increased likelihood of being diagnosed with depression.

CONCLUSIONS

By examining both time-domain and separate time-frequency measures, the present study provided novel evidence on error monitoring alterations in youth depression, suggesting that depression during adolescence may be characterized by reduced error monitoring (i.e., reduced ERN and error-related theta) and post-error inhibition (i.e., greater error-related beta power). These results support that time-frequency measures might be better suited for examining error-related neural activity in MDD relative to time-domain measures.

Type of Trauma Exposure Impacts Neural Reactivity to Errors

Abstract. Studies suggest that individuals with a history of trauma exposure display abnormal reactivity to threat, though the pattern of findings across prior studies has been inconsistent. At least two factors likely contribute to previous discrepant findings: (1) the type of index trauma event and (2) the type of threat paradigm. Accordingly, the current study aimed to examine the impact of trauma type on a specific psychophysiological index of threat sensitivity – error negativity (Ne), also described as error-related negativity (ERN). Young adults were classified into three groups: lifetime history of interpersonal trauma (i.e., sexual assault, physical assault, or immediate family violence; n = 30), lifetime history of a non-interpersonal trauma (e.g., accidents, natural disasters; n = 30), or no lifetime history of trauma ( n = 64). All participants completed a well-validated flanker task designed to elicit the Ne/ERN during continuous electroencephalographic (EEG) data collection. Results indicated that individuals with non-interpersonal trauma exposure displayed reduced Ne/ERN amplitude compared with the other two groups (who did not differ from each other). Broadly, these findings highlight the importance of trauma type and theory suggesting different forms of trauma may result in different neurobiological profiles. These findings also add to a growing literature indicating that non-interpersonal traumas may be uniquely associated with blunted threat sensitivity and deficiencies in self-monitoring.

Error-related activity of the sensorimotor network contributes to the prediction of response to cognitive-behavioral therapy in obsessive-compulsive disorder

BACKGROUND

Although cognitive behavioral therapy is a highly effective treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), yielding large symptom reductions on the group level, individual treatment response varies considerably. Identification of treatment response predictors may provide important information for maximizing individual treatment response and thus achieving efficient treatment resource allocation. Here, we investigated the predictive value of previously identified biomarkers of OCD, namely the error-related activity of the supplementary motor area (SMA) and the sensorimotor network (SMN, postcentral gyrus/precuneus).

METHODS

Seventy-two participants with a primary diagnosis of OCD underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanning while performing a flanker task prior to receiving routine-care CBT.

RESULTS

Error-related BOLD response of the SMN significantly contributed to the prediction of treatment response beyond the variance accounted for by clinical and sociodemographic variables. Stronger error-related SMN activity at baseline was associated with a higher likelihood of treatment response.

CONCLUSIONS

The present results illustrate that the inclusion of error-related SMN activity can significantly increase treatment response prediction quality in OCD. Stronger error-related activity of the SMN may reflect the ability to activate symptom-relevant processing networks and may thus facilitate response to exposure-based CBT interventions.

No intolerance of errors: The effect of intolerance of uncertainty on performance monitoring revisited

Errors have been conceptualized as internal forms of threat that can cause harm in unpredictable ways. An index of error processing is the error-related negativity (ERN), an event-related potential reflecting variability in the sensitivity to errors. Prior work has shown the relationship between psychopathology symptoms and the ERN is unclear, and may be moderated by intolerance of uncertainty (IU), a trait that captures how people react to unpredictability. IU includes two subfactors of prospective IU (active seeking of predictability) and inhibitory IU (behavioral paralysis). In the present study, 188 undergraduates performed an Eriksen flanker task designed to elicit the ERN, while brain activity was recorded using electroencephalography (EEG). Participants completed the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale, Short Form (IUS-12), and other measures of anxiety, depression and worry. Total IU explained 5 % of the variance in correct-response negativity (CRN), but was not associated with the ERN in our sample. In contrast to previous findings, the IU subfactors did not predict the ERN or post-error slowing (PES), nor did total IU and depression interact to predict the ERN. Exploratory analyses also showed that total IU did not moderate the relationship between trait anxiety and the ERN. Small samples may have previously exaggerated the links between self-reported IU and the ERN. As such, further high-powered replications are required to confirm if, and how, they are related.

