Investigation of the antiviral properties of copper iodide nanoparticles against feline calicivirus

Enhanced synergistic antiviral effects of thermally expanded graphite and copper oxide nanosheets in the form of a novel nanocomposite against herpes simplex virus type 1

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is responsible for a wide range of human infections, including skin and mucosal ulcers, encephalitis, and keratitis. The gold standard for treating HSV-1 infections is acyclovir. However, the use of this drug is associated with several limitations such as toxic reactions and the development of drug-resistant strains. So, there is an urgent need to discover and develop novel and effective agents against this virus. For the first time, this study aimed to investigate the antiviral effects of the Thermally Expanded Graphite (TEG)-copper oxide (CuO) nanocomposite against HSV-1 and compare results with its constituent components. After microwave (MW)-assisted synthesis of TEG and CuO nanosheets as well as MW-CuO/TEG nanocomposite and characterization of all these nanomaterials, an MTT assay was used to determine their cytotoxicity. The quantitative real-time PCR was then used to investigate the effects of these nanomaterials on viral load. Three-hour incubation of HSV-1 with TEG nanosheets (500 μg/mL), MW-CuO nanosheets (15 μg/mL), and MW-CuO/TEG nanocomposite (35 μg/mL) resulted in a decrease in viral load with an inhibition rate of 31.4 %, 49.2 %, and 74.4 %, respectively. The results from the post-treatment assay also showed that TEG nanosheets (600 μg/mL), MW-CuO nanosheets (15 μg/mL), and MW-CuO/TEG nanocomposite (10 μg/mL) led to a remarkable decrease in viral load with an inhibition rate of 56.9 %, 63 %, and 99.9 %, respectively. The combination of TEG and MW-CuO nanosheets together and the formation of a nanocomposite structure display strong synergy in their ability to inhibit HSV-1 infection. MW-CuO/TEG nanocomposites can be considered a suitable candidate for the treatment of HSV-1 infection.

Nanoarchitectonics for synergistic activity of multimetallic nanohybrids as a possible approach for antimicrobial resistance (AMR)

The global threat posed by antimicrobial resistance (AMR) to public health is an immensurable problem. The effectiveness of treating infections would be more at risk in the absence of effective antimicrobials. Researchers have shown an amplified interest in alternatives, such as developing advanced metallic nanohybrids as new therapeutic candidates for antibiotics due to their promising effectiveness against resistant microorganisms. In recent decades, the antimicrobial activity of monometallic nanoparticles has received extensive study and solid proof, providing new opportunities for developing multimetallic nanohybrid antimicrobials. Advanced metallic nanohybrids are an emerging remedy for a number of issues that develop in the field of medicine. Advanced metallic nanohybrids have shown a promising ability to combat resistant microorganisms due to their overall synergistic activity. Formulating advanced multimetallic nanohybrids falling under the umbrella of the growing field of nanoarchitectonics, which extends beyond nanotechnology. The underlying theory of nanoarchitectonics involves utilizing nanoscale units that follow the concepts of nanotechnology to architect nanomaterials. This review focuses on a comprehensive description of antimicrobial mechanisms of metallic nanohybrids and their enabling future insights on the research directions of developing the nanoarchitectonics of advanced multimetallic nanohybrids as novel antibiotics through their synergistic activity.

The Hybrid of Cu─TCPP@Mn3 O4 for Inflammation Relief by ROS Scavenging and O2 Production: An Efficient Strategy for Antiviral Therapy

Seasonal influenza still greatly threatens public health worldwide, leading to significant morbidity and mortality. Antiviral medications for influenza treatment are limited and accompanied by increased drug resistance. In severe influenza virus infection, hyperinflammation and hypoxia may be the significant threats associated with mortality, so the development of effective therapeutic methods to alleviate excessive inflammation while reducing viral damage is highly pursued. Here, a multifunctional MOF-based nanohybrid of Cu─TCPP@Mn3 O4 as a novel drug against influenza A virus infection (MOF = metal-organic framework; TCPP = tetrakis (4-carboxyphenyl) porphyrin) is designed. Cu─TCPP@Mn3 O4 exhibits potent inhibitory capability against influenza A virus infection in vitro and in vivo. The mechanism study reveals that Cu─TCPP@Mn3 O4 inhibits the virus entry by binding to the HA2 subunit of influenza A virus hemagglutinin. In addition, the nanoparticles of Mn3 O4 in Cu─TCPP@Mn3 O4 can scavenge intracellular ROS with O2 generation to downregulate inflammatory factors and effectively inhibit cytokines production. By reconstructing the antioxidant microenvironment, Cu─TCPP@Mn3 O4 features as a promising nanomedicine with anti-inflammatory and anti-viral synergistic effects.

Verma S, Panda PK, Jerman I. Boosting Copper Biocidal Activity by Silver Decoration and Few-Layer Graphene in Coatings on Textile Fibers

The outbreak of the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has highlighted the importance of developing antiviral surface coatings that are capable of repelling pathogens and neutralizing them through self-sanitizing properties. In this study, a novel coating design based on few-layer graphene (FLG) is proposed and silver-decorated micro copper flakes (CuMF) that exhibit both antibacterial and antiviral properties. The role of sacrificial anode surfaces and intrinsic graphene defects in enhancing the release of metal ions from CuMF embedded in water-based binders is investigated. In silico analysis is conducted to better understand the molecular interactions of pathogen-repelling species with bacterial or bacteriophage proteins. The results show that the optimal amount of CuMF/FLG in the coating leads to a significant reduction in bacterial growth, with reductions of 3.17 and 9.81 log for Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, respectively. The same coating also showed high antiviral efficacy, reducing bacteriophage phi6 by 5.53 log. The antiviral efficiency of the coating is find to be doubled compared to either micro copper flakes or few-layer graphene alone. This novel coating design is versatile and can be applied to various substrates, such as personal protective clothing and face masks, to provide biocidal activity against both bacterial and viral pathogens.

Copper and Copper-Based Nanoparticles in Medicine-Perspectives and Challenges

Nanotechnology has ushered in a new era of medical innovation, offering unique solutions to longstanding healthcare challenges. Among nanomaterials, copper and copper oxide nanoparticles stand out as promising candidates for a multitude of medical applications. This article aims to provide contemporary insights into the perspectives and challenges regarding the use of copper and copper oxide nanoparticles in medicine. It summarises the biomedical potential of copper-based nanoformulations, including the progress of early-stage research, to evaluate and mitigate the potential toxicity of copper nanomaterials. The discussion covers the challenges and prospects of copper-based nanomaterials in the context of their successful clinical translation. The article also addresses safety concerns, emphasizing the need for toxicity assessments of nanomedicines. However, attention is needed to solve the current challenges such as biocompatibility and controlled release. Ongoing research and collaborative efforts to overcome these obstacles are discussed. This analysis aims to provide guidance for the safe and effective integration of copper nanoparticles into clinical practice, thereby advancing their medical applications. This analysis of recent literature has highlighted the multifaceted challenges and prospects associated with copper-based nanomaterials in the context of their translation from the laboratory to the clinic. In particular, biocompatibility remains a formidable hurdle, requiring innovative solutions to ensure the seamless integration into the human body. Additionally, achieving the controlled release of therapeutic agents from copper nanoparticles poses a complex challenge that requires meticulous engineering and precise design.

