Polymeric micelles in cancer therapy: State of the art

Harnessing Dual-Responsive Polymeric Micelles for Precision Oxidative Stress Amplification in Targeted Cancer Therapy

Targeting the altered redox balance in cancer cells, this study explores a strategy to induce selective cancer cell death by combining reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation with glutathione (GSH) depletion. We developed oxidative stress-amplifying polymeric (pCB) micelles that function both as therapeutic agents and carriers for GSH-depleting retinoic acid prodrug (BRDP). pCB incorporating ROS-generating cinnamaldehyde and a GSH-depleting quinone methide precursor could self-assemble into micelles encapsulating BRDP, delivering both ROS generators and GSH-depleting drugs. The micelles were surface-functionalized with the tripeptide Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) for targeted delivery to integrin-overexpressing tumors. In a mouse xenograft model, RGD-decorated BRDP-loaded micelles significantly accumulated in tumor sites, enhancing anticancer efficacy without toxicity to normal tissues. This study marks significant advancement in the field of oxidative stress-amplifying polymeric precursors, presenting a novel and highly effective anticancer therapeutic approach that integrates multiple tumor-specific triggers and ROS-mediated mechanisms.

Machine Learning-Driven Prediction, Preparation, and Evaluation of Functional Nanomedicines Via Drug-Drug Self-Assembly

Small molecules as nanomedicine carriers offer advantages in drug loading and preparation. Selecting effective small molecules for stable nanomedicines is challenging. This study used artificial intelligence (AI) to screen drug combinations for self-assembling nanomedicines, employing physiochemical parameters to predict formation via machine learning. Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) are identified as effective carriers for antineoplastic drugs, with high drug loading. Nanomedicines, PEG-coated indomethacin/paclitaxel nanomedicine (PiPTX), and laminarin-modified indomethacin/paclitaxel nanomedicine (LiDOX), are developed with extended circulation and active targeting functions. Indomethacin/paclitaxel nanomedicine iDOX exhibits pH-responsive drug release in the tumor microenvironment. These nanomedicines enhance anti-tumor effects and reduce side effects, offering a rapid approach to clinical nanomedicine development.

Exploring the Potential of Nanocarriers for Cancer Immunotherapy: Insights into Mechanism, Nanocarriers, and Regulatory Perspectives

Immunotherapy is a cutting-edge approach that leverages sophisticated technology to target tumor-specific antibodies and modulate the immune system to eradicate cancer and enhance patients' quality of life. Bioinformatics and genetic science advancements have made it possible to diagnose and treat cancer patients using immunotherapy technology. However, current immunotherapies against cancer have limited clinical benefits due to cancer-associated antigens, which often fail to interact with immune cells and exhibit insufficient therapeutic targeting with unintended side effects. To surmount this challenge, nanoparticle systems have emerged as a potential strategy for transporting immunotherapeutic agents to cancer cells and activating immune cells to combat tumors. Consequently, this process potentially generates an antigen-specific T cells response that effectively suppresses cancer growth. Furthermore, nanoplatforms have high specificity, efficacy, diagnostic potential, and imaging capabilities, making them promising tools for cancer treatment. However, this informative paper delves into the various available immunotherapies, including CAR T cells therapy and immune checkpoint blockade, cytokines, cancer vaccines, and monoclonal antibodies. Furthermore, the paper delves into the concept of theragnostic nanotechnology, which integrates therapy and diagnostics for a more personalized treatment approach for cancer therapy. Additionally, the paper covers the potential benefits of different nanocarrier systems, including marketed immunotherapy products, clinical trials, regulatory considerations, and future prospects for cancer immunotherapy.

Advancements in nanoscale delivery systems: optimizing intermolecular interactions for superior drug encapsulation and precision release

Nanoscale preparations, such as nanoparticles, micelles, and liposomes, are increasingly recognized in pharmaceutical technology for their high capability in tailoring the pharmacokinetics of the encapsulated drug within the body. These preparations have great potential in extending drug half-life, reducing dosing frequency, mitigating drug side effects, and enhancing drug efficacy. Consequently, nanoscale preparations offer promising prospects for the treatment of metabolic disorders, malignant tumors, and various chronic diseases. Nevertheless, the complete clinical potential of nanoscale preparations remains untapped due to the challenges associated with low drug loading degrees and insufficient control over drug release. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the vital role of intermolecular interactions in enhancing encapsulation and controlling drug release within nanoscale delivery systems. Our analysis critically evaluates the characteristics of common intermolecular interactions and elucidates the techniques employed to assess them. Moreover, we highlight the significant potential of intermolecular interactions in clinical translation, particularly in the screening and optimization of preparation prescriptions. By attaining a deeper understanding of intermolecular interaction properties and mechanisms, we can adopt a more rational approach to designing drug carriers, leading to substantial advancements in the application and clinical transformation of nanoscale preparations. Moving forward, continued research in this field offers exciting prospects for unlocking the full clinical potential of nanoscale preparations and revolutionizing the field of drug delivery.