Neural indices of performance monitoring are associated with daily emotional functioning in youth with anxiety disorders: An ERP and EMA study

Excessive monitoring of one's performance is a characteristic of anxiety disorders that has been linked to alterations in implicit emotion regulation (ER), including elevations in neural measures of performance monitoring (i.e., error- and correct-related negativity; ERN and CRN). Elevations in ERN and CRN amplitudes have been reported consistently in anxiety disorders, suggesting that an overactive performance monitoring system is linked to ER difficulties in anxiety. Yet, the relevance of these lab-based neural measures for day-to-day emotional functioning remains poorly understood. This study examined the degree to which ERN and CRN amplitudes are associated with measures of daily ER difficulties in youth with anxiety disorders. Youth (N = 100, Mage = 11.14, SDage = 1.46) completed a computerized flanker task assessing the ERN and CRN. They then completed a 5-day ecological momentary assessment (EMA) protocol assessing their daily ER (i.e., intensity of momentary and peak negative affect, intensity of worry, reliance on maladaptive ER strategies). Results showed that more negative mean CRN amplitudes were associated with higher levels of negative emotional reactivity and more intense worries. There were no significant associations between ERN amplitude and EMA measures. Furthermore, elevations in CRN were linked to more frequent use of maladaptive ER strategies (i.e., rumination, physiological reactivity, avoidance). Together, results indicate that among youth with anxiety, individual differences in CRN, but not ERN, amplitudes are related to daily ER difficulties. Findings highlight the clinical utility of a lab-based neural measure of ER, suggesting that the CRN, rather than the ERN, reflects individual ER differences in the context of daily life among youth with pediatric anxiety disorders. As such, the CRN might serve as an important dimensional index of a treatment target that can be tracked with a validated, multi-method measure.

Awareness to utilitarian responses in later life: an ERP study with moral dilemmas

The current study aims to provide the first insights into the neural correlates of utilitarian and deontological responses to moral dilemmas across the lifespan.To this purpose, younger (n=30), middle-aged (n=29), and older adults (n=29) completed moral dilemmas during an EEG recording.Behaviorally, groups did not differ in the number of utilitarian responses and reaction times. However, at the neural level, older adults had higher Error Positivity (Pe) amplitudes than younger adults after utilitarian responses.As this effect was specific to utilitarian responses, it suggests that utilitarian decisions may induce increased conflict in the older group. These findings highlight that older adults may be more aware of the harmful outcomes of utilitarian decisions during moral decision-making.

Group differences in agency modulate error monitoring

Mistakes can lead to aversive outcomes. Error monitoring may help prevent mistakes, but it might be maladaptive for individuals who lack control over aversive outcomes, as it consumes cognitive processing resources that could be allocated elsewhere. Here, we examined the effect of agency (i.e., control over punishment) on error monitoring using the error-related negativity (ERN), an event-related potential measure of error monitoring and error rate. Ninety unselected participants performed a flanker task in which they were shocked according to their own errors (controllable punishment, n = 47) or were shocked in accordance with another participant's errors (uncontrollable punishment, n = 43). Participants without agency over punishment showed smaller ERNs and higher error rates compared with participants with agency. Furthermore, punishment only reduced error rates for participants with agency. Together, these results provide the first experimental evidence that agency modulates error monitoring and suggest an adaptive process in which error monitoring is increased/decreased depending on its utility.

Conceptualizing traumatic stress and the structure of posttraumatic psychopathology through the lenses of RDoC and HiTOP

Trauma-related psychopathology, most notably posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), poses unique challenges for psychiatric nosology due to the wide range of symptoms and diagnoses associated with trauma and challenges representing the impact of trauma exposure on psychopathology. In this paper, we review the literature on categorical (i.e., Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and International Classification of Diseases systems) versus dimensional conceptualizations of trauma-related symptoms with an emphasis on the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) and the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) frameworks. We identify strengths of each approach and challenges in accommodating the full range of trauma-related psychopathology and the clinical implications thereof. We discuss several potential approaches for improving the representation of traumatic stress, including the use of PTSD subtypes, trauma-related specifiers for psychiatric diagnoses, and the development of a dimension that we call the traumatic stress spectrum, which spans both adaptive and adverse reactions to trauma. These approaches to representing traumatic stress can be evaluated empirically and further refined. We also discuss how the use of an integrated RDoC-HiTOP approach to reconceptualize traumatic stress might maximize the ability to model valid and reliable trauma-related phenotypes, which would aid in the investigation of clinically relevant biological correlates.

