Immune Networks and Therapeutic Targeting of iNKT Cells in Cancer

Early infiltrating NKT lymphocytes attenuate bone regeneration through secretion of CXCL2

Trauma rapidly mobilizes the immune response of surrounding tissues and activates regeneration program. Manipulating immune response to promote tissue regeneration shows a broad application prospect. However, the understanding of bone healing dynamics at cellular level remains limited. Here, we characterize the landscape of immune cells after alveolar bone injury and reveal a pivotal role of infiltrating natural killer T (NKT) cells. We observe a rapid increase in NKT cells after injury, which inhibit osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and impair alveolar bone healing. Cxcl2 is up-regulated in NKT cells after injury. Systemic administration of CXCL2-neutralizing antibody or genetic deletion of Cxcl2 improves the bone healing process. In addition, we fabricate a gelatin-based porous hydrogel to deliver NK1.1 depletion antibody, which successfully promotes alveolar bone healing. In summary, our study highlights the importance of NKT cells in the early stage of bone healing and provides a potential therapeutic strategy for accelerating bone regeneration.

Fusogenic vesicular stomatitis virus combined with natural killer T cell immunotherapy controls metastatic breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Metastatic breast cancer is a leading cause of cancer death in woman. Current treatment options are often associated with adverse side effects and poor outcomes, demonstrating the need for effective new treatments. Immunotherapies can provide durable outcomes in many cancers; however, limited success has been achieved in metastatic triple negative breast cancer. We tested whether combining different immunotherapies can target metastatic triple negative breast cancer in pre-clinical models.

METHODS

Using primary and metastatic 4T1 triple negative mammary carcinoma models, we examined the therapeutic effects of oncolytic vesicular stomatitis virus (VSVΔM51) engineered to express reovirus-derived fusion associated small transmembrane proteins p14 (VSV-p14) or p15 (VSV-p15). These viruses were delivered alone or in combination with natural killer T (NKT) cell activation therapy mediated by adoptive transfer of α-galactosylceramide-loaded dendritic cells.

RESULTS

Treatment of primary 4T1 tumors with VSV-p14 or VSV-p15 alone increased immunogenic tumor cell death, attenuated tumor growth, and enhanced immune cell infiltration and activation compared to control oncolytic virus (VSV-GFP) treatments and untreated mice. When combined with NKT cell activation therapy, oncolytic VSV-p14 and VSV-p15 reduced metastatic lung burden to undetectable levels in all mice and generated immune memory as evidenced by enhanced in vitro recall responses (tumor killing and cytokine production) and impaired tumor growth upon rechallenge.

CONCLUSION

Combining NKT cell immunotherapy with enhanced oncolytic virotherapy increased anti-tumor immune targeting of lung metastasis and presents a promising treatment strategy for metastatic breast cancer.

CAR products from novel sources: a new avenue for the breakthrough in cancer immunotherapy

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy has transformed cancer immunotherapy. However, significant challenges limit its application beyond B cell-driven malignancies, including limited clinical efficacy, high toxicity, and complex autologous cell product manufacturing. Despite efforts to improve CAR T cell therapy outcomes, there is a growing interest in utilizing alternative immune cells to develop CAR cells. These immune cells offer several advantages, such as major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-independent function, tumor microenvironment (TME) modulation, and increased tissue infiltration capabilities. Currently, CAR products from various T cell subtypes, innate immune cells, hematopoietic progenitor cells, and even exosomes are being explored. These CAR products often show enhanced antitumor efficacy, diminished toxicity, and superior tumor penetration. With these benefits in mind, numerous clinical trials are underway to access the potential of these innovative CAR cells. This review aims to thoroughly examine the advantages, challenges, and existing insights on these new CAR products in cancer treatment.

Nano-formulated delivery of active ingredients from traditional Chinese herbal medicines for cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has garnered promise in tumor progression, invasion, and metastasis through establishing durable and memorable immunological activity. However, low response rates, adverse side effects, and high costs compromise the additional benefits for patients treated with current chemical and biological agents. Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) are a potential treasure trove of natural medicines and are gaining momentum in cancer immunomodulation with multi-component, multi-target, and multi-pathway characteristics. The active ingredient extracted from CHMs benefit generalized patients through modulating immune response mechanisms. Additionally, the introduction of nanotechnology has greatly improved the pharmacological qualities of active ingredients through increasing the hydrophilicity, stability, permeability, and targeting characteristics, further enhancing anti-cancer immunity. In this review, we summarize the mechanism of active ingredients for cancer immunomodulation, highlight nano-formulated deliveries of active ingredients for cancer immunotherapy, and provide insights into the future applications in the emerging field of nano-formulated active ingredients of CHMs.

The Prognosis and Immunotherapy Prediction Model of Ovarian Serous Cystadenocarcinoma Patient was Constructed Based on Cuproptosis-Related LncRNA

Cuproptosis can serve as potential prognostic predictors in patients with cancer. However, the role of this relationship in ovarian serous cystadenocarcinoma (OV) remains unclear. 376 OV tumor samples were obtained from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) related to cuproptosis were obtained through correlation analysis. The risk assessment model was further constructed by univariate Cox regression analysis and LASSO Cox regression. Bioinformatics was used to analyze the regulatory effect of relevant risk assessment models on tumor mutational burden (TMB) and immune microenvironment. We obtained 5 lncRNAs (AC025287.2, AC092718.4, AC112721.2, LINC00996, and LINC01639) and incorporated them into the Cox proportional hazards model. Kaplan-Meier (KM) curve analysis of the prognosis found that the high-risk group was associated with a poorer prognosis. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve showed stronger predictive power compared to other clinicopathological features. Immune infiltration analysis showed that high-risk scores were inversely correlated with CD8+ T cells, CD4+ T cells, macrophages, NK cells, and B cells. Functional enrichment analysis found that they may act via the extracellular matrix (ECM)-interacting proteins and other pathways. We successfully constructed a reliable cuproptosis-related lncRNA model for the prognosis of OV.

Motility and tumor infiltration are key aspects of invariant natural killer T cell anti-tumor function

Dysfunction of invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells contributes to immune resistance of tumors. Most mechanistic studies focus on their static functional status before or after activation, not considering motility as an important characteristic for antigen scanning and thus anti-tumor capability. Here we show via intravital imaging, that impaired motility of iNKT cells and their exclusion from tumors both contribute to the diminished anti-tumor iNKT cell response. Mechanistically, CD1d, expressed on macrophages, interferes with tumor infiltration of iNKT cells and iNKT-DC interactions but does not influence their intratumoral motility. VCAM1, expressed by cancer cells, restricts iNKT cell motility and inhibits their antigen scanning and activation by DCs via reducing CDC42 expression. Blocking VCAM1-CD49d signaling improves motility and activation of intratumoral iNKT cells, and consequently augments their anti-tumor function. Interference with macrophage-iNKT cell interactions further enhances the anti-tumor capability of iNKT cells. Thus, our findings provide a direction to enhance the efficacy of iNKT cell-based immunotherapy via motility regulation.

Tumor epitope spreading by a novel multivalent therapeutic cellular vaccine targeting cancer antigens to invariant NKT-triggered dendritic cells in situ

Introduction

Cancer is categorized into two types based on the microenvironment: cold and hot tumors. The former is challenging to stimulate through immunity. The immunogenicity of cancer relies on the quality and quantity of cancer antigens, whether recognized by T cells or not. Successful cancer immunotherapy hinges on the cancer cell type, antigenicity and subsequent immune reactions. The T cell response is particularly crucial for secondary epitope spreading, although the factors affecting these mechanisms remain unknown. Prostate cancer often becomes resistant to standard therapy despite identifying several antigens, placing it among immunologically cold tumors. We aim to leverage prostate cancer antigens to investigate the potential induction of epitope spreading in cold tumors. This study specifically focuses on identifying factors involved in secondary epitope spreading based on artificial adjuvant vector cell (aAVC) therapy, a method established as invariant natural killer T (iNKT) -licensed DC therapy.