Silver Nanoparticles Proved to Be Efficient Antivirals In Vitro against Three Highly Pathogenic Fish Viruses

The efficacy of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) was tested in vitro against three different fish viruses, causing significant economic damage in aquaculture. These viruses were the spring viraemia of carp virus (SVCV), European catfish virus (ECV), and Ictalurid herpesvirus 2 (IcHV-2). The safe concentration of AgNPs that did not cause cytotoxic effects in EPC cells proved to be 25 ng/mL. This dose of AgNPs decreased significantly (5-330×) the viral load of all three viruses in three different types of treatments (virus pre-treatment, cell pre-treatment, and cell post-treatment with the AgNPs). In a higher concentration, the AgNPs proved to be efficient against ECV and IcHV-2 even in a delayed post-cell-treatment experiment (AgNP treatment was applied 24 h after the virus inoculation). These first in vitro results against three devastating fish viruses are encouraging to continue the study of the applicability of AgNPs in aquaculture in the future.

Toxicity Mechanisms of Copper Nanoparticles and Copper Surfaces on Bacterial Cells and Viruses

Copper is a metal historically used to prevent infections. One of the most relevant challenges in modern society are infectious disease outbreaks, where copper-based technologies can play a significant role. Currently, copper nanoparticles and surfaces are the most common antimicrobial copper-based technologies. Despite the widespread use of copper on nanoparticles and surfaces, the toxicity mechanism(s) explaining their unique antimicrobial properties are not entirely known. In general, toxicity effects described in bacteria and fungi involve the rupture of membranes, accumulation of ions inside the cell, protein inactivation, and DNA damage. A few studies have associated Cu-toxicity with ROS production and genetic material degradation in viruses. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of the toxicity of copper nanoparticles and surfaces will contribute to developing and implementing efficient antimicrobial technologies to combat old and new infectious agents that can lead to disease outbreaks such as COVID-19. This review summarizes the current knowledge regarding the microbial toxicity of copper nanoparticles and surfaces and the gaps in this knowledge. In addition, we discuss potential applications derived from discovering new elements of copper toxicity, such as using different molecules or modifications to potentiate toxicity or antimicrobial specificity.

A Novel Vision of Reinforcing Nanofibrous Masks with Metal Nanoparticles: Antiviral Mechanisms Investigation

Prevention of spreading viral respiratory disease, especially in case of a pandemic such as coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19), has been proved impossible without considering obligatory face mask-wearing protocols for both healthy and contaminated populations. The widespread application of face masks for long hours and almost everywhere increases the risks of bacterial growth in the warm and humid environment inside the mask. On the other hand, in the absence of antiviral agents on the surface of the mask, the virus may have a chance to stay alive and be carried to different places or even put the wearers at risk of contamination when touching or disposing the masks. In this article, the antiviral activity and mechanism of action of some of the potent metal and metal oxide nanoparticles in the role of promising virucidal agents have been reviewed, and incorporation of them in an electrospun nanofibrous structure has been considered an applicable method for the fabrication of innovative respiratory protecting materials with upgraded safety levels.

Graphical Abstract

Copper-based nanoparticles against microbial infections

Drug-resistant bacteria and highly infectious viruses are among the major global threats affecting the human health. There is an immediate need for novel strategies to tackle this challenge. Copper-based nanoparticles (CBNPs) have exhibited a broad antimicrobial capacity and are receiving increasing attention in this context. In this review, we describe the functionalization of CBNPs, elucidate their antibacterial and antiviral activity as well as applications, and briefly review their toxicity, biodistribution, and persistence. The limitations of the current study and potential solutions are also shortly discussed. The review will guide the rational design of functional nanomaterials for antimicrobial application. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease.

Copper(II) and Cobalt(II) Complexes Based on Abietate Ligands from Pinus Resin: Synthesis, Characterization and Their Antibacterial and Antiviral Activity against SARS-CoV-2

Co-abietate and Cu-abietate complexes were obtained by a low-cost and eco-friendly route. The synthesis process used Pinus elliottii resin and an aqueous solution of CuSO₄/CoSO₄ at a mild temperature (80 °C) without organic solvents. The obtained complexes are functional pigments for commercial architectural paints with antipathogenic activity. The pigments were characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), mass spectrometry (MS), thermogravimetry (TG), near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and colorimetric analysis. In addition, the antibacterial efficiency was evaluated using the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) test, and the antiviral tests followed an adaptation of the ISO 21702:2019 guideline. Finally, virus inactivation was measured using the RT-PCR protocol using 10% (w/w) of abietate complex in commercial white paint. The Co-abietate and Cu-abietate showed inactivation of >4 log against SARS-CoV-2 and a MIC value of 4.50 µg·mL^-1 against both bacteria Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Escherichia coli (E. coli). The results suggest that the obtained Co-abietate and Cu-abietate complexes could be applied as pigments in architectural paints for healthcare centers, homes, and public places.

Tutorial review on the processing and performance of fabrics with antipathogenic inorganic agents

Functionalized textiles have been increasingly used for enhancing antimicrobial or antiviral (antipathogenic) action. Those pathogens can cause recurring diseases by direct or indirect transmission. Particularly, airborne microorganisms may cause respiratory diseases or skin infections like allergies and acne and the use of inorganic agents such as metal and metal oxides has proven effective in antipathogen applications. This review is a tutorial on how to obtain functional fabric with processes easily applied for industrial scale. Also, this paper summarizes relevant textiles and respective incorporated inorganic agents, including their antipathogenic mechanism of action. In addition, the processing methods and functional finishing, on a laboratory and industrial scale, to obtain a functional textile are shown. Characterization techniques, including antipathogenic activity and durability, mechanical properties, safety, and environmental issues, are presented. Challenges and perspectives on the broader use of antipathogenic fabrics are discussed.

Antiviral role of nanomaterials: a material scientist's perspective

The present world continues to face unprecedented challenges caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Collaboration between researchers of multiple disciplines is the need of the hour. There is a need to develop antiviral agents capable of inhibiting viruses and tailoring existing antiviral drugs for efficient delivery to prevent a surge in deaths caused by viruses globally. Biocompatible systems have been designed using nanotechnological principles which showed appreciable results against a wide range of viruses. Many nanoparticles can act as antiviral therapeutic agents if synthesized by the correct approach. Moreover, nanoparticles can act as carriers of antiviral drugs while overcoming their inherent drawbacks such as low solubility, poor bioavailability, uncontrolled release, and side effects. This review highlights the potential of nanomaterials in antiviral applications by discussing various studies and their results regarding antiviral potential of nanoparticles while also suggesting future directions to researchers.