Revolutionizing Stroke Care: Nanotechnology-Based Brain Delivery as a Novel Paradigm for Treatment and Diagnosis

Stroke, a severe medical condition arising from abnormalities in the coagulation-fibrinolysis cycle and metabolic processes, results in brain cell impairment and injury due to blood flow obstruction within the brain. Prompt and efficient therapeutic approaches are imperative to control and preserve brain functions. Conventional stroke medications, including fibrinolytic agents, play a crucial role in facilitating reperfusion to the ischemic brain. However, their clinical efficacy is hampered by short plasma half-lives, limited brain tissue distribution attributed to the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and lack of targeted drug delivery to the ischemic region. To address these challenges, diverse nanomedicine strategies, such as vesicular systems, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, exosomes, inorganic nanoparticles, and biomimetic nanoparticles, have emerged. These platforms enhance drug pharmacokinetics by facilitating targeted drug accumulation at the ischemic site. By leveraging nanocarriers, engineered drug delivery systems hold the potential to overcome challenges associated with conventional stroke medications. This comprehensive review explores the pathophysiological mechanism underlying stroke and BBB disruption in stroke. Additionally, this review investigates the utilization of nanocarriers for current therapeutic and diagnostic interventions in stroke management. By addressing these aspects, the review aims to provide insight into potential strategies for improving stroke treatment and diagnosis through a nanomedicine approach.

Recent advances in the development and application of curcumin-loaded micro/nanocarriers in food research

The application of curcumin in food science is challenged by its poor water solubility, easy degradation under processing and within the gastrointestinal tract, and poor bioavailability. Micro/nanocarrier is an emerging and efficient platform to overcome these drawbacks. This review focuses on the recent advances in the development and application of curcumin-loaded micro/nanocarriers in food research. The recent development advances of curcumin-loaded micro/nanocarriers could be classified into ten basic systems: emulsions, micelles, dendrimers, hydrogel polymeric particles, polymer nanofibers, polymer inclusion complexes, liposomes, solid lipid particles, structured lipid carriers, and extracellular vesicles. The application advances of curcumin-loaded micro/nanocarriers for food research could be classified into four types: coloring agents, functional active agents, preservation agents, and quality sensors. This review demonstrated that micro/nanocarriers were excellent carriers for the fat-soluble curcumin and the obtained curcumin-loaded micro/nanocarriers had promising application prospects in the field of food science.

Mechano-assisted strategies to improve cancer chemotherapy

Chemotherapy remains a cornerstone in cancer treatment; however, its effectiveness is frequently undermined by the development of drug resistance. Recent studies underscores the pivotal role of the tumor mechanical microenvironment (TMME) and the emerging field of mechanical nanomedicine in tackling chemo-resistance. This review offers an in-depth analysis of mechano-assisted strategies aimed at mitigating chemo-resistance through the modification of the TMME and the refinement of mechanical nanomedicine delivery systems. We explore the potential of targeting abnormal tumor mechanical properties as a promising avenue for enhancing the efficacy of cancer chemotherapy, which offers novel directions for advancing future cancer therapies, especially from the mechanomedicine perspective.

Enhancing cancer therapy: advanced nanovehicle delivery systems for oridonin

Oridonin (ORI), an ent-kaurane diterpenoid derived from Rabdosia rubescens (Hemsl.) H.Hara, serves as the primary bioactive component of this plant. It demonstrates a broad spectrum of therapeutic activities, including moderate to potent anticancer properties, alongside anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifibrotic, immunomodulatory, and neuromodulatory effects, thus influencing diverse biological processes. However, its clinical potential is significantly constrained by poor aqueous solubility and limited bioavailability. In alignment with the approach of developing drug candidates from natural compounds, various strategies, such as structural modification and nanocarrier systems, have been employed to address these challenges. This review provides an overview of ORI-based nano-delivery systems, emphasizing their potential to improve the clinical applicability of oridonin in oncology. Although some progress has been made in advancing ORI nano-delivery research, it remains insufficient for clinical implementation, necessitating further investigation.

Review of recent preclinical and clinical research on ligand-targeted liposomes as delivery systems in triple negative breast cancer therapy

Triple-negative breast Cancer (TNBC) is one of the deadliest types, making up about 20% of all breast cancers. Chemotherapy is the traditional manner of progressed TNBC treatment; however, it has a short-term result with a high reversibility pace. The lack of targeted treatment limited and person-dependent treatment options for those suffering from TNBC cautions to be the worst type of cancer among breast cancer patients. Consequently, appropriate treatment for this disease is considered a major clinical challenge. Therefore, various treatment methods have been developed to treat TNBC, among which chemotherapy is the most common and well-known approach recently studied. Although effective methods are chemotherapies, they are often accompanied by critical limitations, especially the lack of specific functionality. These methods lead to systematic toxicity and, ultimately, the expansion of multidrug-resistant (MDR) cancer cells. Therefore, finding novel and efficient techniques to enhance the targeting of TNBC treatment is an essential requirement. Liposomes have demonstrated that they are an effective method for drug delivery; however, among a large number of liposome-based drug delivery systems annually developed, a small number have just received authorization for clinical application. The new approaches to using liposomes target their structure with various ligands to increase therapeutic efficiency and diminish undesired side effects on various body tissues. The current study describes the most recent strategies and research associated with functionalizing the liposomes' structure with different ligands as targeted drug carriers in treating TNBCs in preclinical and clinical stages.