Methods

We concentrated on three prostate cancer antigens (prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA), prostate-specific antigen (PSA), and prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP)). By introducing allogeneic cells with the antigen and murine CD1d mRNA, followed by α-galactosylceramide (α-GalCer) loading, we generated five types of aAVCs, i.e, monovalent, divalent and trivalent antigen-expressing aAVCs and four types of prostate antigen-expressing cold tumors. We evaluated iNKT activation and antigen-specific CD8+ T cell responses against tumor cells prompted by the aAVCs.

Results

Our study revealed that monovalent aAVCs, expressing a single prostate antigen, primed T cells for primary tumor antigens and also induced T cells targeting additional tumor antigens by triggering a tumor antigen-spreading response. When we investigated the immune response by trivalent aAVC (aAVC-PROS), aAVC-PROS therapy elicited multiple antigen-specific CD8+ T cells simultaneously. These CD8+ T cells exhibited both preventive and therapeutic effects against tumor progression.

Conclusions

The findings from this study highlight the promising role of tumor antigen-expressing aAVCs, in inducing efficient epitope spreading and generating robust immune responses against cancer. Our results also propose that multivalent antigen-expressing aAVCs present a promising therapeutic option and could be a more comprehensive therapy for treating cold tumors like prostate cancer.

Classification of regulatory T cells and their role in myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury

Myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury (MIRI) is closely related to the final infarct size in acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Therefore, reducing MIRI can effectively improve the prognosis of AMI patients. At the same time, the healing process after AMI is closely related to the local inflammatory microenvironment. Regulatory T cells (Tregs) can regulate various physiological and pathological immune inflammatory responses and play an important role in regulating the immune inflammatory response after AMI. However, different subtypes of Tregs have different effects on MIRI, and the same subtype of Tregs may also have different effects at different stages of MIRI. This article systematically reviews the classification and function of Tregs, as well as the role of various subtypes of Tregs in MIRI. A comprehensive understanding of the role of each subtype of Tregs can help design effective methods to control immune reactions, reduce MIRI, and provide new potential therapeutic options for AMI.

NKT-Licensed In Vivo Dendritic Cell-Based Immunotherapy as Cellular Immunodrugs for Cancer Treatment

With the advent of new therapies, immunotherapy has gained attention as a critical modality. After the discovery of the natural killer T (NKT) cells ligand, ex vivo cultured dendritic cells (DCs) loaded with NKT ligand (especially α-galactosylceramide (α-GalCer) (DC/Gal) or ex vivo expanded NKT transfer studies were clinically examined in several institutes. To prevent tumoral immune escape, the link between innate and adaptive immunity, in situ selective targeting of DCs has been attempted; however, protocol optimization was required. As a type of DC targeting therapy that combines the benefits of invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells, we established an all-in-one, off-the-shelf drug, named the artificial adjuvant vector cell (aAVC), which consists of the tumor antigen and the CD1d-iNKT ligand complex. Here, to our knowledge, we first demonstrate the DC/GalCer therapy and NKT transfer therapy. Next, we introduce and discuss the use of aAVC therapy not only for efficient innate and adaptive immunity induction using fully matured DC in situ but also the characterization necessary for locally reprogramming the tumor microenvironment and systemically inducing long-term memory in T cells. We also discuss how the immune network mechanism is controlled by DCs. Next, we performed the first human clinical trial using WT1 antigen-expressing aAVC against relapse and refractory acute myelogenous leukemia. Thus, we highlight the challenges of using aAVCs as prodrugs for actively energizing DCs in vivo, underpinning immunological networks, and developing strategies for providing maximal benefits for patients.

Natural Killer T Cell Diversity and Immunotherapy

Invariant natural killer T cells (iNKTs), a type of unconventional T cells, share features with NK cells and have an invariant T cell receptor (TCR), which recognizes lipid antigens loaded on CD1d molecules, a major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I)-like protein. This interaction produces the secretion of a wide array of cytokines by these cells, including interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and interleukin 4 (IL-4), allowing iNKTs to link innate with adaptive responses. Interestingly, molecules that bind CD1d have been identified that enable the modulation of these cells, highlighting their potential pro-inflammatory and immunosuppressive capacities, as required in different clinical settings. In this review, we summarize key features of iNKTs and current understandings of modulatory α-galactosylceramide (α-GalCer) variants, a model iNKT cell activator that can shift the outcome of adaptive immune responses. Furthermore, we discuss advances in the development of strategies that modulate these cells to target pathologies that are considerable healthcare burdens. Finally, we recapitulate findings supporting a role for iNKTs in infectious diseases and tumor immunotherapy.

Identification and validation of functional roles for three MYC-associated genes in hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Aberrations in MYC underlie a large proportion of liver hepatocellular carcinoma (LIHC) cases; however, MYC is difficult to target because of its undruggable structure. We aimed to uncover MYC-associated molecular targets to provide new strategies for LIHC treatment.

METHODS

LIHC transcriptome datasets and clinical information were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas. A series of bioinformatics analyses were performed for 370 patients who were stratified based on the median MYC expression level (high-MYC group and low-MYC group). Correlation analysis was performed to determine relationships between the expression of key MYC-associated genes and prognosis, DNA promotor methylation, and immune cell infiltration. Gene ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes Pathway enrichment analyses were performed to elucidate the functions of these genes in LIHC. Their expression and functions in LIHC were further verified using transgenic mice overexpressing c-Myc under control of the hepatocyte-specific promoter (Alb-Cre).

RESULTS

AURKB, CCNB2, and CDKN3 were overexpressed in LIHC patients with high MYC expression and were associated with poor prognosis. Upregulation of these 3 genes was significantly correlated with hypomethylated promoter status, advanced T stage, metastasis, and immune cell infiltration in LIHC patients. Functional enrichment analyses indicated that these genes participate in the "p53 signaling pathway" and "cell cycle". Furthermore, RT-PCR and IHC analysis revealed that their mRNA and protein expression levels were upregulated in an Alb-Cre;cMYClsl/- mouse model. Drugs that target these 3 MYC-related genes were identified.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, our results identify biomarkers of potential utility for managing liver cancer therapy owing to their significance in tumorigenesis, proliferation, and tumor immunity.

Targeting tumor-associated macrophage: an adjuvant strategy for lung cancer therapy

The emergence of immunotherapy has revolutionized the treatment landscape for various types of cancer. Nevertheless, lung cancer remains one of the leading causes of cancer-related mortality worldwide due to the development of resistance in most patients. As one of the most abundant groups of immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) play crucial and complex roles in the development of lung cancer, including the regulation of immunosuppressive TME remodeling, metabolic reprogramming, neoangiogenesis, metastasis, and promotion of tumoral neurogenesis. Hence, relevant strategies for lung cancer therapy, such as inhibition of macrophage recruitment, TAM reprograming, depletion of TAMs, and engineering of TAMs for drug delivery, have been developed. Based on the satisfactory treatment effect of TAM-targeted therapy, recent studies also investigated its synergistic effect with current therapies for lung cancer, including immunotherapy, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, anti-epidermal growth factor receptor (anti-EGFR) treatment, or photodynamic therapy. Thus, in this article, we summarized the key mechanisms of TAMs contributing to lung cancer progression and elaborated on the novel therapeutic strategies against TAMs. We also discussed the therapeutic potential of TAM targeting as adjuvant therapy in the current treatment of lung cancer, particularly highlighting the TAM-centered strategies for improving the efficacy of anti-programmed cell death-1/programmed cell death-ligand 1 (anti-PD-1/PD-L1) treatment.