Nano-antivirals: A comprehensive review

Nanoparticles can be used as inhibitory agents against various microorganisms, including bacteria, algae, archaea, fungi, and a huge class of viruses. The mechanism of action includes inhibiting the function of the cell membrane/stopping the synthesis of the cell membrane, disturbing the transduction of energy, producing toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS), and inhibiting or reducing RNA and DNA production. Various nanomaterials, including different metallic, silicon, and carbon-based nanomaterials and nanoarchitectures, have been successfully used against different viruses. Recent research strongly agrees that these nanoarchitecture-based virucidal materials (nano-antivirals) have shown activity in the solid state. Therefore, they are very useful in the development of several products, such as fabric and high-touch surfaces. This review thoroughly and critically identifies recently developed nano-antivirals and their products, nano-antiviral deposition methods on various substrates, and possible mechanisms of action. By considering the commercial viability of nano-antivirals, recommendations are made to develop scalable and sustainable nano-antiviral products with contact-killing properties.

Antibacterial and Antiviral Effects of Ag, Cu and Zn Metals, Respective Nanoparticles and Filter Materials Thereof against Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza A Virus

Due to the high prevalence of infectious diseases and their concurrent outbreaks, there is a high interest in developing novel materials with antimicrobial properties. Antibacterial and antiviral properties of a range of metal-based nanoparticles (NPs) are a promising means to fight airborne diseases caused by viruses and bacteria. The aim of this study was to test antimicrobial metals and metal-based nanoparticles efficacy against three viruses, namely influenza A virus (H1N1; A/WSN/1933) and coronaviruses TGEV and SARS-CoV-2; and two bacteria, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The efficacy of ZnO, CuO, and Ag NPs and their respective metal salts, i.e., ZnSO4, CuSO4, and AgNO3, was evaluated in suspensions, and the compounds with the highest antiviral efficacy were chosen for incorporation into fibers of cellulose acetate (CA), using electrospinning to produce filter materials for face masks. Among the tested compounds, CuSO4 demonstrated the highest efficacy against influenza A virus and SARS-CoV-2 (1 h IC50 1.395 mg/L and 0.45 mg/L, respectively), followed by Zn salt and Ag salt. Therefore, Cu compounds were selected for incorporation into CA fibers to produce antiviral and antibacterial filter materials for face masks. CA fibers comprising CuSO4 decreased SARS-CoV-2 titer by 0.38 logarithms and influenza A virus titer by 1.08 logarithms after 5 min of contact; after 1 h of contact, SARS-COV-2 virus was completely inactivated. Developed CuO- and CuSO4-based filter materials also efficiently inactivated the bacteria Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The metal NPs and respective metal salts were potent antibacterial and antiviral compounds that were successfully incorporated into the filter materials of face masks. New antibacterial and antiviral materials developed and characterized in this study are crucial in the context of the ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and beyond.

State-of-art high-performance Nano-systems for mutated coronavirus infection management: From Lab to Clinic

The emerging severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants made emerging novel coronavirus diseases (COVID-19) pandemic/endemic/or both more severe and difficult to manage due to increased worry about the efficacy and efficiency of present preventative, therapeutic, and sensing measures. To deal with these unexpected circumstances, the development of novel nano-systems with tuneable optical, electrical, magnetic, and morphological properties can lead to novel research needed for (1) COVID-19 infection (anti-microbial systems against SARS-CoV-2), (2) early detection of mutated SARS-CoV-2, and (3) targeted delivery of therapeutics using nano-systems, i.e., nanomedicine. However, there is a knowledge gap in understanding all these nano-biotechnology potentials for managing mutated SARS-CoV-2 on a single platform. To bring up the aspects of nanotechnology to tackle SARS-CoV-2 variants related COVID-19 pandemic, this article emphasizes improvements in the high-performance of nano-systems to combat SARS-CoV-2 strains/variants with a goal of managing COVID-19 infection via trapping, eradication, detection/sensing, and treatment of virus. The potential of state-of-the-art nano-assisted approaches has been demonstrated as an efficient drug delivery systems, viral disinfectants, vaccine productive cargos, anti-viral activity, and biosensors suitable for point-of-care (POC) diagnostics. Furthermore, the process linked with the efficacy of nanosystems to neutralize and eliminate SARS-CoV-2 is extensively highligthed in this report. The challenges and opportunities associated with managing COVID-19 using nanotechnology as part of regulations are also well-covered. The outcomes of this review will help researchers to design, investigate, and develop an appropriate nano system to manage COVID-19 infection, with a focus on the detection and eradication of SARS-CoV-2 and its variants. This article is unique in that it discusses every aspect of high-performance nanotechnology for ideal COVID pandemic management.

Ponderomotive forces in the system of two nanoparticles

Mechanical consequences of electromagnetic interaction of two nanoparticles have been modeled and simulated. It has been shown that the local field enhancement effect in the studied system causes the appearance of the local field gradients. As a consequence, the local field gradients can lead to ponderomotive forces acting on the nanoparticles near their surface. In the work, the model describing the phenomena has been developed. The model is based on the near-field interaction in the self-consistent system and the effective susceptibility concept. Using the model distribution of the local field in the system of two different-sized nanoparticles has been calculated and ponderomotive forces directions and values were simulated. It has been shown that in the system of two different-sized nanoparticles the forces act mainly on the surface of the bigger nanoparticle and for some systems, the value of its density per volume unit may acquire up to several tens of nano newtons. Possible application of the results to the study of biological systems has been also discussed.

Broad-Spectrum Extracellular Antiviral Properties of Cucurbit[n]urils

Viruses are microscopic pathogens capable of causing disease and are responsible for a range of human mortalities and morbidities worldwide. They can be rendered harmless or destroyed with a range of antiviral chemical compounds. Cucurbit[n]urils (CB[n]s) are a family of macrocycle chemical compounds existing as a range of homologues; due to their structure, they can bind to biological materials, acting as supramolecular "hosts" to "guests", such as amino acids. Due to the increasing need for a nontoxic antiviral compound, we investigated whether cucurbit[n]urils could act in an antiviral manner. We have found that certain cucurbit[n]uril homologues do indeed have an antiviral effect against a range of viruses, including herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and SARS-CoV-2. In particular, we demonstrate that CB[7] is the active homologue of CB[n], having an antiviral effect against enveloped and nonenveloped species. High levels of efficacy were observed with 5 min contact times across different viruses. We also demonstrate that CB[7] acts with an extracellular virucidal mode of action via host-guest supramolecular interactions between viral surface proteins and the CB[n] cavity, rather than via cell internalization or a virustatic mechanism. This finding demonstrates that CB[7] acts as a supramolecular virucidal antiviral (a mechanism distinct from other current extracellular antivirals), demonstrating the potential of supramolecular interactions for future antiviral disinfectants.

Effectiveness of HEPA Filters at Removing Infectious SARS-CoV-2 from the Air

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) spreads by airborne transmission; therefore, the development and functional evaluation of air-cleaning technologies are essential for infection control. Air filtration using high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters may be effective; however, no quantitative assessment of the effectiveness of these filters in the removal of infectious severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) from the air has been reported. To evaluate the removal effect of HEPA filtration on airborne SARS-CoV-2, here, we disseminated infectious SARS-CoV-2 aerosols in a test chamber in a biosafety level 3 facility and filtered the air with a HEPA-filtered air cleaner in the chamber. The air cleaner with the HEPA filter continuously removed the infectious SARS-CoV-2 from the air in a running-time-dependent manner, and the virus capture ratios were 85.38%, 96.03%, and >99.97% at 1, 2, and 7.1 ventilation volumes, respectively. The air-cleaning performance of a HEPA filter coated with an antiviral agent consisting mainly of a monovalent copper compound was also evaluated, and the capture ratio was found to be comparable to that of the conventional HEPA filter. This study provides insights into the proper use and performance of HEPA-filtered air cleaners to prevent the spread of COVID-19. IMPORTANCE Air filtration simulation experiments quantitatively showed that an air cleaner equipped with a HEPA filter can continuously remove SARS-CoV-2 from the air. The capture ratios for SARS-CoV-2 in the air when the air cleaner was equipped with an antiviral-agent-coated HEPA filter were comparable to those with the conventional HEPA filter, and there was little effect on SARS-CoV-2 in the air that passed through the antiviral-reagent-coated HEPA filter.