Recent advances in targeted drug delivery systems for multiple myeloma

Despite significant therapeutic advances, multiple myeloma (MM) remains a challenging, incurable, hematological malignancy. The efficacy of traditional chemotherapy and currently available anti-MM agents is in part limited by their adverse effects, which restrict their therapeutic potential. Nanotherapeutics is an emerging field of cancer therapy that can overcome the biological and chemical barriers of existing anticancer drugs. This review presents an overview of recent advancements in nanoparticle- and immunotherapy-based drug delivery systems for MM treatment. It further delves into the targeting strategies, mechanism of controlled drug release, and challenges associated with the development of drug delivery systems for the treatment of MM.

Preparation and characterization of poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(tert-butyl methacrylate) micelles as potential nanocarriers for donepezil

Polymeric micelles were prepared for the delivery of donepezil, a leading Alzheimer's disease drug, to enhance its transport across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(tert-butyl methacrylate) amphiphilic block copolymers were synthesized via reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. The polymers were characterized by gel permeation chromatography and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Empty and donepezil loaded polymer micelles were formed using the dialysis method and characterized by dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy. Drug loading efficiency and release behavior were monitored using UV/Vis spectroscopy, and cytotoxicity was evaluated via colorimetric tests and impedance measurements. Additionally, the permeability of the nanocarriers across an in vitro BBB culture model was assessed. Drug-loaded micelles demonstrated similar permeability to free donepezil but offered sustained release and improved stability. This micellar delivery system holds significant potential for improving therapeutic outcomes in Alzheimer's treatment by enhancing donepezil's delivery across the BBB. Improved BBB permeability and sustained drug release could lead to more effective concentration of the drug in the brain, potentially reducing peripheral cholinergic side effects, such as nausea and vomiting, often observed with traditional donepezil administration. This could result in better patient compliance and improved cognitive outcomes, making this nanocarrier system a promising alternative for Alzheimer's therapy.

Polyoxazolines with Cholesterol Lipid Anchor for Fast Intracellular Delivery

Due to the increasing challenges posed by the growing immunity to poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), there is growing interest in innovative polymer-based materials as viable alternatives. In this study, the advantages of lipids and polymers are combined to allow efficient and rapid cytoplasmic drug delivery. Specifically, poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline) is modified with a cholesteryl hemisuccinate group as a lipid anchor (CHEMSPOx). The CHEMSPOx is additionally functionalized with a coumarin group (CHEMSPOx-coumarin). Both polymers self-assembled in water into vesicles of ≈100 nm and are successfully loaded with a hydrophobic model drug. The loaded vesicles reveal high cellular internalization across variant cell lines within 1 h at 37 °C as well as 4 °C, albeit to a lesser extent. A kinetic study confirms the fast internalization within 5 min after the sample's addition. Therefore, different internalization pathways are involved, e.g., active uptake but also nonenergy dependent mechanisms. CHEMSPOx and CHEMSPOx-coumarin further demonstrate excellent cyto-, hemo-, and membrane compatibility, as well as a membrane-protecting effect, which underlines their good safety profile for potential biological intravenous application. Overall, CHEMSPOx, as a lipopolyoxazoline, holds great potential for versatile biological applications such as fast and direct intracellular delivery or cellular lysis protection.

Aliphatic polycarbonates with acid degradable ketal side groups as multi-pH-responsive immunodrug nanocarriers

Pharmacokinetics and biodistribution profiles of active substances are crucial aspects for their safe and successful administration. Since many immunogenic compounds do not meet all requirements for safe and effective administration, well-defined drug nanocarrier systems are necessary with a stimuli-responsive drug-release profile. For this purpose, a novel pH-responsive aliphatic cyclic carbonate is introduced with benzyl ketal side chains and polymerized onto a poly(ethylene glycol) macroinitiator. The resulting block copolymers could be formulated via a solvent-evaporation method into well-defined polymeric micelles. The hydrophobic carbonate block was equipped with an acid degradable ketal side group that served as an acid-responsive functional group. Already subtle pH alternations led to micelle disassembly and the release of the active cargo. Furthermore, basic carbonate backbone degradation assured the pH responsiveness of the nanocarriers in both acidic and basic conditions. To investigate the delivery capacity of polymeric micelles, the model small molecule compound CL075, which serves as an immunotherapeutic TLR7/8 agonist, was encapsulated. Incubation studies with human blood plasma revealed the absence of undesirable protein adsorption on the drug-loaded nanoparticles. Furthermore, in vitro applications confirmed cell uptake of the nanodrug formulations by macrophages and the induction of payload-mediated immune stimulation. Altogether, these results underline the huge potential of the developed multi-pH-responsive polymeric nanocarrier for immunodrug delivery.