Euphorbia factor L1 suppresses breast cancer liver metastasis via DDR1-mediated immune infiltration

Euphorbia factor L1 (EFL1), a lathyrane-type diterpenoid from the medicinal herb Euphorbia lathyris L., has been documented to possess various pharmacologic actives. However, the function of EFL1 on breast cancer is not clear. In this study, we explored the effect and mechanism of EFL1 on breast cancer liver metastasis. Female BALB/c mice were subjected to breast cancer-surgical hepatic implantation (SHI) to establish breast cancer liver metastasis model in vivo. At 10 days post-surgery, mice were administrated with EFL1 once daily for a total of 2 weeks. Serum AST and ALT activities, abdominal circumference, peritoneal fluid, tumor weight and volume were determined to assess liver and mesenteric re-metastasis of breast cancer. H&E staining was used to observe morphology changes in tumor, liver and small intestine tissues. ELISA was applied to observe inflammatory levels. Tumor DDR1 expression and immune infiltration were determined using western blotting, immunohistochemistry and flow cytometer methods. Our results showed that EFL1 administration improved liver function (AST and ALT activities), ascites, liver metastasis and mesenteric re-metastasis in SHI mice. Also, SHI-induced inflammatory cell infiltration and IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α generation in ascites were decreased by EFL1 treatment. Mechanism study revealed that EFL1 intervention enhanced the ratios of CD4+ and CD8+ and CD49b+(NK) T lymphocytes and decreased Treg cells through downregulating DDR1 in the tumor of SHI mice. Furthermore, overexpression of DDR1 abolished the anti-liver metastasis effect and pro-immune infiltration action of EFL1 in SHI mice. Together, our findings suggested that EFL1 protects against breast cancer liver metastasis in vivo by targeting DDR1-mediated immune infiltration.

Efficacy of Invariant Natural Killer T Cell Infusion Plus Transarterial Embolization vs Transarterial Embolization Alone for Hepatocellular Carcinoma Patients: A Phase 2 Randomized Clinical Trial

Purpose

Invariant NKT cells (iNKT) are CD1d-restricted T cells with the capacity of antitumor immunity. The safety of autologous iNKT cell treatment in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has been verified. This study aimed to investigate its efficacy in advanced HCC after transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) failure.

Patients and methods

This open-label, randomized, controlled, trial enrolled 60 patients with unresectable HCC after TACE failure at three centers. Transarterial embolization (TAE) was used instead of TACE to protect iNKT cell function. Patients were randomly assigned (1:1) to receive TAE therapy with (TAE-iNKT) or without (TAE) biweekly iNKT cell infusion. The primary endpoint was progression-free survival (PFS). Secondary endpoints included overall survival (OS), objective response rate (ORR), disease control rate (DCR), quality of life (QoL), peripheral blood cell count, and safety.

Results

Fifty-four patients completed the study. Median PFS was significantly higher in TAE-iNKT patients (5.7 months [95% CI, 4.3-7.0 months]) compared with TAE patients (2.7 months [95% CI, 2.3-3.2 months]; hazard ratio 0.32 [95% CI, 0.16-0.63]; P<0.001). Higher ORR and DCR were observed in TAE-iNKT patients (52% and 85%, respectively) compared with TAE patients (11% and 33%; respectively). Five TAE-iNKT patients and 1 TAE patient achieved completed response. The median time to deterioration in QoL was longer in TAE-iNKT patients (9.2 months [95% CI, 6.0-13.3 months]) compared with TAE patients (3.0 months [95% CI, 2.9-3.0 months]). The mean lymphocytes were higher in the TAE-iNKT group than in the TAE group at 8 (1.48 vs 0.95×109/L, P = 0.007) and 12 (1.49 vs 0.89×109/L, P = 0.001) weeks. Grade 3 adverse events occurred in 1 TAE-iNKT patient (4%) and 5 TAE patients (19%). All the other adverse events were grade 1-2.

Conclusion

iNKT cell infusion significantly improved PFS, ORR, DCR, and QoL with manageable toxicity during TAE therapy in patients with HCC. Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04011033.

A Prognostic Model of Head and Neck Cancer Based on Amino Acid Metabolism-Related Signature and Its Implication for Immunosuppressive Microenvironment

Amino acid metabolism has been implicated in tumorigenesis and tumor progression. Alterations in intracellular and extracellular metabolites associated with metabolic reprogramming in cancer have profound effects on gene expression, cell differentiation, and tumor immune microenvironment. However, the prognostic significance of amino acid metabolism in head and neck cancer remains to be further investigated. In this study, we identified 98 differentially expressed genes related to amino acid metabolism in head and neck cancer in The Cancer Genome Atlas. Using batch univariate Cox regression and Lasso regression, we extracted nine amino acid metabolism-related genes. Based on that, we developed the amino acid metabolism index. The prognostic value of this index was validated in two Gene Expression Omnibus cohorts. The results show that this model can help predict tumor recurrence and prognosis. The infiltration of immune cells in the tumor microenvironment was analyzed, and it was discovered that the high index is associated with an immunosuppressive microenvironment. In addition, this study demonstrated the impact of the amino acid metabolism index on clinical indicators, survival of patients with head and neck cancer, and the prediction of treatment response to immune checkpoint inhibitors. We conducted several cell experiments and demonstrated that epigenetic drugs could affect the index and enhance tumor immunity. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that the index not only has important prognostic value in head and neck cancer patients but also facilitates patient stratification for immunotherapy.

Combination of cancer vaccine with CD122-biased IL-2/anti-IL-2 Ab complex shapes the stem-like effector NK and CD8+ T cells against tumor

BACKGROUND

A key to success of cancer immunotherapy is the amplification and sustenance of various effector cells. The hallmark of prominent antitumor T cells is their long-term effector function. Although interleukin (IL)-2 is an attractive cytokine, several attempts have been made towards developing IL-2 modalities with improved effectiveness and safety that enhance natural killer (NK) cells or T cells in cancer models. However, whether such IL-2 modalities can simultaneously support long-term innate and adaptive immunity, particularly stem-like memory, has not been shown. To resolve this issue, we compared the antitumor cellular mechanism with two IL-2/anti-IL-2 complexes (IL-2Cxs) administered in combination with a therapeutic cancer vaccine, which we had previously established as an in vivo dendritic cell-targeting therapy.

METHODS

Two types of IL-2Cxs, CD25-biased IL-2Cx and CD122-biased IL-2Cx, together with a Wilms' tumor 1-expressing vaccine, were evaluated in a leukemic model. The immunological response and synergistic antitumor efficacy of these IL-2Cxs were then evaluated.

RESULTS

When CD25-biased or CD122-biased IL-2Cxs in combination with the vaccine were assessed in an advanced-leukemia model, the CD122-biased IL-2Cx combination showed 100% survival, but the CD25-biased IL-2Cx did not. We first showed that invariant natural killer T (NKT) 1 cells are predominantly activated by CD122-biased IL-2Cx. In addition, in-depth analysis of immune responses by CD122-biased IL-2Cx in lymphoid tissues and the tumor microenvironment revealed a dramatic increase in the distinct subsets of NK and CD8+ T cells with stem-like phenotype (CD27+Sca-1hi, CXCR3hi, CD127+TCF-1+T-bet+ Eomes+). Moreover, CD122-biased IL-2Cx combination therapy maintained long-term memory CD8+ T cells capable of potent antitumor protection. After the high dimensional profiling analysis of NK and CD8+T cells, principal component analysis revealed that the stem-like-NK cell and stem-like-CD8+T cell state in the combination were integrated in the same group.

CONCLUSIONS

CD122-biased IL-2Cx combined with the vaccine can induce a series of reactions in the immune cascade, including activation of not only NKT1 cells, but also NK and CD8+ T cells with a stem-like memory phenotype. Since it can also lead to a long-term, strong antitumor response, the combination of CD122-biased IL-2Cx with a vaccine may serve as a potential and competent strategy for patients with advanced cancer.