Effectiveness of Silver Nanoparticles Deposited in Facemask Material for Neutralising Viruses

Cloth used for facemask material has been coated with silver nanoparticles using an aerosol method that passes pure uncoated nanoparticles through the cloth and deposits them throughout the volume. The particles have been characterized by electron microscopy and have a typical diameter of 4 nm with the atomic structure of pure metallic silver presented as an assortment of single crystals and polycrystals. The particles adhere well to the cloth fibers, and the coating consists of individual nanoparticles at low deposition times, evolving to fully agglomerated assemblies in heavy coatings. The cloth was exposed to Usutu virus and murine norovirus particles in suspension and allowed to dry, following which, the infectious virus particles were rescued by soaking the cloth in culture media. It was found that up to 98% of the virus particles were neutralized by this contact with the silver nanoparticles for optimum deposition conditions. The best performance was obtained with agglomerated films and with polycrystalline nanoparticles. The work indicates that silver nanoparticles embedded in masks can neutralize the majority of virus particles that enter the mask and thus increase the opacity of masks to infectious viruses by up to a factor of 50. In addition, the majority of the virus particles released from the mask after use are non-infectious.

Textiles Functionalized with Copper Oxides: A Sustainable Option for Prevention of COVID-19

COVID-19 is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), and healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) represent severe problems in health centers and public areas. Polyester/cotton (PES/CO) blend fabrics have been functionalized with copper oxides on an industrial scale. For functionalization, the impregnation dyeing technique was applied. The functionalized samples were tested virologically against SARS-CoV-2 and human coronavirus (229E) according to ISO 18184-2019 and microbiologically against Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922) bacteria according to ASTM E2149-2013. The results show that the fabric functionalized with copper oxides inactivated both viruses after 30 min of exposure, presenting excellent virucidal activity against 229E and SARS-CoV-2, respectively. Furthermore, its inactivation efficiency for SARS-CoV-2 was 99.93% and 99.96% in 30 min and 60 min exposure, respectively. The fabric inhibited bacterial growth by more than 99% before and after 10 and 20 washes. In conclusion, 265 m of PES/CO fabric (wide 1.7 m) was functionalized in situ on an industrial scale with copper oxide nanoparticles. The functionalized fabric presented virucidal and bactericidal properties against SARS-CoV-2 and Escherichia coli.

Antiviral effects of coinage metal-based nanomaterials to combat COVID-19 and its variants

The world has been suffering from the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic, and millions of people have been infected through human-to-human transmission and lost their lives within months. Although multidisciplinary scientific approaches have been employed to fight against this deadly pandemic, various mutations and diverse environments keep producing constraints in treating SARS-CoV-2. Indeed, the efficacy of the developed vaccines has been limited, and inoculation with the vaccines does not guarantee complete protection even though multiple doses are required, which is a frustrating process. Historically, coinage metals (Cu, Ag, and Au) have been well-known for their effectiveness in antiviral action as well as good biocompatibility, binding receptor inhibition, reactive oxygen species, and phototherapy properties. Thus, this review highlights the diagnostic and therapeutic mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 using the antivirus ability and mode of action of coinage metals such as viral entry mechanisms into host cells and the NP-inhibition process, which are explained in detail. This article also draws attention to coinage metal nanomaterial-based approaches to treat other contagious viruses. In addition, coinage metal-based biosensors and an overview of some other biocompatible metal-based nanomaterials to fight against SARS-CoV-2 variants are discussed. Finally, the advantages, perspectives and challenges of coinage metal nanoparticles are given to fight against viral infections in the future.

Exploring the Role of Heavy Metals and Their Derivatives on the Pathophysiology of COVID-19

Many aspects of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and its disease, COVID-19, have been studied to determine its properties, transmission mechanisms, and pathology. These efforts are aimed at identifying potential approaches to control or treat the disease. Early treatment of novel SARS-CoV-2 infection to minimize symptom progression has minimal evidence; however, many researchers and firms are working on vaccines, and only a few vaccines exist. COVID-19 is affected by several heavy metals and their nanoparticles. We investigated the effects of heavy metals and heavy metal nanoparticles on SARS-CoV-2 and their roles in COVID-19 pathogenesis. AgNPs, AuNPs, gold-silver hybrid NPs, copper nanoparticles, zinc oxide, vanadium, gallium, bismuth, titanium, palladium, silver grafted graphene oxide, and some quantum dots were tested to see if they could minimize the severity or duration of symptoms in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection when compared to standard therapy.

Advances in the development of superhydrophobic and icephobic surfaces

Superhydrophobicity and icephobicity are governed by surface chemistry and surface structure. These two features signify a potential advance in surface engineering and have recently garnered significant attention from the research community. This review aims to simulate further research in the development of superhydrophobic and icephobic surfaces in order to achieve their wide-spread adoption in practical applications. The review begins by establishing the fundamentals of the wetting phenomenon and wettability parameters. This is followed by the recent advances in modeling and simulations of the response of superhydrophobic surfaces to static and dynamic droplets contact and impingement, respectively. In view of their versatility and multifunctionality, a special attention is given to the development of these surfaces using nanocomposites. Furthermore, the review considers advances in icephobicity, its comprehensive characterization and its relation to superhydrophobicity. The review also includes the importance of the use of superhydrophobic surface to combat viral and bacterial contamination that exist in fomites.

Efficacy and Mechanisms of Copper Ion-Catalyzed Inactivation of Human Norovirus

The antinoroviral effect of copper ions is well known, yet most of this work has previously been conducted in copper and copper alloy surfaces, not copper ions in solution. In this work, we characterized the effects that Cu ions have on human norovirus capsids' and surrogates' integrity to explain empirical data, indicating virus inactivation by copper alloy surfaces, and as means of developing novel metal ion-based virucides. Comparatively high concentrations of Cu(II) ions (>10 mM) had little effect on the infectivity of human norovirus surrogates, so we used sodium ascorbate as a reducing agent to generate unstable Cu(I) ions from solutions of copper bromide. We found that significantly lower concentrations of monovalent copper ions (∼0.1 mM) compared to divalent copper ions cause capsid protein damage that prevents human norovirus capsids from binding to cell receptors in vitro and induce a greater than 4-log reduction in infectivity of Tulane virus, a human norovirus surrogate. Further, these Cu(I) solutions caused reduction of GII.4 norovirus from stool in suspension, producing about a 2-log reduction of virus as measured by a reverse transcriptase-quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) data indicate substantial major capsid protein cleavage of both GI.7 and GII.4 norovirus capsids, and TEM images show the complete loss of capsid integrity of GI.7 norovirus. GII.4 virus-like particles (VLPs) were less susceptible to inactivation by copper ion treatments than GI.7 VLPs based upon receptor binding and SDS-PAGE analysis of viral capsids. The combined data demonstrate that stabilized Cu(I) ion solutions show promise as highly effective noroviral disinfectants in solution that can potentially be utilized at low concentrations for inactivation of human noroviruses.