Synergistic integration of mRNA-LNP with CAR-engineered immune cells: Pioneering progress in immunotherapy

Chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T) therapy has emerged as a revolutionary approach in the treatment of malignancies. Despite its remarkable successes, this field continues to grapple with challenges such as scalability, safety concerns, limited therapeutic effect, in vivo persistence, and the need for precise control over CAR expression. In the post-pandemic era of COVID-19 vaccine immunization, the application of messenger RNA (mRNA) encapsulated within lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) has recently garnered significant attention as a potential solution to address these challenges. This review delves into the dynamic landscape of mRNA-LNP technology and its potential implications for CAR-engineered immune cell-based immunotherapy.

Solubilization techniques used for poorly water-soluble drugs

About 40% of approved drugs and nearly 90% of drug candidates are poorly water-soluble drugs. Low solubility reduces the drugability. Effectively improving the solubility and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs is a critical issue that needs to be urgently addressed in drug development and application. This review briefly introduces the conventional solubilization techniques such as solubilizers, hydrotropes, cosolvents, prodrugs, salt modification, micronization, cyclodextrin inclusion, solid dispersions, and details the crystallization strategies, ionic liquids, and polymer-based, lipid-based, and inorganic-based carriers in improving solubility and bioavailability. Some of the most commonly used approved carrier materials for solubilization techniques are presented. Several approved poorly water-soluble drugs using solubilization techniques are summarized. Furthermore, this review summarizes the solubilization mechanism of each solubilization technique, reviews the latest research advances and challenges, and evaluates the potential for clinical translation. This review could guide the selection of a solubilization approach, dosage form, and administration route for poorly water-soluble drugs. Moreover, we discuss several promising solubilization techniques attracting increasing attention worldwide.

Endoplasmic reticulum-targeted biomimetic nanoparticles induce apoptosis and ferroptosis by regulating endoplasmic reticulum function in colon cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a major threat to human health, as it is one of the most common malignancies with a high incidence and mortality rate. The cancer cell membrane (CCM) has significant potential in targeted tumor drug delivery due to its membrane antigen-mediated homologous targeting ability. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in cancer cells plays a crucial role in apoptosis and ferroptosis. In this study, we developed an ER-targeted peptide-modified CCM-biomimetic nanoparticle-delivered lovastatin (LOV) nanomedicine delivery system (EMPP-LOV) for cancer treatment. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated that EMPP could effectively target cancer cells and localize within the ER. EMPP-LOV modulated ER function to promote apoptosis and ferroptosis in tumor cells. Furthermore, synergistic antitumor efficacy was observed in both in vitro and in vivo models. EMPP-LOV induced apoptosis in CRC cells by over-activating endoplasmic reticulum stress and promoted ferroptosis by inhibiting the mevalonate pathway, leading to synergistic tumor growth inhibition with minimal toxicity to major organs. Overall, the EMPP-LOV delivery system, with its subcellular targeting capability within tumor cells, presents a promising therapeutic platform for CRC treatment.

Targeting anticancer immunity in melanoma tumour microenvironment: unleashing the potential of adjuvants, drugs, and phytochemicals

Melanoma poses a challenge in oncology because of its aggressive nature and limited treatment modalities. The tumour microenvironment (TME) in melanoma contains unique properties such as an immunosuppressive and high-density environment, unusual vasculature, and a high number of stromal and immunosuppressive cells. In recent years, numerous experiments have focused on boosting the immune system to effectively remove malignant cells. Adjuvants, consisting of phytochemicals, toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists, and cytokines, have shown encouraging results in triggering antitumor immunity and augmenting the therapeutic effectiveness of anticancer therapy. These adjuvants can stimulate the maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) and infiltration of cytotoxic CD8+ T lymphocytes (CTLs). Furthermore, nanocarriers can help to deliver immunomodulators and antigens directly to the tumour stroma, thereby improving their efficacy against malignant cells. The remodelling of melanoma TME utilising phytochemicals, agonists, and other adjuvants can be combined with current modalities for improving therapy outcomes. This review article explores the potential of adjuvants, drugs, and their nanoformulations in enhancing the anticancer potency of macrophages, CTLs, and natural killer (NK) cells. Additionally, the capacity of these agents to repress the function of immunosuppressive components of melanoma TME, such as immunosuppressive subsets of macrophages, stromal and myeloid cells will be discussed.