Circulating and Tumor-Associated Neutrophils in the Era of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: Dynamics, Phenotypes, Metabolism, and Functions

Neutrophils are the most abundant myeloid cells in the blood and are a considerable immunological component of the tumor microenvironment. However, their functional importance has often been ignored, as they have always been considered a mono-dimensional population of terminally differentiated, short-living cells. During the last decade, the use of cutting-edge, single-cell technologies has revolutionized the classical view of these cells, unmasking their phenotypic and functional heterogeneity. In this review, we summarize the emerging concepts in the field of neutrophils in cancer, by reviewing the recent literature on the heterogeneity of both circulating neutrophils and tumor-associated neutrophils, as well as their possible significance in tumor prognosis and resistance to immune checkpoint inhibitors.

A comprehensive signature based on endoplasmic reticulum stress-related genes in predicting prognosis and immunotherapy response in melanoma

Melanoma is considered as one of the most invasion types of skin cancer with high mortality rates. Although combination of immune checkpoint therapy with local surgical excision provide a novel promising therapeutic strategies, the overall prognosis of melanoma patients remains unsatisfactory. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, a process of protein misfolding and undue accumulation, has been proven to play an indispensable regulatory role in tumor progression and tumor immunity. However, whether the signature based ER genes has predictive value for the prognosis and immunotherapy of melanoma has not been systematically manifested. In this study, the LASSO regression and multivariate Cox regression were applied to construct a novel signature for predicting melanoma prognosis both in the training and testing set. Intriguingly, we found that patients endowed with high- and low-risk scores displayed differences in clinicopathologic classification, immune cell infiltration level, tumor microenvironment, and immune checkpoint treatment response. Subsequently, based on molecular biology experiments, we validated that silencing the expression of RAC1, an ERG composed of the risk signature, could restrain the proliferation and migration, promote apoptosis, as well as increase the expression of PD-1/PD-L1 and CTLA4 in melanoma cells. Taken together, the risk signature was regarded as promising predictors for melanoma prognosis and might provide prospective strategies to ameliorate patients' response to immunotherapy.

The evolving tumor microenvironment: From cancer initiation to metastatic outgrowth

Cancers represent complex ecosystems comprising tumor cells and a multitude of non-cancerous cells, embedded in an altered extracellular matrix. The tumor microenvironment (TME) includes diverse immune cell types, cancer-associated fibroblasts, endothelial cells, pericytes, and various additional tissue-resident cell types. These host cells were once considered bystanders of tumorigenesis but are now known to play critical roles in the pathogenesis of cancer. The cellular composition and functional state of the TME can differ extensively depending on the organ in which the tumor arises, the intrinsic features of cancer cells, the tumor stage, and patient characteristics. Here, we review the importance of the TME in each stage of cancer progression, from tumor initiation, progression, invasion, and intravasation to metastatic dissemination and outgrowth. Understanding the complex interplay between tumor cell-intrinsic, cell-extrinsic, and systemic mediators of disease progression is critical for the rational development of effective anti-cancer treatments.

Natural Killer T and Natural Killer Cell-Based Immunotherapy Strategies Targeting Cancer

Both natural killer T (NKT) and natural killer (NK) cells are innate cytotoxic lymphoid cells that produce inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and their role in the innate immune response to tumors and microorganisms has been investigated. Especially, emerging evidence has revealed their status and function in the tumor microenvironment (TME) of tumor cells. Some bacteria producing NKT cell ligands have been identified to exert antitumor effects, even in the TME. By contrast, tumor-derived lipids or metabolites may reportedly suppress NKT and NK cells in situ. Since NKT and NK cells recognize stress-inducible molecules or inhibitory molecules on cancer cells, their status or function depends on the balance between inhibitory and activating receptor signals. As a recent strategy in cancer immunotherapy, the mobilization or restoration of endogenous NKT or NK cells by novel vaccines or therapies has become a focus of research. As a new biological evidence, after activation, effector memory-type NKT cells lasted in tumor-bearing models, and NK cell-based immune checkpoint inhibition potentiated the enhancement of NK cell cytotoxicity against cancer cells in preclinical and clinical trials. Furthermore, several new modalities based on the characteristics of NKT and NK cells, including artificial adjuvant vector cells, chimeric antigen receptor-expressing NK or NKT cell therapy, or their combination with immune checkpoint blockade have been developed. This review examines challenges and future directions for improving these therapies.

Systematically analyzed molecular characteristics of lung adenocarcinoma using metabolism-related genes classification

High heterogeneity of lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is a major clinical challenge. This study aims to characterize the molecular features of LUAD through classification based on metabolism-related genes. A total of 500 LUAD samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and 612 from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) were integrated with 2,753 metabolism-related genes to determine the molecular classification. Systematic bioinformatics analysis was used to conduct correlation analysis between metabolism-related classification and molecular characteristics of LUAD. LUAD patients were divided into three molecular clusters (C1-C3). Survival analysis revealed that C1 and C2 showed good and poor prognoses, respectively. Associational analysis of classification and molecular characteristics revealed that C1 was associated with low pathological stage, metabolic pathways, high metabolic process, active immune process and checkpoint, sensitive drug response, as well as a low genetic mutation. Nevertheless, C2 was associated with high pathological stage, carcinogenic pathways, low metabolic process, inactive immune signatures, resistant drug response, and frequent genetic mutation. Eventually, a classifier with 60 metabolic genes was constructed, confirming the robustness of molecular classification on LUAD. Our findings promote the understanding of LUAD molecular characteristics, and the research data may be used for providing information be helpful for clinical diagnosis and treatment.

[CAR-T cells development in solid tumors]

CAR-T cells have produced very promising results in the field of onco-hematology and have been rapidly approved for marketing in France for several years now. In solid tumors, current results are more disappointing. Indeed, many hurdles come in the way. Tumor vascularization, the strongly immunosuppressive microenvironment, the loss of the target antigen as well as T cell exhaustion are part of the explanation of those results. Hence many researchers are working to develop strategies to counteract these resistance mechanisms. Arming CAR-T cells with BiTEs, with immune checkpoint inhibitors or with interleukins seem to be effective ways to improve antitumor efficacy. Other strategies including vaccines association or local delivery of the CAR-T cells look very promising. Many Phase I studies are investigating these new strategies and are expected to improve the previous results obtained to date in this area.

SOX chemotherapy with anti-PD-1 and iNKT cell immunotherapies for stage IV gastric adenocarcinoma with liver metastases: A case report

Gastric cancer (GC) is the fourth most common cancer worldwide, with overall 5-year survival rate of approximate 20%. Although multimodal treatments that combine surgery with chemotherapy and immunotherapy have been shown to improve survival, pathological complete response (pCR) is rare in advanced GC patients with liver metastases. Pre-clinical studies and clinical trials have demonstrated the antitumor efficacy of invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells in various malignancies, including GC. While multimodal therapy comprised of chemotherapy, anti-programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) therapy, and iNKT cell immunotherapy have not been reported in GC patients. This case report describes the treatment of an early 60s patient diagnosed with advanced stage IVB (T1N1M1) adenocarcinomas of gastric cardia with liver metastases who received multimodal therapy comprised of SOX chemotherapy, anti-programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) therapy, and iNKT cell immunotherapy followed by surgical resection. Dramatic decreases in tumor area were observed in both the primary tumor and metastatic lesions following six cycles of SOX chemotherapy and iNKT cell immunotherapy, and four cycles of anti-PD-1 therapy. This combined treatment resulted in the transformation of a remarkably large, unresectable liver metastases into a resectable tumor, and the patient received total gastrectomy with D2 lymph node dissection and liver metastasectomy. Subsequent pathological examination detected no cancer cells in either the primary site or liver metastatic lesions, supporting the likelihood that this treatment achieved pCR. To our knowledge, this report represents the first case of a metastatic gastric cancer patient displaying pCR after six months of multimodal therapy, thus supporting that a SOX chemotherapy, anti-PD-1 therapy, and iNKT cell immunotherapy combination strategy may be effective for treating, and potentially curing, patients with advanced gastric adenocarcinoma.

lncRNA-AC079061.1/VIPR1 axis may suppress the development of hepatocellular carcinoma: a bioinformatics analysis and experimental validation

Background

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most malignant tumors to threaten human life, and the survival rate remains low due to delayed diagnosis. Meanwhile, lncRNAs have great potential for application in tumor prognosis, therefore relevant research in hepatocellular carcinoma is indispensable.