Application of Metal Nanoparticles for Production of Self-Sterilizing Coatings

Metal nanoparticles (NPs) are increasingly being used in many areas, e.g., industry, pharmacy, and biomedical engineering. NPs can be obtained through chemical and biological synthesis or using physical methods. AgNPs, AuNPs, CuNPs, FeNPs, MgNPs, SnO2NPs, TiO2NPs, and ZnONPs are the most commonly synthesized metal nanoparticles. Many of them have anti-microbial properties and documented activity supported by many tests against some species of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and fungi. AgNPs, which are used for the production of commercial self-sterilizing packages, are one of the best-explored nanoparticles. Moreover, the EFSA has approved the use of small doses of silver nanoparticles (0.05 mg Ag·kg−1) to food products. Recent studies have shown that metal NPs can be used for the production of coatings to prevent the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which has caused the global pandemic. Some nanoparticles (e.g., ZnONPs and MgONPs) have the Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) status, i.e., they are considered safe for consumption and can be used for the production of edible coatings, protecting food against spoilage. Promising results have been obtained in research on the use of more than one type of nanometals, which prevents the development of pathogen resistance through various mechanisms of inactivation thereof.

Dietary Zinc, Copper, and Selenium Intake and High-Risk Human Papillomavirus Infection among American Women: Data from NHANES 2011-2016

Studies have shown that the micronutrients, zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and selenium (Se) are associated with the HPV-associated cervical cancer, yet between dietary Zn/Cu/Se intake and high-risk HPV (hrHPV) infection remain unclear. We obtained publicly available data in the present cross-sectional study from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) performed between 2011 and 2016. Dietary Zn, Cu, and Se intakes were assessed from two 24-h diet recalls. A total of 4628 female with the age of 18-59 years were included in this secondary analysis. Comparing the highest with the lowest quartiles of Zn intake, the adjusted odds ratio (aOR) for hrHPV infection was 0.72 (95% CI, 0.54-0.98). The aOR upon comparison of the quartile three with the lowest quartile of Cu intake was 0.67 (95% CI, 0.50-0.90). Whereas no significant association was found between intakes of Se and hrHPV infection in multivariate analysis. Moreover, compared with those below the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), hrHPV infection risk was significantly decreased among women who met the RDA for Cu (aOR: 0.74; 95% CI = 0.60-0.92), but not for Zn and Se. In conclusion, high dietary Zn and moderate copper intakes were independently and negatively associated with hrHPV infection in addition to Se.

A Copper nanoparticles-based polymeric spray coating: Nanoshield against Sars-Cov-2

Face masks are an effective protection tool to prevent bacterial and viral transmission. However, commercial face masks contain filters made of materials that are not capable of inactivating either SARS-CoV-2. In this regard, we report the development of an antiviral coating of polyurethane and Copper nanoparticles on a face mask filter fabricated with a spray technology that is capable of inactivating more than 99% of SARS-CoV-2 particles in 30 min of contact.

Antiviral properties of copper and its alloys to inactivate covid-19 virus: a review

Copper (Cu) and its alloys are prospective materials in fighting covid-19 virus and several microbial pandemics, due to its excellent antiviral as well as antimicrobial properties. Even though many studies have proved that copper and its alloys exhibit antiviral properties, this research arena requires further research attention. Several studies conducted on copper and its alloys have proven that copper-based alloys possess excellent potential in controlling the spread of infectious diseases. Moreover, recent studies indicate that these alloys can effectively inactivate the covid-19 virus. In view of this, the present article reviews the importance of copper and its alloys in reducing the spread and infection of covid-19, which is a global pandemic. The electronic databases such as ScienceDirect, Web of Science and PubMed were searched for identifying relevant studies in the present review article. The review starts with a brief description on the history of copper usage in medicine followed by the effect of copper content in human body and antiviral mechanisms of copper against covid-19. The subsequent sections describe the distinctive copper based material systems such as alloys, nanomaterials and coating technologies in combating the spread of covid-19. Overall, copper based materials can be propitiously used as part of preventive and therapeutic strategies in the fight against covid-19 virus.

Application of Copper Iodide Nanoparticle-Doped Film and Fabric To Inactivate SARS-CoV-2 via the Virucidal Activity of Cuprous Ions (Cu+)

As a result of the novel coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, strengthening control measures against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has become an urgent global issue. In addition to antiviral therapy and vaccination strategies, applying available virucidal substances for SARS-CoV-2 inactivation is also a target of research to prevent the spread of infection. Here, we evaluated the SARS-CoV-2 inactivation activity of a copper iodide (CuI) nanoparticle dispersion, which provides Cu+ ions having high virucidal activity, and its mode of actions. In addition, the utility of CuI-doped film and fabric for SARS-CoV-2 inactivation was evaluated. The CuI dispersion exhibited time-dependent rapid virucidal activity. Analyses of the modes of action of CuI performed by Western blotting and real-time reverse transcription-PCR targeting viral proteins and the genome revealed that CuI treatment induced the destruction of these viral components. In this setting, the indirect action of CuI-derived reactive oxygen species contributed to the destruction of viral protein. Moreover, the CuI-doped film and fabric demonstrated rapid inactivation of the SARS-CoV-2 solution in which the viral titer was high. These findings indicated the utility of the CuI-doped film and fabric as anti-SARS-CoV-2 materials for the protection of high-touch environmental surfaces and surgical masks/protective clothes. Throughout this study, we demonstrated the effectiveness of CuI nanoparticles for inactivating SARS-CoV-2 and revealed a part of its virucidal mechanism of action. IMPORTANCE The COVID-19 pandemic has caused an unprecedented number of infections and deaths. As the spread of the disease is rapid and the risk of infection is severe, hand and environmental hygiene may contribute to suppressing contact transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Here, we evaluated the SARS-CoV-2 inactivation activity of CuI nanoparticles, which provide the Cu+ ion as an antiviral agent, and we provided advanced findings of the virucidal mechanisms of action of Cu+. Our results showed that the CuI dispersion, as well as CuI-doped film and fabric, rapidly inactivated SARS-CoV-2 with a high viral titer. We also demonstrated the CuI's virucidal mechanisms of action, specifically the destruction of viral proteins and the genome by CuI treatment. Protein destruction largely depended on CuI-derived reactive oxygen species. This study provides novel information about the utility and mechanisms of action of promising virucidal material against SARS-CoV-2.