Comprehensive insights into mechanism of nanotoxicity, assessment methods and regulatory challenges of nanomedicines

Nanomedicine has the potential to transform healthcare by offering targeted therapies, precise diagnostics, and enhanced drug delivery systems. The National Institutes of Health has coined the term "nanomedicine" to describe the use of nanotechnology in biological system monitoring, control, diagnosis, and treatment. Nanomedicine continues to receive increasing interest for the rationalized delivery of therapeutics and pharmaceutical agents to achieve the required response while reducing its side effects. However, as nanotechnology continues to advance, concerns about its potential toxicological effects have also grown. This review explores the current state of nanomedicine, focusing on the types of nanoparticles used and their associated properties that contribute to nanotoxicity. It examines the mechanisms through which nanoparticles exert toxicity, encompassing various cellular and molecular interactions. Furthermore, it discusses the assessment methods employed to evaluate nanotoxicity, encompassing in-vitro and in-vivo models, as well as emerging techniques. The review also addresses the regulatory issues surrounding nanotoxicology, highlighting the challenges in developing standardized guidelines and ensuring the secure translation of nanomedicine into clinical settings. It also explores into the challenges and ethical issues associated with nanotoxicology, as understanding the safety profile of nanoparticles is essential for their effective translation into therapeutic applications.

Tumor targeting pH-triggered fluorescence-switchable hyaluronic acid-based micelles with aggregation-induced emission activity for tracing drug release and intelligent drug delivery

In this study, an amphiphilic polymer (Bio-HA(TPE-CN)-mPEG) was designed and synthesized, which was fabricated by introducing hydrophobic aggregation-induced emission (AIE) fluorophore, acid-labile imine bond, methoxy poly (ethylene glycol) (mPEG) and tumor targeting ligand biotin to the backbone of hyaluronic acid. The polymer could self-assemble into micelles and solubilize hydrophobic anticancer drugs. In vitro drug release study indicated that the micelles could disassemble rapidly under acidic environment. The involvement of biotin and HA could enhance the cellular uptake of micelles by tumor cells. Modification of micelles by mPEG could minimize non-specific protein adsorption. Fluorescence studies indicated that the micelles exhibited excellent AIE features and emitted intense long-wavelength fluorescence. More excitingly, the micelles were red emissive in the normal physiological environment, but switched to blue fluorescence in the acidic tumor environment, which could be further applied for real-time monitoring and quantification of the drug release. The in vivo antitumor efficacy study demonstrated the superior antitumor activity of the PTX-loaded micelles. The Bio-HA(TPE-CN)-mPEG micelles were promising drug carriers for chemotherapy and bioimaging.

Brain-targeting redox-sensitive micelles for codelivery of TMZ and β-lapachone for glioblastoma therapy

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a central nervous system cancer with high incidence and poor survival rates. Enhancing drug penetration of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and targeting efficacy is crucial for improving treatment outcomes. In this study, we developed a redox-sensitive targeted nano-delivery system (HCA-A2) for temozolomide (TMZ) and β-lapachone (β-Lapa). This system used hyaluronic acid (HA) as the hydrophilic group, arachidonic acid (CA) as the hydrophobic group, and angiopep-2 (A2) as the targeting group. Control systems included non-redox sensitive (HDA-A2) and non-targeting (HCA) versions. In vitro, HCA-TMZ-Lapa micelles released 100 % of their payload in a simulated tumor microenvironment within 24 h, compared to 43.97 % under normal conditions. HCA-A2 micelles, internalized via clathrin-mediated endocytosis, showed stronger cytotoxicity and better BBB penetration and cellular uptake than controls. In vivo studies demonstrated superior tumor growth inhibition with HCA-A2 micelles, indicating their potential for GBM treatment.

Natural compounds-based nanomedicines for cancer treatment: Future directions and challenges

Several efforts have been extensively accomplished for the amelioration of the cancer treatments using different types of new drugs and less invasives therapies in comparison with the traditional therapeutic modalities, which are widely associated with numerous drawbacks, such as drug resistance, non-selectivity and high costs, restraining their clinical response. The application of natural compounds for the prevention and treatment of different cancer cells has attracted significant attention from the pharmaceuticals and scientific communities over the past decades. Although the use of nanotechnology in cancer therapy is still in the preliminary stages, the application of nanotherapeutics has demonstrated to decrease the various limitations related to the use of natural compounds, such as physical/chemical instability, poor aqueous solubility, and low bioavailability. Despite the nanotechnology has emerged as a promise to improve the bioavailability of the natural compounds, there are still limited clinical trials performed for their application with various challenges required for the pre-clinical and clinical trials, such as production at an industrial level, assurance of nanotherapeutics long-term stability, physiological barriers and safety and regulatory issues. This review highlights the most recent advances in the nanocarriers for natural compounds secreted from plants, bacteria, fungi, and marine organisms, as well as their role on cell signaling pathways for anticancer treatments. Additionally, the clinical status and the main challenges regarding the natural compounds loaded in nanocarriers for clinical applications were also discussed.

Extracellular vesicles for cancer therapy: potential, progress, and clinical challenges

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play an important role in normal life activities and disease treatment. In recent years, there have been abundant relevant studies focusing on EVs for cancer therapy and showing good performance on tumor inhibition. To enhance the effectiveness of EVs, EV analogs have been developed. This review summarizes the classification, origin, production, purification, modification, drug loading and cancer treatment applications of EVs and their analogs. Also, the characteristics of technologies involved are analyzed, which provides the basis for the development and application of biogenic vesicle-based drug delivery platform for cancer therapy. Meanwhile, challenges in translating these vesicles into clinic, such as limited sources, lack of production standards, and insufficient targeting and effectiveness are discussed. With ongoing exploration and clinical studies, EV-based drugs will make great contributions to cancer therapy.