Methods

Based on the EZH2 expression, the differentially expressed lncRNAs DElncRNAs), miRNAs (DEmiRNAs), and mRNAs (DEmRNAs) were identified in hepatocellular carcinoma by using the TCGA database. Bioinformatics technology was utilized to determine the effect of key genes in HCC progression. The methylation and immune infiltration analyses were performed to explore the underlying function of hub genes. Finally, cellular function experiments were performed to investigate the association between identified genes and biological phenotypes in HCC.

Results

lncRNA-AC079061.1, hsa-miR-765, and VIPR1 were identified as independent factors that affect the prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma. The immune infiltration analyses revealed that lncRNA-AC079061.1 can alter the immune microenvironment and thus inhibit the development of HCC by regulating the expression of an immune-related gene (VIPR1). Methylation analyses demonstrated that VIPR1 expression is negatively related to the methylation level in HCC. Experimental results suggested that lncRNA-AC079061.1 and VIPR1 were frequently downregulated in HCC cells, while hsa-miR-765 was significantly upregulated. Moreover, the lncRNA-AC079061.1/VIPR1 axis suppressed the proliferation and invasion of HCC cells.

Conclusion

The present study identified the lncRNA-AC079061.1/VIPR1 axis as a novel biomarker that inhibited the proliferation and invasion of hepatocellular carcinoma, affecting the ultimate disease outcome.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12967-022-03573-7.

METTL14-dependent m6A modification controls iNKT cell development and function

N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A), the most common form of RNA modification, controls CD4⁺ T cell homeostasis by targeting the IL-7/STAT5/SOCS signaling pathways. The role of m⁶A modification in unconventional T cell development remains unknown. Using mice with T cell-specific deletion of RNA methyltransferase METTL14 (T-Mettl14^−/−), we demonstrate that m⁶A modification is indispensable for iNKT cell homeostasis. Loss of METTL14-dependent m⁶A modification leads to the upregulation of apoptosis in double-positive thymocytes, which in turn decreases Vα14-Jα18 gene rearrangements, resulting in drastic reduction of iNKT numbers in the thymus and periphery. Residual T-Mettl14^−/− iNKT cells exhibit increased apoptosis, impaired maturation, and decreased responsiveness to IL-2/IL-15 and TCR stimulation. Furthermore, METTL14 knockdown in mature iNKT cells diminishes their cytokine production, correlating with increased Cish expression and decreased TCR signaling. Collectively, our study highlights a critical role for METTL14-dependent-m⁶A modification in iNKT cell development and function.

Cao et al. show that T cell-specific deletion of METTL14, a component of RNA m⁶A writer complex, leads to severe defects in iNKT cell development, survival, and function. Mechanistically, METTL14-dependent m⁶A modification controls iNKT cell development in a cell-intrinsic manner by regulating the apoptosis pathway and TCR signaling pathway.

Bioinformatics Prediction and in vivo Verification Identify SLC7A5 as Immune Infiltration Related Biomarker in Breast Cancer

Purpose

Methods

Results

Conclusion

Pbrm1 intrinsically controls the development and effector differentiation of iNKT cells

Under static condition, the pool size of peripheral invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells is determined by their homeostatic proliferation, survival and thymic input. However, the underlying mechanism is not fully understood. In the present study, we found that the percentage and number of iNKT cells were significantly reduced in the spleen, but not in the thymus of mice with deletion of polybromo‐1 (Pbrm1) compared to wild type (WT) mice. Pbrm1 deletion did not affect iNKT cell proliferation and survival, instead significantly impaired their development from stage 1 to stage 2. Importantly, loss of Pbrm1 led to a dysfunction of RORγt expression and iNKT17 cell differentiation, but not iNKT1 and iNKT2 proportion. Collectively, our study reveals a novel mechanism of Pbrm1 controlling the peripheral size of iNKT cells through regulating their development and differentiation.

Recent Advances in Solid Tumor CAR-T Cell Therapy: Driving Tumor Cells From Hero to Zero?

Chimeric antigen receptor T-cells (CAR-Ts) are known as revolutionary living drugs that have turned the tables of conventional cancer treatments in certain hematologic malignancies such as B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) by achieving US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval based on their successful clinical outcomes. However, this type of therapy has not seen the light of victory in the fight against solid tumors because of various restricting caveats including heterogeneous tumor antigen expression and the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironments (TME) that negatively affect the tumor-site accessibility, infiltration, stimulation, activation, and persistence of CAR-Ts. In this review, we explore strategic twists including boosting vaccines and designing implementations that can support CAR-T expansion, proliferation, and tumoricidal capacity. We also step further by underscoring novel strategies for triggering endogenous antitumor responses and overcoming the limitation of poor CAR-T tumor-tissue infiltration and the lack of definitive tumor-specific antigens. Ultimately, we highlight how these approaches can address the mentioned arduous hurdles.

A single immunization with cellular vaccine confers dual protection against SARS-CoV-2 and cancer

The efficacy of current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) vaccines has been demonstrated; however, emerging evidence suggests insufficient protection in certain immunocompromised cancer patients. We previously developed a cell‐based anti‐cancer vaccine platform involving artificial adjuvant vector cells (aAVCs) capable of inducing a strong adaptive response by enhancing the innate immunity. aAVCs are target antigen‐transfected allogenic cells that simultaneously express the natural killer T‐cell ligand–CD1d complex on their surface. In the present study, we applied this system for targeting the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) spike protein (CoV‐2‐S) using CoV‐2‐S‐expressing aAVCs (aAVC‐CoV‐2) and evaluated the immune response in a murine model. A single dose of aAVC‐CoV‐2 induced a large amount of CoV‐2‐S‐specific, multifunctional CTLs in addition to CD4⁺ T‐cell‐dependent anti‐CoV‐2‐S‐specific Abs. CoV‐2‐S‐specific CTLs infiltrated the lung parenchyma and persisted as long‐term memory T cells. Furthermore, we immunized mice with CoV‐2‐S‐ and tumor‐associated antigen (TAA)‐co‐expressing aAVCs (aAVC‐TAA/CoV‐2) and evaluated whether the anti‐SARS‐CoV‐2 and antitumor CTLs were elicited. We found that the aAVC‐TAA/CoV‐2‐S therapy exerted apparent antitumor effects and induced CoV‐2‐S‐specific CTLs. These findings suggest aAVC‐TAA/CoV‐2‐S therapy as a promising vaccine candidate for preventing COVID‐19, as well as enhancing the effectiveness of cancer therapies.

The duplexity of unconventional T cells in cancer

Unconventional T cells and their involvement in cancer are understudied in comparison to conventional T cells, but recent findings indicate that these cells play important roles in both cancer progression and inhibition. Here, we briefly review the dichotomous role of three unconventional T cell lineages: γδ T cells, MAIT cells and NKT cells. Studies using mouse models of cancer show how this unconventional trilogy interacts with cancer epithelial cells and other immune cell populations during tumour evolution. These reports highlight various potential avenues for therapeutic intervention that may be exploited for cancer immunotherapy.

iNKT: A new avenue for CAR-based cancer immunotherapy

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell is a T lymphocyte-based immunotherapy, which achieves great successes in treating blood malignancies and provides new hope to cue advanced cancer patients. Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells are a kind of special T lymphocytes characterized by expressing invariant TCR of Vα24Vβ11 to recognize CD1d-presented glycolipid antigens, which bridge innate and adaptive immune responses. iNKT cells themselves show strong anti-tumor effect in tumor models via CD1d-mediated killing of CD1d-positive tumor cells and immunosuppressive TAMs and MDSCs, and are closely related to the prognosis of cancer patients. iNKT cells are not restricted to polymorphic human leukocyte antigen (HLA) and can prevent Graft versus Host Disease (GvHD), which makes it to be an ideal CAR vector for allogeneic therapy. Although CAR-iNKT was developed and verified by several different teams and attracts more and more attentions, many obstacles are still needed to be resolved before obtaining CAR-iNKT therapeutics. In this review, we summarized the current status of clinical application of iNKT cells and the latest achievements of CAR-iNKT cells, which provides new insight in CAR-iNKT development and usages.