Application of green synthesised copper iodide particles on cotton fabric-protective face mask material against COVID-19 pandemic

Microorganisms cause variety of diseases that constitutes a severe threat to mankind. Due to the upsurge of many infectious diseases, there is a high requirement and demand for the development of safety products finished with antimicrobial properties. The study involves the antimicrobial activity of natural cotton coated with copper iodide capped with Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. flower extract (CuI-FE) which is rich in anthocyanin, cyanidin-3-sophoroside by ultrasonication method. The coated and uncoated cotton fabric was characterised through XRD, SEM, AFM, tensile strength and UV-Visible spectroscopic techniques. XRD confirmed the formation of CuI particles, SEM showed that CuI-FE was prismatic in shape. The average size of CuI-FE particles was found to be 552.45 nm. Anti-bacterial studies showed copper iodide particles to be a potent antimicrobial agent. AFM images confirmed the rupture of bacterial cell walls in the presence of prismatic CuI-FE. In-vitro cytotoxicity investigation of CuI-FE was performed against cancer and spleen cell lines to evaluate the cell viability. Cytotoxicity analysis revealed the IC50 value of 233.93 μg/mL in the presence of CuI-FE. Molecular docking study was also carried out to understand the interaction of CuI-FE with COVID-19 main protease. This paper has given an insight on the usage of CuI-FE coated on the cotton fabric that has proved to have strong inhibition against the nano ranged bacterial, cancerous cell line and a strong interaction with the COVID-19 protease. Such eco-friendly material will provide a safe environment even after the disposable of medical waste from the infectious diseases like influenza and current pandemic like COVID-19.

Antiviral nanoparticles for sanitizing surfaces: A roadmap to self-sterilizing against COVID-19

Nanoparticles provide new opportunities in merging therapeutics and new materials, with current research efforts just beginning to scratch the surface of their diverse benefits and potential applications. One such application, the use of inorganic nanoparticles in antiseptic coatings to prevent pathogen transmission and infection, has seen promising developments. Notably, the high reactive surface area to volume ratio and unique chemical properties of metal-based nanoparticles enables their potent inactivation of viruses. Nanoparticles exert their virucidal action through mechanisms including inhibition of virus-cell receptor binding, reactive oxygen species oxidation and destructive displacement bonding with key viral structures. The prevention of viral outbreaks is one of the foremost challenges to medical science today, emphasizing the importance of research efforts to develop nanoparticles for preventative antiviral applications. In this review, the use of nanoparticles to inactivate other viruses, such as influenza, HIV-1, or norovirus, among others, will be discussed to extrapolate broad-spectrum antiviral mechanisms that could also inhibit SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis. This review analyzes the published literature to highlight the current state of knowledge regarding the efficacy of metal-based nanoparticles and other antiviral materials for biomedical, sterile polymer, and surface coating applications.

Chemical design principles of next-generation antiviral surface coatings

The ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has accelerated efforts to develop high-performance antiviral surface coatings while highlighting the need to build a strong mechanistic understanding of the chemical design principles that underpin antiviral surface coatings. Herein, we critically summarize the latest efforts to develop antiviral surface coatings that exhibit virus-inactivating functions through disrupting lipid envelopes or protein capsids. Particular attention is focused on how cutting-edge advances in material science are being applied to engineer antiviral surface coatings with tailored molecular-level properties to inhibit membrane-enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. Key topics covered include surfaces functionalized with organic and inorganic compounds and nanoparticles to inhibit viruses, and self-cleaning surfaces that incorporate photocatalysts and triplet photosensitizers. Application examples to stop COVID-19 are also introduced and demonstrate how the integration of chemical design principles and advanced material fabrication strategies are leading to next-generation surface coatings that can help thwart viral pandemics and other infectious disease threats.

Metal-Based Nanomaterials: Work as Drugs and Carriers against Viral Infections

Virus infection is one of the threats to the health of organisms, and finding suitable antiviral agents is one of the main tasks of current researchers. Metal ions participate in multiple key reaction stages of organisms and maintain the important homeostasis of organisms. The application of synthetic metal-based nanomaterials as an antiviral therapy is a promising new research direction. Based on the application of synthetic metal-based nanomaterials in antiviral therapy, we summarize the research progress of metal-based nanomaterials in recent years. This review analyzes the three inhibition pathways of metal nanomaterials as antiviral therapeutic materials against viral infections, including direct inactivation, inhibition of virus adsorption and entry, and intracellular virus suppression; it further classifies and summarizes them according to their inhibition mechanisms. In addition, the use of metal nanomaterials as antiviral drug carriers and vaccine adjuvants is summarized. The analysis clarifies the antiviral mechanism of metal nanomaterials and broadens the application in the field of antiviral therapy.

Silver, copper and copper oxide nanoparticles in the fight against human viruses: progress and perspectives

The rapid development of nanomedicine has created a high demand for silver, copper and copper oxide nanoparticles. Due to their high reactivity and potent antimicrobial activity, silver and copper-based nanomaterials have been playing an important role in the search for new alternatives for the treatment of several issues of concern, such as pathologies caused by bacteria and viruses. Viral diseases are a significant and constant threat to public health. The most recent example is the pandemic caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). In this context, the object of the present review is to highlight recent progress in the biomedical uses of these metal nanoparticles for the treatment and prevention of human viral infections. We discuss the antiviral activity of AgNPs and Cu-based NPs, including their actions against SARS-CoV-2. We also discuss the toxicity, biodistribution and excretion of AgNPs and CuNPs, along with their uses in medical devices or on inert surfaces to avoid viral dissemination by fomites. The challenges and limitations of the biomedical use of these nanoparticles are presented.

Can Copper Products and Surfaces Reduce the Spread of Infectious Microorganisms and Hospital-Acquired Infections?

Pathogen transfer and infection in the built environment are globally significant events, leading to the spread of disease and an increase in subsequent morbidity and mortality rates. There are numerous strategies followed in healthcare facilities to minimize pathogen transfer, but complete infection control has not, as yet, been achieved. However, based on traditional use in many cultures, the introduction of copper products and surfaces to significantly and positively retard pathogen transmission invites further investigation. For example, many microbes are rendered unviable upon contact exposure to copper or copper alloys, either immediately or within a short time. In addition, many disease-causing bacteria such as E. coli O157:H7, hospital superbugs, and several viruses (including SARS-CoV-2) are also susceptible to exposure to copper surfaces. It is thus suggested that replacing common touch surfaces in healthcare facilities, food industries, and public places (including public transport) with copper or alloys of copper may substantially contribute to limiting transmission. Subsequent hospital admissions and mortality rates will consequently be lowered, with a concomitant saving of lives and considerable levels of resources. This consideration is very significant in times of the COVID-19 pandemic and the upcoming epidemics, as it is becoming clear that all forms of possible infection control measures should be practiced in order to protect community well-being and promote healthy outcomes.