Neural Correlates of Executive Functioning in Anorexia Nervosa and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Anorexia nervosa (AN) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) are commonly reported to co-occur and present with overlapping symptomatology. Executive functioning difficulties have been implicated in both mental health conditions. However, studies directly comparing these functions in AN and OCD are extremely limited. This review provides a synthesis of behavioral and neuroimaging research examining executive functioning in AN and OCD to bridge this gap in knowledge. We outline the similarities and differences in behavioral and neuroimaging findings between AN and OCD, focusing on set shifting, working memory, response inhibition, and response monitoring. This review aims to facilitate understanding of transdiagnostic correlates of executive functioning and highlights important considerations for future research. We also discuss the importance of examining both behavioral and neural markers when studying transdiagnostic correlates of executive functions.

Error Processing and Pain: A New Perspective

Errors put organisms in danger. Upon error commission, error processing allows for the updating of behavior that proved ineffective in light of the current context and goals, and for the activation of behavioral defensive systems. Pain, on the other hand, signals actual or potential danger to one's physical integrity and, likewise, motivates protective behavior. These parallels suggest the existence of cross-links between pain and error processing but so far their relationship remains elusive. In this review, we tie together findings from the field of pain research with those from electroencephalography studies on error processing [specifically the Error Related Negativity (ERN) and Positivity (Pe)]. More precisely, we discuss three plausible associations: Firstly, pain may enhance error processing as it increases error salience. Secondly, persons fearful of pain may be particularly vigilant towards painful errors and thus show a stronger neural response to them. Thirdly, the ERN as a component of the neural response to error commission is considered an endophenotype of threat sensitivity. As high sensitivity to pain threats is known to incite avoidance behavior, this raises the intriguing possibility that neural signatures of error processing predict pain-related protective behaviors, such as avoidance. We propose an integration of these findings into a common framework to inspire future research. Perspectives Inspired by research in anxiety disorders, we discuss the potential bi-directional relationships between error processing and pain, and identify future directions to examine the neural and psychological processes involved in acute and chronic pain and respective avoidance behavior.

A randomized trial of aerobic exercise for major depression: examining neural indicators of reward and cognitive control as predictors and treatment targets

BACKGROUND

Aerobic exercise has demonstrated antidepressant efficacy among adults with major depression. There is a poor understanding of the neural mechanisms associated with these effects. Deficits in reward processing and cognitive control may be two candidate targets and predictors of treatment outcome to exercise in depression.

METHODS

Sixty-six young adults aged 20.23 years (s.d. = 2.39) with major depression were randomized to 8 weeks of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (n = 35) or light stretching (n = 31). Depressive symptoms were assessed across the intervention to track symptom reduction. Reward processing [reward positivity (RewP)] and cognitive control [error-related negativity (ERN)] were assessed before and after the intervention using event-related brain potentials.

RESULTS

Compared to stretching, aerobic exercise resulted in greater symptom reduction (gs = 0.66). Aerobic exercise had no impact on the RewP (gav = 0.08) or ERN (gav = 0.21). In the aerobic exercise group, individuals with a larger pre-treatment RewP [odds ratio (OR) = 1.45] and increased baseline depressive symptom severity (OR = 1.18) were more likely to respond to an aerobic exercise program. Pre-treatment ERN did not predict response (OR = 0.74).

CONCLUSIONS

Aerobic exercise is effective in alleviating depressive symptoms in adults with major depression, particularly for those with increased depressive symptom severity and a larger RewP at baseline. Although aerobic exercise did not modify the RewP or ERN, there is preliminary support for the utility of the RewP in predicting who is most likely to respond to exercise as a treatment for depression.

Understanding Trajectories to Anxiety and Depression: Neural Responses to Errors and Rewards as Indices of Susceptibility to Stressful Life Events

Between-individuals variation in neural responses to errors and rewards is associated with the degree of risk for developing depression and anxiety, but not all individuals with perturbations in systems that generate these responses go on to develop symptoms. We propose that exposure to stressful life events may determine when these individual differences in neural responses to errors and rewards result in anxiety or depression. In this article, we review key findings and discuss limitations and questions in research on how stressors interact with reward and error processing to predict the development of symptoms. We conclude by outlining future research directions.