M2-phenotype tumour-associated macrophages upregulate the expression of prognostic predictors MMP14 and INHBA in pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most lethal gastrointestinal tumours, the most common pathological type is pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PAAD). In recent year, immune imbalanced in tumour microenvironment has been shown to play an important role in the evolution of tumours progression, and the efficacy of immunotherapy has been gradually demonstrated in clinical practice. In this study, we propose to construct an immune-related prognostic risk model based on immune-related genes MMP14 and INHBA expression that can assess the prognosis of pancreatic cancer patients and identify potential therapeutic targets for pancreatic cancer, to provide new ideas for the treatment of pancreatic cancer. We also investigate the correlation between macrophage infiltration and MMP14 and INHBA expression. First, the gene expression data of pancreatic cancer and normal pancreatic tissue were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas Program (TCGA) and The Genotype-Tissue Expression public database (GTEx). The differentially expressed immune-related genes between pancreatic cancer samples and normal sample were screened by R software. Secondly, univariate Cox regression analysis were used to evaluate the relationship between immune-related genes and the prognosis of pancreatic cancer patients. A polygenic risk score model was constructed by Cox regression analysis. The prognostic nomogram was constructed, and its performance was evaluated comprehensively by internal calibration curve and C-index. Using the risk model, each patient gets a risk score, and was divided into high- or low- risk groups. The proportion of 22 types of immune cells infiltration in pancreatic cancer samples was inferred by CIBERSOFT algorithm, correlation analysis (Pearson method) was used to analyse the correlation between the immune-related genes and immunes cells. Then, we applied macrophage conditioned medium to culture pancreatic cancer cell line PANC1, detected the expression of MMP14 and INHBA by qRT-PCR and Western blot methods. Knock-down MMP14 and INHBA in PANC1 cells by transfected with shRNA lentiviruses. Detection of migration ability of pancreatic cells was done by trans-well cell migration assay. A subcutaneous xenograft tumour model of human pancreatic cancer in nude mice was constructed. In conclusion, an immune-related gene prognostic model was constructed, patients with high-risk scores have poorer survival status, M2-phenotype tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) up-regulate two immune-related genes, MMP14 and INHBA, which were used to establish the prognostic model. Knock-down of MMP14 and INHBA inhibited invasion of pancreatic cancer.

Assessing the safety, tolerability and efficacy of PLGA-based immunomodulatory nanoparticles in patients with advanced NY-ESO-1-positive cancers: a first-in-human phase I open-label dose-escalation study protocol

INTRODUCTION

The undiminished need for more effective cancer treatments stimulates the development of novel cancer immunotherapy candidates. The archetypical cancer immunotherapy would induce robust, targeted and long-lasting immune responses while simultaneously circumventing immunosuppression in the tumour microenvironment. For this purpose, we developed a novel immunomodulatory nanomedicine: PRECIOUS-01. As a PLGA-based nanocarrier, PRECIOUS-01 encapsulates a tumour antigen (NY-ESO-1) and an invariant natural killer T cell activator to target and augment specific antitumour immune responses in patients with NY-ESO-1-expressing advanced cancers.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

This open-label, first-in-human, phase I dose-escalation trial investigates the safety, tolerability and immune-modulatory activity of increasing doses of PRECIOUS-01 administered intravenously in subjects with advanced NY-ESO-1-expressing solid tumours. A total of 15 subjects will receive three intravenous infusions of PRECIOUS-01 at a 3-weekly interval in three dose-finding cohorts. The trial follows a 3+3 design for the dose-escalation steps to establish a maximum tolerated dose (MTD) and/or recommended phase II dose (RP2D). Depending on the toxicity, the two highest dosing cohorts will be extended to delineate the immune-related parameters as a readout for pharmacodynamics. Subjects will be monitored for safety and the occurrence of dose-limiting toxicities. If the MTD is not reached in the planned dose-escalation cohorts, the RP2D will be based on the observed safety and immune-modulatory activity as a pharmacodynamic parameter supporting the RP2D. The preliminary efficacy will be evaluated as an exploratory endpoint using the best overall response rate, according to Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors V.1.1.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The Dutch competent authority (CCMO) reviewed the trial application and the medical research ethics committee (CMO Arnhem-Nijmegen) approved the trial under registration number NL72876.000.20. The results will be disseminated via (inter)national conferences and submitted for publication to a peer-reviewed journal.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT04751786.

Key immune-related gene ITGB2 as a prognostic signature for acute myeloid leukemia

Background

The tumor microenvironment (TME) has an essential role in tumorigenesis, progression, and therapeutic response in many cancers. Currently, the role of TME in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is unclear. This study investigated the correlation between immune-related genes and prognosis in AML patients.

Methods

Transcriptome RNA-Seq data for 151 AML samples were downloaded from TCGA database (https://portal.gdc.cancer.gov/), and the immune related genes (irgs) were selected from Immport database. Bioinformatics screening was used to identify irgs for AML, and genes with a critical role in the prognosis of AML were selected for further analysis. To confirm the prognostic role of irgs in AML, we undertook protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis of the top 30 interacting genes. We then investigated associations between immune cell infiltration and prognosis in AML patients. Immunohistochemistry was used to validate protein expression levels between AML and normal bone marrow samples. Analysis of the drug sensitivity of the selected gene was then performed.

Results

The integrin lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1 (CD11A/CD18; ITGAL/ITGB2) was identified as the key immune-related gene that significantly influenced prognosis in AML patients. Overexpression of ITGB2 indicated poor prognosis in AML patients (P=0.007). Risk modeling indicated that a high-risk score led to poor outcomes (P=3.076e−08) in AML patients. The risk model showed accuracy for predicting prognosis in AML patients, with area under curve (AUC) at 1 year, 0.816; AUC at 3 years, 0.82; and AUC at 5 years, 0.875. In addition, we found that ITGB2 had a powerful influence on immune cell infiltration into AML TME. The results of immunohistochemistry showed that AML patients had significantly higher ITGB2 protein expression than normal samples. The AML patients were divided into 2 groups based on ITGB2 risk scores. Drug sensitivity test results indicated that the high-risk group was sensitive to cytarabine, axitinib, bosutinib, and docetaxel, but resistant to cisplatin and bortezomib.

Conclusions

In the present study, we found that ITGB2 may be able to serve as a biomarker for assessing prognosis and drug sensitivity in AML patients.

Purification, characterization and immunostimulatory activity of a novel exopolysaccharide from Bacillus sp. H5

Crude exopolysaccharides from extracellular polymeric substances produced by the marine bacterium Bacillus sp. H5 were fractionated using DEAE-Sepharose FF and Sephadex G-75 chromatography. The high molecular weight fraction (89.0 kD) from the neutral fraction was designated EPS5SH; it contained mannose, glucosamine, glucose, and galactose in a molar ratio of 1.00: 0.02: 0.07: 0.02. Infra-red, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, electrospray ionisation-tandem mass spectrometry analysis and nuclear magnetic resonance revealed EPS5SH was a mannan with α-(1 → 4)-Manp, α-(1 → 2)-Manp, α-(1 → 4, 6)-Manp and β-terminal-Manp. Preliminary in vitro experiments revealed that EPS5SH significantly upregulated nitric oxide synthesis and release of pro-inflammatory factors in murine macrophage RAW264.7 cells. Western blot experiments verified the immunostimulatory effects of EPS5SH through the modulation of the NF-κB and MAPK signalling pathways. In conclusion, EPS5SH was a novel immunostimulatory mannan.