Hepatoma-Targeting and ROS-Responsive Polymeric Micelle-Based Chemotherapy Combined with Photodynamic Therapy for Hepatoma Treatment

Background

The combination of nanoplatform-based chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising way to treat cancer. Celastrol (Cela) exhibits highly effective anti-hepatoma activity with low water solubility, poor bioavailability, non-tumor targeting, and toxic side effects. The combination of Cela-based chemotherapy and PDT via hepatoma-targeting and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive polymeric micelles (PMs) could solve the application problem of Cela and further enhance antitumor efficacy.

Methods

In this study, Cela and photosensitizer chlorin e6 (Ce6) co-loaded glycyrrhetinic acid-modified carboxymethyl chitosan-thioketal-rhein (GCTR) PMs (Cela/Ce6/GCTR PMs) were prepared and characterized. The safety, ROS-sensitive drug release, and intracellular ROS production were evaluated. Furthermore, the in vitro anti-hepatoma effect and cellular uptaken in HepG2 and BEL-7402 cells, and in vivo pharmacokinetic, tissue distribution, and antitumor efficacy of Cela/Ce6/GCTR PMs in H22 tumor-bearing mice were then investigated.

Results

Cela/Ce6/GCTR PMs were successfully prepared with nanometer-scale particle size, favorable drug loading capacity, and encapsulation efficiency. Cela/Ce6/GCTR PMs exhibited a strong safety profile and better hemocompatibility, exhibiting less damage to normal tissues. Compared with Cela-loaded GCTR PMs, the ROS-responsiveness of Cela/Ce6/GCTR PMs was increased, and the release of Cela was accelerated after combination with PDT. Cela/Ce6/GCTR PMs can efficiently target liver tumor cells by uptake and have a high cell-killing effect in response to ROS. The combination of GCTR PM-based chemotherapy and PDT resulted in increased bioavailability of Cela and Ce6, improved liver tumor targeting, and better anti-hepatoma effects in vivo.

Conclusion

Hepatoma-targeting and ROS-responsive GCTR PMs co-loaded with Cela and Ce6 combined with PDT exhibited improved primary hepatic carcinoma therapeutic effects with lower toxicity to normal tissues, overcoming the limitations of monotherapy and providing new strategies for tumor treatment.

Nanodelivery Optimization of IDO1 Inhibitors in Tumor Immunotherapy: Challenges and Strategies

Tryptophan (Trp) metabolism plays a vital role in cancer immunity. Indoleamine 2.3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1), is a crucial enzyme in the metabolic pathway by which Trp is degraded to kynurenine (Kyn). IDO1-mediated Trp metabolites can inhibit tumor immunity and facilitate immune evasion by cancer cells; thus, targeting IDO1 is a potential tumor immunotherapy strategy. Recently, numerous IDO1 inhibitors have been introduced into clinical trials as immunotherapeutic agents for cancer treatment. However, drawbacks such as low oral bioavailability, slow onset of action, and high toxicity are associated with these drugs. With the continuous development of nanotechnology, medicine is gradually entering an era of precision healthcare. Nanodrugs carried by inorganic, lipid, and polymer nanoparticles (NPs) have shown great potential for tumor therapy, providing new ways to overcome tumor diversity and improve therapeutic efficacy. Compared to traditional drugs, nanomedicines offer numerous significant advantages, including a prolonged half-life, low toxicity, targeted delivery, and responsive release. Moreover, based on the physicochemical properties of these nanomaterials (eg, photothermal, ultrasonic response, and chemocatalytic properties), various combination therapeutic strategies have been developed to synergize the effects of IDO1 inhibitors and enhance their anticancer efficacy. This review is an overview of the mechanism by which the Trp-IDO1-Kyn pathway acts in tumor immune escape. The classification of IDO1 inhibitors, their clinical applications, and barriers for translational development are discussed, the use of IDO1 inhibitor-based nanodrug delivery systems as combination therapy strategies is summarized, and the issues faced in their clinical application are elucidated. We expect that this review will provide guidance for the development of IDO1 inhibitor-based nanoparticle nanomedicines that can overcome the limitations of current treatments, improve the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy, and lead to new breakthroughs in the field of cancer immunotherapy.