Non-invasive brain stimulation modulates neural correlates of performance monitoring in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder

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Effects of tDCS on performance monitoring examined in OCD and healthy individuals.

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A preregistered, randomized, sham-controlled tDCS–EEG study was conducted.

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Cathodal tDCS over the pre-SMA reduced the error-related negativity (ERN).

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Correct-response negativity was enhanced, error positivity reduced by cathodal tDCS.

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The findings substantiate the role of the ERN as a target for new interventions.

Overactive performance monitoring, as reflected by enhanced neural responses to errors (the error-related negativity, ERN), is considered a biomarker for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and may be a promising target for novel treatment approaches. Prior research suggests that non-invasive brain stimulation with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) may reduce the ERN in healthy individuals, yet no study has investigated its efficacy in attenuating the ERN in OCD. In this preregistered, randomized, sham-controlled, crossover study, we investigated effects of tDCS on performance monitoring in patients with OCD (n = 28) and healthy individuals (n = 28). Cathodal and sham tDCS was applied over the presupplementary motor area (pre-SMA) in two sessions, each followed by electroencephalogram recording during a flanker task. Cathodal tDCS reduced the ERN amplitude compared to sham tDCS, albeit this effect was only marginally significant (p = .052; mean difference: 0.86 μV). Additionally, cathodal tDCS reduced the correct-response negativity and increased the error positivity. These neural modulations were not accompanied by behavioral changes. Moreover, we found no evidence that the tDCS effect was more pronounced in the patient group. In summary, our findings indicate that tDCS over the pre-SMA modulates neural correlates of performance monitoring across groups. Therefore, this study represents a valuable starting point for future research to determine whether repeated tDCS application induces a more pronounced ERN attenuation and normalizes aberrant performance monitoring in the long term, thereby potentially alleviating obsessive-compulsive symptoms and providing a psychophysiological intervention strategy for individuals who do not benefit sufficiently from existing interventions.

Beyond a blunted ERN - Biobehavioral correlates of performance monitoring in schizophrenia

Cognitive deficits are well documented in schizophrenia. Here, we reviewed alterations in performance monitoring as potential marker of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. We found that performance monitoring alterations in schizophrenia are specific to early (indexed by blunted error-related negativity (ERN)) and late (reflected in blunted error positivity (Pe)) internal error processing, while external performance feedback processing in simple response feedback tasks is relatively preserved. We propose, that these performance monitoring deficits may best be interpret as one aspect of disrupted theta band (4-8 Hz) oscillations over medial frontal recordings sites. Midfrontal theta dynamics are an increasingly established direct neural index of the recruitment of cognitive control and are impaired in several clinical populations. While theta-related ERPs (the ERN) may be an easy to assess marker of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia, further work investigating the trial-by-trial dynamics of theta in both the time and time-frequency domain is needed to parse cognitive deficits in schizophrenia into finer levels of detail and evaluate theta modulation as a therapeutic tool.

The data-processing multiverse of event-related potentials (ERPs): A roadmap for the optimization and standardization of ERP processing and reduction pipelines

In studies of event-related brain potentials (ERPs), numerous decisions about data processing are required to extract ERP scores from continuous data. Unfortunately, the systematic impact of these choices on the data quality and psychometric reliability of ERP scores or even ERP scores themselves is virtually unknown, which is a barrier to the standardization of ERPs. The aim of the present study was to optimize processing pipelines for the error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe) by considering a multiverse of data processing choices. A multiverse analysis of a data processing pipeline examines the impact of a large set of different reasonable choices to determine the robustness of effects, such as the impact of different decisions on between-trial standard deviations (i.e., data quality) and between-condition differences (i.e., experimental effects). ERN and Pe data from 298 healthy young adults were used to determine the impact of different methodological choices on data quality and experimental effects (correct vs. error trials) at several key stages: highpass filtering, lowpass filtering, ocular artifact correction, reference, baseline adjustment, scoring sensors, and measurement procedure. This multiverse analysis yielded 3,456 ERN scores and 576 Pe scores per person. An optimized pipeline for ERN included a 15 Hz lowpass filter, ICA-based ocular artifact correction, and a region of interest (ROI) approach to scoring. For Pe, the optimized pipeline included a 0.10 Hz highpass filter, 30 Hz lowpass filter, regression-based ocular artifact correction, a -200 to 0 ms baseline adjustment window, and an ROI approach to scoring. The multiverse approach can be used to optimize pipelines for eventual standardization, which would support efforts toward establishing normative ERP databases. The proposed process of analyzing the data-processing multiverse of ERP scores paves the way for better refinement, identification, and selection of data processing parameters, ultimately improving the precision and utility of ERPs.