A Pan-Cancer Analysis of SLC12A5 Reveals Its Correlations with Tumor Immunity

Background

Solute carrier family 12 member 5 (SLC12A5) has been reported to play an oncogenic role in certain malignancies. Its prognostic roles and immune mechanisms of action in human cancers, however, remain largely unknown.

Methods

Data derived from TCGA, GEPIA, and TIMER databases were utilized to delve into the expressing patterns, prognostic values, clinical significances, and tumor immunity of SLC12A5 in tumors. Additionally, the association of SLC12A5 expressions with tumor mutation burden (TMB), methyltransferases, and mismatch repairs (MMRs) was also analyzed.

Results

Herein, we observed that SLC12A5 was significantly overexpressed in various malignancies, and SLC12A5 levels correlated with overall survival, disease-specific survival, and tumor stage of certain cancers. Furthermore, we noticed that SLC12A5 was distinctly associated with methyltransferases, mismatch repair proteins, TMB, and MSI in human cancers.

Conclusions

SLC12A5 may act as a potential prognostic and immunological biomarker and therapeutic target for human cancers.

Functions of NK and iNKT cells in pediatric and adult CVID, ataxia telangiectasia and agammaglobulinemia patients

Primary immune deficiencies (PID) are known to be more than 400 genetic defects caused by the impairment in development and/or functions of the immune system. Common Variable Immunodeficiency (CVID), Ataxia Telangiectasia (AT) and Agammaglobulinemia (AG) are examples of the most common immunodeficiency syndrome. Natural killer (NK) cells are a component of innate immune system and play a major role in the host-rejection of both tumors and virally infected cells. iNKT cells have a role in autoimmune and infectious diseases and controlling of tumor rejection. In this study, NK and iNKT cells and their functions, and intracellular cytokine amount are aimed to determine in patients that suffer CVID, AT and AG. NKp30, NKp46, NKG2D, perforin and granzyme mRNA expression levels were analyzed using RT-PCR. Receptors, cytokine amount of NK cell subset and iNKT were analyzed by flow cytometry. Decreased CD3⁺ T and elevated NK cell subset in pediatric AT were found. Expression of NKp44 was decreased in adult AG, but not in pediatric patients. Low NKp44 expression in CD3^-CD16⁺CD56^dim NK cell subset was found in pediatric AT patients. High HLA-DR, perforin and granzyme expression were found in CD3^-CD16⁺CD56^dim NK cell subset of pediatric CVID and AT patients. Alteration of the number of NK subsets, NK receptor expression and cytokine production were observed in pediatric patients compared to healthy subjects.

Methods for Studying Mouse and Human Invariant Natural Killer T Cells

Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells are a unique subset of T lymphocytes that recognize lipid antigens presented by nonpolymorphic major histocompatibility complex (MHC) I-like molecule CD1d. iNKT cells play essential roles in regulating immune responses against cancer, viral infection, autoimmune disease, and allergy. However, the study and application of iNKT cells have been hampered by their very small numbers (0.01-1% in mouse and human blood). Here, we describe protocols to (1) generate mouse iNKT cells from mouse mononuclear cells or from mouse hematopoietic stem cells engineered with iNKT T cell receptor (TCR) gene (denoted as mMNC-iNKT cells or mHSC-iNKT cells, respectively), (2) generate human iNKT cells from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells or from human HSC cells engineered with iNKT TCR gene (denoted as hPBMC-iNKT cells or hHSC-iNKT cells, respectively), and (3) characterize mouse and human iNKT cells in vitro and in vivo.

A pan-cancer analysis revealed the role of the SLC16 family in cancer

Cancer is one of the serious diseases that endanger human health and bring a heavy burden to world economic development. Although the current targeted therapy and immunotherapy have achieved initial results, the emergence of drug resistance shows that the existing research is far from enough. In recent years, the tumor microenvironment has been found to be an important condition for tumor development and has profound research value. The SLC16 family is a group of monocarboxylic acid transporters involved in cancer metabolism and the formation of the tumor microenvironment. However, there have been no generalized cancer studies in the SLC16 family. In this study, we conducted a pan-cancer analysis of the SLC16 family. The results showed that multiple members of the SLC16 family could be used as prognostic indicators for many tumors, and were associated with immune invasion and tumor stem cells. Therefore, the SLC16 family has extensive exploration value in the future.

Phototherapy Facilitates Tumor Recruitment and Activation of Natural Killer T cells for Potent Cancer Immunotherapy

Adoptively transferred natural killer T (NKT) cells confer distinct cancer surveillance without causing obvious side effects, making them a promising candidate for cancer immunotherapy. However, their therapeutic efficacy is limited by inefficient tumor infiltration and inadequate activation in an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. To overcome these obstacles, we develop a strategy of using photothermal therapy (PTT) to promote the antitumor ability of adoptively transferred NKT cells. The transferred NKT cells are efficiently recruited to PTT-treated tumors in response to PTT-created inflammation. Moreover, PTT treatment promotes the activation of NKT cells and enhances the NKT cell-initiated immune cascade. As a consequence, the combined therapy of PTT plus NKT cell transfer exhibits excellent growth inhibition of local tumors. Moreover, it efficiently rejects distant tumors and elicits long-term immunological memory to prevent tumor recurrence. Overall, the current study opens new paths to the clinical translation of NKT cells for cancer immunotherapy.

Shaping Immune Responses in the Tumor Microenvironment of Ovarian Cancer

Reciprocal signaling between immune cells and ovarian cancer cells in the tumor microenvironment can alter immune responses and regulate disease progression. These signaling events are regulated by multiple factors, including genetic and epigenetic alterations in both the ovarian cancer cells and immune cells, as well as cytokine pathways. Multiple immune cell types are recruited to the ovarian cancer tumor microenvironment, and new insights about the complexity of their interactions have emerged in recent years. The growing understanding of immune cell function in the ovarian cancer tumor microenvironment has important implications for biomarker discovery and therapeutic development. This review aims to describe the factors that shape the phenotypes of immune cells in the tumor microenvironment of ovarian cancer and how these changes impact disease progression and therapy.

Chromatin assembly factor 1B critically controls the early development but not function acquisition of invariant natural killer T cells in mice

CD4⁺ CD8⁺ double-positive thymocytes give rise to both conventional TCRαβ⁺ T cells and invariant natural killer T cells (iNKT cells), but these two kinds of cells display different characteristics. The molecular mechanism underlying iNKT cell lineage development and function acquisition remain to be elucidated. We show that the loss of chromatin assembly factor 1B (CHAF1b) maintains the normal development of conventional TCRαβ⁺ T cells but severely impairs early development of iNKT cells. This dysregulation is accompanied by the impairment in chromatin activation and gene transcription at Vα14-Jα18 locus. Notably, ectopic expression of a Vα14-Jα18 TCR rescues Chaf1b-deficient iNKT cell developmental defects. Moreover, cytokine secretion and antitumor activity are substantially maintained in Vα14-Jα18 TCR transgene-rescued Chaf1b-deficient iNKT cells. Our study identifies CHAF1b as a critical factor that controls the early development but not function acquisition of iNKT cells via lineage- and stage-specific regulation.