Reactive oxygen species driven prodrug-based nanoscale carriers for transformative therapies

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) drive processes in various pathological conditions serving as an attractive target for therapeutic strategies. This review highlights the development and use of ROS-dependent prodrug-based nanoscale carriers that has transformed many biomedical applications. Incorporating prodrugs into nanoscale carriers not only improves their stability and solubility but also enables site-specific drug delivery ultimately enhancing the therapeutic effectiveness of the nanoscale carriers. We critically examine recent advances in ROS-responsive nanoparticulate platforms, encompassing liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and inorganic nanocarriers. These platforms facilitate precise control over drug release upon encountering elevated ROS levels at disease sites, thereby minimizing off-target effects and maximizing therapeutic efficiency. Furthermore, we investigate the potential of combination therapies in which ROS-activated prodrugs are combined with other therapeutic agents and underscore their synergistic potential for treating multifaceted diseases. This comprehensive review highlights the immense potential of ROS-dependent prodrug-based nanoparticulate systems in revolutionizing biomedical applications; such nanoparticulate systems can facilitate selective and controlled drug delivery, reduce toxicity, and improve therapeutic outcomes for ROS-associated diseases.

Targeted delivery of SN38 to breast cancer using amphiphilic diblock copolymers PHPMA-b-PBAEM as micellar carriers with AS1411 aptamer

Breast cancer treatment can be challenging, but a targeted drug delivery system (DDS) has the potential to make it more effective and reduce side effects. This study presents a novel nanotherapeutic targeted DDS developed through the self-assembly of an amphiphilic di-block copolymer to deliver the chemotherapy drug SN38 specifically to breast cancer cells. The vehicle was constructed from the PHPMA-b-PEAMA diblock copolymer synthesized via RAFT polymerization. A single emulsion method was then used to encapsulate SN38 within nanoparticles (NPs) formed from the PHPMA-b-PEAMA copolymer. The AS1411 DNA aptamer was covalently bonded to the surface of the micellar NPs, producing a targeted DDS. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation studies were also performed on the di block polymeric system, demonstrating that SN38 interacted well with the di block. The in vitro results demonstrated that AS1411- decorated SN38-loaded HPMA NPs were highly toxic to breast cancer cells while having a minimal effect on non-cancerous cells. Remarkably, in vivo studies elucidated the ability of the targeted DDS to enhance the antitumor effect of SN38, suppressing tumor growth and improving survival rates compared to free SN38.

High-load nanoparticles with a chemotherapeutic SN-38/FdUMP drug cocktail

[Gd(OH)]2+[(SN-38)0.5(FdUMP)0.5]2- inorganic-organic hybrid nanoparticles (IOH-NPs) with a chemotherapeutic cocktail of ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin (SN-38, active form of irinotecan) and 5-fluoro-2'-deoxyuridine-5'-phosphate (FdUMP, active form of 5'-fluoruracil), 40 nm in size, are prepared in water. The IOH-NPs contain a total drug load of 63 wt% with 33 wt% of SN-38 and 30 wt% of FdUMP. Cell-based assays show efficient cellular uptake and promising anti-tumour activity on two pancreatic cancer cell lines of murine origin (KPC, Panc02). Beside the high-load drug cocktail, especially the option to use SN-38, which - although 100- to 1000-times more potent than irinotecan - is usually unsuitable for systemic administration due to poor solubility, low stability, and high toxicity upon non-selective delivery. The [Gd(OH)]2+[(SN-38)0.5(FdUMP)0.5]2- IOH-NPs are a new concept to deliver a drug cocktail with SN-38 and FdUMP directly to the tumour, shielded in a nanoparticle, to reduce side effects.

Functionalized Polymeric Micelles for Targeted Cancer Therapy: Steps from Conceptualization to Clinical Trials

Cancer is still ranked among the top three causes of death in the 30- to 69-year-old age group in most countries and carries considerable societal and macroeconomic costs that differ depending on the cancer type, geography, and patient gender. Despite advances in several pharmacological approaches, the lack of stability and specificity, dose-related toxicity, and limited bioavailability of chemotherapy (standard therapy) pose major obstacles in cancer treatment, with multidrug resistance being a driving factor in chemotherapy failure. The past three decades have been the stage for intense research activity on the topic of nanomedicine, which has resulted in many nanotherapeutics with reduced toxicity, increased bioavailability, and improved pharmacokinetics and therapeutic efficacy employing smart drug delivery systems (SDDSs). Polymeric micelles (PMs) have become an auspicious DDS for medicinal compounds, being used to encapsulate hydrophobic drugs that also exhibit substantial toxicity. Through preclinical animal testing, PMs improved pharmacokinetic profiles and increased efficacy, resulting in a higher safety profile for therapeutic drugs. This review focuses on PMs that are already in clinical trials, traveling the pathways from preclinical to clinical studies until introduction to the market.

Recent progress in engineered extracellular vesicles and their biomedical applications

AIMS

To present the recent update on the isolation, engineering techniques for extracellular vesicles, limitations associated with different isolation techniques, different biomedical applications, and challenges of engineered extracellular vesicles for the benefit of researchers from academic, industry, etc. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Peer-reviewed articles from most recognized journals were collected, and presented information was analyzed to discuss collection, chemical, electroporation, cellular, and membrane surface engineering to design extracellular vesicles for various therapeutic applications. In addition, we present the applications and limitations of techniques for the collection of extracellular vesicles.