In the Face of Potential Harm: The Predictive Validity of Neural Correlates of Performance Monitoring for Perceived Risk, Stress, and Internalizing Psychopathology During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Background

The COVID-19 pandemic is a major life stressor posing serious threats not only to physical but also to mental health. To better understand mechanisms of vulnerability and identify individuals at risk for psychopathological symptoms in response to stressors is critical for prevention and intervention. The error-related negativity (ERN) has been discussed as a neural risk marker for psychopathology, and this study examined its predictive validity for perceived risk, stress, and psychopathological symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Methods

A total of 113 individuals who had participated as healthy control participants in previous electroencephalography studies (2014–2019) completed a follow-up online survey during the first COVID-19 wave in Germany. Associations of pre-pandemic ERN and correct-response negativity (CRN) with perceived risk regarding COVID-19 infection, stress, and internalizing symptoms during the pandemic were examined using mediation models.

Results

Pre-pandemic ERN and CRN were associated with increased perceived risk regarding a COVID-19 infection. Via this perceived risk, the ERN and CRN were associated with increased stress during the pandemic. Furthermore, risk perception and stress mediated indirect effects of ERN and CRN on internalizing psychopathology, including anxiety, depression, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms, while controlling for the effects of pre-pandemic symptom levels.

Conclusions

In summary, heightened pre-pandemic performance monitoring showed indirect associations with increases in psychopathological symptoms during the first COVID-19 wave via effects on perceived COVID-19 risk and stress. These results further strengthen the notion of performance monitoring event-related potentials as transdiagnostic neural risk markers and highlight the relevance of stress as a catalyst for symptom development.

Understanding the Error in Psychopathology: Notable Intraindividual Differences in Neural Variability of Performance Monitoring

BACKGROUND

Abnormal performance monitoring is a possible transdiagnostic marker of psychopathology. Research on neural indices of performance monitoring, including the error-related negativity (ERN), typically examines group and interindividual (between-person) differences in mean/average scores. Intraindividual (within-person) variability in activity captures the capacity to dynamically adjust from moment to moment, and excessive variability appears maladaptive. Intraindividual variability in ERN represents a unique and largely unexamined dimension that might impact functioning. We tested whether psychopathology group differences (major depressive disorder [MDD], generalized anxiety disorder [GAD], obsessive-compulsive disorder [OCD]) or corresponding psychiatric symptoms account for intraindividual variability in single-trial ERN scores.

METHODS

High-density electroencephalogram (Electrical Geodesics, Inc.) was recorded during a semantic flanker task in 51 participants with MDD, 44 participants with GAD, 31 participants with OCD, and 56 psychiatrically-healthy participants. Mean ERN amplitude was scored 0-125ms following participant response across four fronto-central sites. Multilevel location-scale models were used to simultaneously examine interindividual and intraindividual differences in ERN.

RESULTS

Analyses indicated considerable intraindividual variability in ERN that was common across groups. However, we did not find strong evidence to support relationships between ERN and psychopathology groups or transdiagnostic symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings point to important methodological implications for studies of performance monitoring in healthy and clinical populations-the common assumption of fixed intraindividual variability (i.e., residual variance) may be inappropriate for ERN studies. Implementation of multilevel location-scale models in future research can leverage between-person differences in intraindividual variability in performance monitoring to gain a rich understanding of trial-to-trial performance monitoring dynamics.