Chronic stress physically spares but functionally impairs innate-like invariant T cells

The deleterious effects of psychological stress on mainstream T lymphocytes are well documented. However, how stress impacts innate-like T cells is unclear. We report that long-term stress surprisingly abrogates both T helper 1 (T_H1)- and T_H2-type responses orchestrated by invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells. This is not due to iNKT cell death because these cells are unusually refractory to stress-inflicted apoptosis. Activated iNKT cells in stressed mice exhibit a “split” inflammatory signature and trigger sudden serum interleukin-10 (IL-10), IL-23, and IL-27 spikes. iNKT cell dysregulation is mediated by cell-autonomous glucocorticoid receptor signaling and corrected upon habituation to predictable stressors. Importantly, under stress, iNKT cells fail to potentiate cytotoxicity against lymphoma or to reduce the burden of metastatic melanoma. Finally, stress physically spares mouse mucosa-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells but hinders their T_H1-/T_H2-type responses. The above findings are corroborated in human peripheral blood and hepatic iNKT/MAIT cell cultures. Our work uncovers a mechanism of stress-induced immunosuppression.

Invariant T cells are emergency responders to infection and cancer. Rudak et al. report that psychological stress unusually spares these innate-like T lymphocytes but alters or impairs their cytokine production and cytotoxic and/or antimetastatic capacities through a cell-autonomous, glucocorticoid receptor-dependent mechanism. This may explain certain aspects of stress-induced immunosuppression.

Natural killer T cell immunotherapy combined with oncolytic vesicular stomatitis virus or reovirus treatments differentially increases survival in mouse models of ovarian and breast cancer metastasis

BACKGROUND

Oncolytic viruses reduce tumor burden in animal models and have generated promising results in clinical trials. However, it is likely that oncolytic viruses will be more effective when used in combination with other therapies. Current therapeutic approaches, including chemotherapeutics, come with dose-limiting toxicities. Another option is to combine oncolytic viruses with immunotherapeutic approaches.

METHODS

Using experimental models of metastatic 4T1 breast cancer and ID8 ovarian peritoneal carcinomatosis, we examined natural killer T (NKT) cell-based immunotherapy in combination with recombinant oncolytic vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) or reovirus. 4T1 mammary carcinoma cells or ID8 ovarian cancer cells were injected into syngeneic mice. Tumor-bearing mice were treated with VSV or reovirus followed by activation of NKT cells via the intravenous administration of autologous dendritic cells loaded with the glycolipid antigen α-galactosylceramide. The effects of VSV and reovirus on immunogenic cell death (ICD), cell viability and immunogenicity were tested in vitro.

RESULTS

VSV or reovirus treatments followed by NKT cell activation mediated greater survival in the ID8 model than individual therapies. The regimen was less effective when the treatment order was reversed, delivering virus treatments after NKT cell activation. In the 4T1 model, VSV combined with NKT cell activation increased overall survival and decreased metastatic burden better than individual treatments. In contrast, reovirus was not effective on its own or in combination with NKT cell activation. In vitro, VSV killed a panel of tumor lines better than reovirus. VSV infection also elicited greater increases in mRNA transcripts for proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and antigen presentation machinery compared with reovirus. Oncolytic VSV also induced the key hallmarks of ICD (calreticulin mobilization, plus release of ATP and HMGB1), while reovirus only mobilized calreticulin.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, these results demonstrate that oncolytic VSV and NKT cell immunotherapy can be effectively combined to decrease tumor burden in models of metastatic breast and ovarian cancers. Oncolytic VSV and reovirus induced differential responses in our models which may relate to differences in virus activity or tumor susceptibility.

T Cell Development: Old Tales Retold By Single-Cell RNA Sequencing

Mammalian T cell development initiates from the migration of hematopoietic progenitors to the thymus, which undergo cell proliferation, T-lineage specification and commitment, as well as positive and negative selection. These processes are precisely controlled at multiple levels and have been intensively studied using gene-modified animal models and in vitro coculture systems. However, several long-standing questions, including the characterization of the rare but crucial progenitors/precursors and the molecular mechanisms underlying their fate decision, have been dampened because of cell scarcity and lack of appropriate techniques. Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) makes it possible to investigate and resolve some of these questions, leading to new remarkable progress in identifying and characterizing early thymic progenitors and delineating the refined developmental trajectories of conventional and unconventional T cells.

Redirecting iNKT Cell Antitumor Immunity with α-GalCer/CD1d-scFv Fusion Proteins

Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells display important properties that could bridge the innate and adaptive immunity, and they have been shown to play key roles in cancer immunotherapy. However, administration of iNKT cell agonist αGalCer fails to induce sustained antitumor immunity due to the rapid anergy induction after an initial strong activation. To this end, we have designed a recombinant CD1d protein that is fused to an anti-TAA scFv, which is able to recruit iNKT cells to the tumor site and induce tumor regression. Importantly, recombinant CD1d fusion proteins loaded with α-GalCer demonstrated sustained activation of iNKT cells upon repeated injections and superior tumor control, as compared to α-GalCer treatment.

In Vivo Cytotoxicity by α-GalCer-transactivated NK Cells

Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells are innate-like, lipid-reactive T lymphocytes known for their potent immunomodulatory properties. In addition to expressing and utilizing cytolytic effector molecules of their own against certain target cells, iNKT cells can be stimulated with α-galactosylceramide (α-GalCer) to augment the cytotoxic capacity of natural killer (NK) cells. Herein, we describe a flow cytometry-based in vivo killing assay that enables examination of α-GalCer-promoted cytotoxicity against β2 microglobulin knockout (β2M^-/-) target cells, which mimic tumor and virus-infected cells displaying little to no MHC class I molecules on their surface. Using an anti-asialo GM1 antibody, which depletes NK cells but not iNKT cells, we confirmed that the increased clearance of β2M^-/- cells in α-GalCer-primed recipients was mediated by NK cells. The protocol detailed here can be leveraged to assess the functional fitness of iNKT cells and their crosstalk with NK cells and to further our understanding of α-GalCer-promoted cytotoxicity in preclinical immunotherapeutic applications.

High Abundance of Intratumoral γδ T Cells Favors a Better Prognosis in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma: A Bioinformatic Analysis

γδ T cells are a small subset of unconventional T cells that are enriched in the mucosal areas, and are responsible for pathogen clearance and maintaining integrity. However, the role of γδ T cells in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is largely unknown. Here, by using RNA-seq data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), we discovered that HNSCC patients with higher levels of γδ T cells were positively associated with lower clinical stages and better overall survival, and high abundance of γδ T cells was positively correlated with CD8+/CD4+ T cell infiltration. Gene ontology and pathway analyses showed that genes associated with T cell activation, proliferation, effector functions, cytotoxicity, and chemokine production were enriched in the group with a higher γδ T cell abundance. Furthermore, we found that the abundance of γδ T cells was positively associated with the expression of the butyrophilin (BTN) family proteins BTN3A1/BTN3A2/BTN3A3 and BTN2A1, but only MICB, one of the ligands of NKG2D, was involved in the activation of γδ T cells, indicating that the BTN family proteins might be involved in the activation and proliferation of γδ T cells in the tumor microenvironment of HNSCC. Our results indicated that γδ T cells, along with their ligands, are promising targets in HNSCC with great prognostic values and treatment potentials.

Innate Lymphocytes in Inflammatory Arthritis

Inflammatory arthritis (IA) refers to a group of chronic diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriatic arthritis (PsA), ankylosing spondylitis (AS), and other spondyloarthritis (SpA). IA is characterized by autoimmune-mediated joint inflammation and is associated with inflammatory cytokine networks. Innate lymphocytes, including innate-like lymphocytes (ILLs) expressing T or B cell receptors and innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), play important roles in the initiation of host immune responses against self-antigens and rapidly produce large amounts of cytokines upon stimulation. TNF (Tumor Necrosis Factor)-α, IFN (Interferon)-γ, Th2-related cytokines (IL-4, IL-9, IL-10, and IL-13), IL-17A, IL-22, and GM-CSF are involved in IA and are secreted by ILLs and ILCs. In this review, we focus on the current knowledge of ILL and ILC phenotypes, cytokine production and functions in IA. A better understanding of the roles of ILLs and ILCs in IA initiation and development will ultimately provide insights into developing effective strategies for the clinical treatment of IA patients.