Green Synthesis of Copper Nanoparticles Using Cotton

Copper nanoparticles (CuNP) were obtained by a green synthesis method using cotton textile fibers and water as solvent, avoiding the use of toxic reducing agents. The new synthesis method is environmentally friendly, inexpensive, and can be implemented on a larger scale. This method showed the cellulose capacity as a reducing and stabilizing agent for synthetizing Cellulose–Copper nanoparticles (CCuNP). Nanocomposites based on CCuNP were characterized by XRD, TGA, FTIR and DSC. Functional groups present in the CCuNP were identified by FTIR analysis, and XRD patterns disclosed that nanoparticles correspond to pure metallic Cu°, and their sizes are at a range of 13–35 nm. Results demonstrated that CuNPs produced by the new method were homogeneously distributed on the entire surface of the textile fiber, obtaining CCuNP nanocomposites with different copper wt%. Thus, CuNPs obtained by this method are very stable to oxidation and can be stored for months. Characterization studies disclose that the cellulose crystallinity index (CI) is modified in relation to the reaction conditions, and its chemical structure is destroyed when nanocomposites with high copper contents are synthesized. The formation of CuO nanoparticles was confirmed as a by-product, through UV spectroscopy, in the absorbance range of 300–350 nm.

Antimicrobial Nano-Agents: The Copper Age

The constant advent of major health threats such as antibacterial resistance or highly communicable viruses, together with a declining antimicrobial discovery, urgently requires the exploration of innovative therapeutic approaches. Nowadays, strategies based on metal nanoparticle technology have demonstrated interesting outcomes due to their intrinsic features. In this scenario, there is an emerging and growing interest in copper-based nanoparticles (CuNPs). Indeed, in their pure metallic form, as oxides, or in combination with sulfur, CuNPs have peculiar behaviors that result in effective antimicrobial activity associated with the stimulation of essential body functions. Here, we present a critical review on the state of the art regarding the in vitro and in vivo evaluations of the antimicrobial activity of CuNPs together with absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) assessments. Considering the potentiality of CuNPs in antimicrobial treatments, within this Review we encounter the need to summarize the behaviors of CuNPs and provide the expected perspectives on their contributions to infectious and communicable disease management.

Nanoparticles as antimicrobial and antiviral agents: A literature-based perspective study

The scientific explorations of nanoparticles for their inherent therapeutic potencies as antimicrobial and antiviral agents due to increasing incidences of antibiotic resistance have gained more attention in recent time. This factor amongst others necessitates the search for newer and more effective antimicrobial agents. Several investigations have demonstrated the prospects of nanoparticles in the treatment of various microbial infections. The therapeutic applications of nanoparticles as either delivery agent or broad spectrum inhibition agents in viral and microbial investigations can no longer be overlooked. Their large surface area to volume ratio made them an indispensable substance as delivery agents in many respect. Various materials have been used for the synthesis of nanoparticles with unique properties channelised to meet specific therapeutic requirement. This review focuses on the antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral potential of nanoparticles with their probable mechanism of action.

Nanotechnology for virus treatment

The continued emergence of novel viruses poses a significant threat to global health. Uncontrolled outbreaks can result in pandemics that have the potential to overburden our healthcare and economic systems. While vaccination is a conventional modality that can be employed to promote herd immunity, antiviral vaccines can only be applied prophylactically and do little to help patients who have already contracted viral infections. During the early stages of a disease outbreak when vaccines are unavailable, therapeutic antiviral drugs can be used as a stopgap solution. However, these treatments do not always work against emerging viral strains and can be accompanied by adverse effects that sometimes outweigh the benefits. Nanotechnology has the potential to overcome many of the challenges facing current antiviral therapies. For example, nanodelivery vehicles can be employed to drastically improve the pharmacokinetic profile of antiviral drugs while reducing their systemic toxicity. Other unique nanomaterials can be leveraged for their virucidal or virus-neutralizing properties. In this review, we discuss recent developments in antiviral nanotherapeutics and provide a perspective on the application of nanotechnology to the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak and future virus pandemics.

Assessment of Antimicrobic, Antivirotic and Cytotoxic Potential of Alginate Beads Cross-Linked by Bivalent Ions for Vaginal Administration

Antimicrobial agent abuse poses a serious threat for future pharmacotherapy, including vaginal administration. The solution can be found in simple polymeric systems with inherent antimicrobial properties without the need to incorporate drugs, for instance alginate beads cross-linked by bivalent ions. The main goal of the presented study was to provide improvement on the well-documented cytotoxicity of Cu²⁺ cross-linked alginate. Alginate beads were prepared by external ionotropic gelation by cross-linking with Cu²⁺, Ca²⁺ and Zn²⁺ ions, separately and in mixtures. Morphological properties, swelling capacity, ion release and efficacy against the most common vaginal pathogens (C. albicans, E. coli, E. faecalis and virus strain—human herpesvirus type 1) were evaluated. The prepared particles (particle size 1455.68 ± 18.71–1756.31 ± 16.58 µm) had very good sphericity (0.86 ± 0.04–0.97 ± 0.06). In mixture samples, Cu²⁺ hampered second ion loading, and was also released incompletely (18.75–44.8%) compared to the single ion Cu²⁺ sample (71.4%). Efficacy against the selected pathogens was confirmed in almost all samples. Although anticipating otherwise, ion mixture samples did not show betterment over a Cu²⁺ cross-linked sample in cytotoxicity–pathogen efficacy relation. However, the desired improvement was found in a single ion Zn²⁺ sample whose minimal inhibition concentrations against the pathogens (0.6–6.12 mM) were close to, or in the same mathematical order as, its toxic concentration of 50 (1.891 mM). In summary, these findings combined with alginate’s biocompatibility and biodegradability give the combination solid potential in antimicrobial use.

Smart and Sustainable Nanotechnological Solutions in a Battle against COVID-19 and Beyond: A Critical Review

The variety of available biocidal features make nanomaterials promising for fighting infections. To effectively battle COVID-19, categorized as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO), materials scientists and biotechnologists need to combine their knowledge to develop efficient antiviral nanomaterials. By design, nanostructured materials (spherical, two-dimensional, hybrid) can express a diverse bioactivity and unique combination of specific, nonspecific, and mixed mechanisms of antiviral action. It can be related to the material's specific features and their multiple functionalization strategies. This is a complex guiding approach in which an interaction target is constantly moving and quickly changing. On the other hand, in such a rush, sustainability may be put aside. Therefore, to elucidate the most promising nanotechnological solutions, we critically review available data within the frame of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and other types of viruses. We highlight solutions that are, or could be, more sustainable and less toxic. In this regard, reduction of the number of synthetic routes, organic solvents, byproducts, and residues is highly recommended. Such efficient, green solutions may be further used for the prevention of virion-host interactions, treatment of the already developed infection, reducing inflammation, and finally, protecting healthcare professionals with masks, fabrics, equipment, and in other associated areas. Further translation into the market needs putting on the fast track with respect to principles of green chemistry, feasibility, safety, and the environment.

Recent Advancement in Nanotechnology-Based Drug Delivery System Against Viral Infections

In the last few decades, the exponential rise in the incidence of viral infections sets a global health emergency across the world. The biomimetic architecture, the ability to hijack host immune responses, continuous antigen shifting, and drafting are the major critical factors that are responsible for the unavailability of a concrete therapeutic regimen against viral infections. Further, inappropriate pharmacodynamic physicochemical and biological parameters such as low aqueous solubility, poor permeability, high affinity for plasm proteins, short biological half-lives, and fast elimination from the systemic circulation are the major critical factors that govern the suboptimal drug concentration at the target site that leads to the development of drug resistance. To address this issue, nanotechnology-based drug delivery approach is emerged as an altering method to attain the optimal drug concentration at the target site for a prolonged period by integrating the nanoengineering tools in the synthesis of nanoparticles. Nanodimensional configuration with enhanced permeability and retention effect, increased surface-area-to-volume ratio, provision for surface functionalization, etc., are the privileged aspects that make it an effective drug delivery system for dispensing the antiviral therapeutics. However, size, shape, charge, and surface topology of nanoparticles are the greater influential factors that determine target-specific drug delivery, optimum cellular uptake, degree of opsonization by the host immune cells, drug retention time, transcytosis, the extension of biological half-life, in vivo stability, and cytotoxicity. The review will enlighten the elaborative role of nanotechnology-based drug delivery and the major challenging aspect of clinical safety and efficacy.