The ERN as a neural index of changes in performance monitoring following attention training in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder

Evidence of associations between obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and alterations in neural indices of performance monitoring, i.e., elevated neural activity following errors, have accelerated interest in the error-related negativity (ERN) as a biomarker for pediatric OCD. The study investigates the degree to which attention bias training is linked to changes in neural measures of performance monitoring (ERN, correct response negativity or CRN) and whether pre-to-post training changes in these neural indices are associated with symptom changes in youth with OCD. The sample included 36 youth (8-17 years) diagnosed with OCD who completed a 12-session attention training program and pre- and post-training EEG assessment of performance monitoring using cognitive and emotional flanker tasks. The emotional flanker task was individualized to each participant's negative ratings of stimuli at pre-treatment to enhance salience of threat-related stimuli across youth. Results indicated that unlike participants who received attentional control protocol (CON), those who received attentional bias modification protocol (ABM) showed significant attenuations in neural activity following erroneous and correct responses in the emotional flanker task. The ERN amplitude during the cognitive flanker task was unchanged in both ABM and CON groups. Attenuations in the ERN were also linked to decreases in social anxiety and depressive symptoms. Findings highlight the relevance of including emotionally-salient tasks when investigating potential neural mechanisms of treatments and suggest that alterations in neural processes underlying performance monitoring can be targeted via attention training programs in pediatric OCD.

Is it a painful error? The effect of unpredictability and intensity of punishment on the error-related negativity, and somatosensory evoked potentials

We examined how predictable and unpredictable punishment intensity contingent on error commission modulated ERN amplitudes. We recorded the ERN in 35 healthy volunteers performing the Eriksen flanker task. Errors were punished with predictable nonpainful, painful or unpredictable electrical stimulation. Furthermore, we investigated trait anxiety. We observed that ERN amplitudes did not differ across conditions, nor were there significant effects of anxiety. In contrast, we found that predictable painful punishments led to smaller Error Positivity (Pe). The effects of predictability and intensity were present in Somatosensory Evoked Potentials elicited by the punishments. N1 amplitudes were increased for painful compared to nonpainful stimulation, and P2/P3 amplitudes for painful compared to nonpainful, and for unpredictable compared to predictable stimulation. We suggest that unpredictability and increased painfulness of punishments enhance the potential motivational significance of the errors, but do not potentiate ERN amplitudes beyond the ones elicited by errors punished with predictable nonpainful stimulation.

Error-related negativity predicts increases in anxiety in a sample of clinically anxious female children and adolescents over 2 years

BACKGROUND

An increased neural response to making errors has emerged as a biomarker of anxiety. Error negativity (Ne) or errorrelated negativity (ERN) is an event-related potential generated when people commit errors; the Ne/ERN is greater among people with anxiety and predicts increases in anxiety. However, no previous study has examined whether the Ne/ERN can be used as a prognostic indicator among people with current anxiety. The present study addressed this gap by examining whether the Ne/ERN prospectively predicts increases in anxiety symptoms in clinically anxious children and adolescents.

METHODS

The sample included 34 female participants between the ages of 8 and 14 years who met the criteria for a clinical anxiety disorder based on clinical interview. The Ne/ERN was measured using a flanker task.

RESULTS

Increased Ne/ERN at baseline predicted increases in total anxiety symptoms 2 years later, even when accounting for baseline symptoms. The Ne/ERN predicted increases in the symptom domains of generalized anxiety, social anxiety and harm avoidance/perfectionism, but not panic, separation anxiety, school avoidance or physical symptoms.

LIMITATIONS

The sample size was small, which may have inflated the false discovery rate. To mitigate this possibility, we used multiple self-report measures, and the results for the 2 measures (as well as their symptom domains) converged.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that the Ne/ERN can delineate specific risk trajectories, even among those who already meet the criteria for a clinical anxiety disorder. Considering the need for prognostic markers among people with clinical anxiety, the current findings are an important and novel extension of previous work.

Single-trial modeling separates multiple overlapping prediction errors during reward processing in human EEG

Learning signals during reinforcement learning and cognitive control rely on valenced reward prediction errors (RPEs) and non-valenced salience prediction errors (PEs) driven by surprise magnitude. A core debate in reward learning focuses on whether valenced and non-valenced PEs can be isolated in the human electroencephalogram (EEG). We combine behavioral modeling and single-trial EEG regression to disentangle sequential PEs in an interval timing task dissociating outcome valence, magnitude, and probability. Multiple regression across temporal, spatial, and frequency dimensions characterized a spatio-tempo-spectral cascade from early valenced RPE value to non-valenced RPE magnitude, followed by outcome probability indexed by a late frontal positivity. Separating negative and positive outcomes revealed the valenced RPE value effect is an artifact of overlap between two non-valenced RPE magnitude responses: frontal theta feedback-related negativity on losses and posterior delta reward positivity on wins. These results reconcile longstanding debates on the sequence of components representing reward and salience PEs in the human EEG.