Nanomaterials for Airborne Virus Inactivation: A Short Review

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) that broke out at the end of 2019 spread rapidly around the world, causing a large number of deaths and serious economic losses. Previous studies showed that aerosol transmission is one of the main pathways for the spread of COVID-19, Therefore, effective control measures are urgently needed to contain the epidemic. Nanomaterials have broad-spectrum antiviral capabilities, and their inactivation for viruses in the air has been extensively studied. This review discusses antiviral nanomaterials such as metal nanomaterials, metal oxide-based nano-photocatalysts, and nonmetallic nanomaterials; summarizes their structure and chemical properties, the efficiency of inactivating viruses, the mechanism of inactivating viruses, and the application of virus purification in the air. This review provides insights on the development and application of antiviral nanomaterials, which can help control the aerosol transmission of viruses.

New insights into application of nanoparticles in the diagnosis and screening of novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2)

Novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is by far the worst pandemic disease in the current millennium. The first human-to-human transmission was observed in December 2019 in China and is caused by the highly contagious severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which has infected millions of people within months across the globe. SARS-CoV-2 is a spike protein enveloped virus with particle-like characteristics and a diameter of 60-140 nm. Real-time PCR, reverse transcriptase PCR, isothermal PCR, immunological-based detection technique and nano-based diagnostic system have been explained for the identification and differentiation of different types of virus including SARS-COV-2. Synthetic nanoparticles can closely mimic the virus and interact strongly with its virulent proteins due to their morphological similarities. Some of the antiviral nanomaterials are also discussed, for example zinc oxide nanoparticle is an antiviral agent with a tetrapod morphology that mimics the cell surface by interacting with the viral capsid. It suppressed the viral proteins upon UV radiation due to reaction caused by photocatalysis. Hence, nanoparticle-based strategies for tackling viruses have immense potential. The second part of the review points to the latest in vitro and in vivo procedures for screening viral particles and the usage of nanoparticles in diagnostic and therapeutics. This would be beneficial for early detection and assists for the safe and effective therapeutic management of COVID-19.

Nanoparticles as a novel and promising antiviral platform in veterinary medicine

Traditional veterinary virus vaccines, such as inactivated and live-attenuated vaccines, have achieved tremendous success in controlling many viral diseases of livestock and chickens worldwide. However, many recent viral outbreaks caused by different emerging and re-emerging viruses continue to be reported annually worldwide. It is therefore necessary to develop new control regimens. Nanoparticle research has received considerable attention in the last two decades as a promising platform with significant success in veterinary medicine, replacing traditional viral vector vaccines. However, the field of nanoparticle applications is still in its initial phase of growth. Here, we discuss various preparation methods, characteristics, physical properties, antiviral effects, and pharmacokinetics of well-developed nanoparticles and the potential of nanoparticles or nano-vaccines as a promising antiviral platform for veterinary medicine.

Zinc-Based Nanomaterials for Diagnosis and Management of Plant Diseases: Ecological Safety and Future Prospects

A facet of nanorenaissance in plant pathology hailed the research on the development and application of nanoformulations or nanoproducts for the effective management of phytopathogens deterring the growth and yield of plants and thus the overall crop productivity. Zinc nanomaterials represent a versatile class of nanoproducts and nanoenabled devices as these nanomaterials can be synthesized in quantum amounts through economically affordable processes/approaches. Further, these nanomaterials exhibit potential targeted antimicrobial properties and low to negligible phytotoxicity activities that well-qualify them to be applied directly or in a deviant manner to accomplish significant antibacterial, antimycotic, antiviral, and antitoxigenic activities against diverse phytopathogens causing plant diseases. The photo-catalytic, fluorescent, and electron generating aspects associated with zinc nanomaterials have been utilized for the development of sensor systems (optical and electrochemical biosensors), enabling quick, early, sensitive, and on-field assessment or quantification of the test phytopathogen. However, the proficient use of Zn-derived nanomaterials in the management of plant pathogenic diseases as nanopesticides and on-field sensor system demands that the associated eco- and biosafety concerns should be well discerned and effectively sorted beforehand. Current and possible utilization of zinc-based nanostructures in plant disease diagnosis and management and their safety in the agroecosystem is highlighted.

A molecular docking study repurposes FDA approved iron oxide nanoparticles to treat and control COVID-19 infection

COVID-19, is a disease resulting from the SARS-CoV-2 global pandemic. Due to the current global emergency and the length of time required to develop specific antiviral agent(s) and a vaccine for SARS-CoV-2, the world health organization (WHO) adopted the strategy of repurposing existing medications to treat COVID-19. Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) were previously approved by the US food and drug administration (FDA) for anemia treatment and studies have also demonstrated its antiviral activity in vitro. Therefore, we performed a docking study to explore the interaction of IONPs (Fe2O3 and Fe3O4) with the spike protein receptor binding domain (S1-RBD) of SARS-CoV-2 that is required for virus attachment to the host cell receptors. A similar docking analysis was also performed with hepatitis C virus (HCV) glycoproteins E1 and E2. These studies revealed that both Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 interacted efficiently with the SARS-CoV-2 S1-RBD and to HCV glycoproteins, E1 and E2. Fe3O4 formed a more stable complex with S1-RBD whereas Fe2O3 favored HCV E1 and E2. These interactions of IONPs are expected to be associated with viral proteins conformational changes and hence, viral inactivation. Therefore, we recommend FDA-approved-IONPs to proceed for COVID-19 treatment clinical trials.

Carbon dots for effective photodynamic inactivation of virus

The antiviral function of carbon dots (CDots) with visible light exposure was evaluated, for which the model bacteriophages MS2 as a surrogate of small RNA viruses were used. The results show clearly that the visible light-activated CDots are highly effective in diminishing the infectivity of MS2 in both low and high titer samples to the host E. coli cells, and the antiviral effects are dot concentration- and treatment time-dependent. The action of CDots apparently causes no significant damage to the structural integrity and morphology of the MS2 phage or the breakdown of the capsid proteins, but does result in the protein carbonylation (a commonly used indicator for protein oxidation) and the degradation of viral genomic RNA. Mechanistically the results may be understood in the framework of photodynamic effects that are associated with the unique excited state properties and processes of CDots. Opportunities for potentially broad applications of CDots coupled with visible/natural light in the prevention and control of viral transmission and spread are highlighted and discussed.

The antiviral function of carbon dots (CDots) with visible light exposure was evaluated, for which the model bacteriophages MS2 as a surrogate of small RNA viruses were used.