KEY FINDINGS

There is a need for isolation techniques with the gold standard. However, advanced extracellular vesicle isolation techniques showed improved recovery, and purity of extracellular vesicles. Tumor therapy is a major part of the therapy section that illustrates the role of engineered extracellular vesicles in synergetic therapy such as phototherapy, theragnostic, and delivery of genetic materials. In addition, extracellular vesicles have shown their potential in the treatment of retinal disorders, neurodegenerative disease, tuberculosis, osteoporosis, inflammatory bowel disease, vaccine production, and wound healing.

SIGNIFICANCE

Engineered extracellular vesicles can deliver cargo to the specific cells, elicit an immune response and could be used for the development of the vaccines in the future. However, the progress is at the initial stage. Overall, this review will provide a comprehensive understanding and could serve as a reference for researchers in the clinical translation of engineered extracellular vesicles in different biomedical fields.

A tumor targeted nano micelle carrying astragaloside IV for combination treatment of bladder cancer

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are effective agents for tumor immunotherapy. However, their clinical effectiveness is unsatisfactory due to off-target effects and a suppressive immune microenvironment. This study developed a nanodrug delivery system for bladder cancer (BCa) using PCL-MPEG and PCL-PEG-CHO to synthesize internal hydrophobic and external hydrophilic micelles (PP) that encapsulated water-insoluble astragaloside IV (PPA). The aldehyde group on the surface of PPA reacted with the amino group of aPD-L1, allowing the decoration of this antibody on the surface of the micelles. The resultingPPA@aPD-L1effectively piggybacked astragaloside IV and aPD-L1 antibody. These findings suggest that PPA@aPD-L1 is relatively stable in circulation and efficiently binds to BCa cells with the aid of aPD-L1. Additionally, this strategy prolongs the drug's retention time in tumors. Compared to PBS, PP, and PPA with PPA + aPD-L1 groups, PPA@aPD-L1significantly prolonged the survival of mice with BCa and reduced tumor volume. Mechanistic studies showed that PPA inhibited the NF-κB and STAT3 signaling pathways in tumor cells. Additionally, PPA@aPD-L1increased IFN-γ and decreased IL-10 expression in bladder tumors, affecting the number and type of intratumorally infiltrating T cells. Our study presents a simple and effective drug delivery system that combines herbal monomers with ICIs. It has demonstrated a potent ability to suppress tumor growth and holds potential for future applications.

Advanced Application of Polymer Nanocarriers in Delivery of Active Ingredients from Traditional Chinese Medicines

Active ingredients from Traditional Chinese Medicines (TCMs) have been a cornerstone of healthcare for millennia, offering a rich source of bioactive compounds with therapeutic potential. However, the clinical application of TCMs is often limited by challenges such as poor solubility, low bioavailability, and variable pharmacokinetics. To address these issues, the development of advanced polymer nanocarriers has emerged as a promising strategy for the delivery of TCMs. This review focuses on the introduction of common active ingredients from TCMs and the recent advancements in the design and application of polymer nanocarriers for enhancing the efficacy and safety of TCMs. We begin by discussing the unique properties of TCMs and the inherent challenges associated with their delivery. We then delve into the types of polymeric nanocarriers, including polymer micelles, polymer vesicles, polymer hydrogels, and polymer drug conjugates, highlighting their application in the delivery of active ingredients from TCMs. The main body of the review presents a comprehensive analysis of the state-of-the-art nanocarrier systems and introduces the impact of these nanocarriers on the solubility, stability, and bioavailability of TCM components. On the basis of this, we provide an outlook on the future directions of polymer nanocarriers in TCM delivery. This review underscores the transformative potential of polymer nanocarriers in revolutionizing TCM delivery, offering a pathway to harness the full therapeutic potential of TCMs while ensuring safety and efficacy in a modern medical context.

Nanotechnology in medicine revolutionizing drug delivery for cancer and viral infection treatments

Advancements in nanotechnology were vastly applied in medicine and pharmacy, especially in the field of nano-delivery systems. It took a long time for these systems to ensure precise delivery of very delicate molecules, such as RNA, to cells at concentrations that yield remarkable efficiency, with success rates reaching 95.0% and 94.5%. These days, there are several advantages of using nanotechnological solutions in the prevention and treatment of cancer and viral infections. Its interventions improve treatment outcomes both due to increased effectiveness of the drug at target location and by reducing adverse reactions, thereby increasing patient adherence to the therapy. Based on the current knowledge an updated review was made, and perspective, opportunities and challenges in nanomedicine were discussed. The methods employed include comprehensive examination of existing literature and studies on nanoparticles and nano-delivery systems including both in vitro tests performed on cell cultures and in vivo assessments carried out on appropriate animal models, with a specific emphasis on their applications in oncology and virology. This brings together various aspects including both structure and formation as well as its association with characteristic behaviour in organisms, providing a novel perspective. Furthermore, the practical application of these systems in medicine and pharmacy with a focus on viral diseases and malignancies was explored. This review can serve as a valuable guide for fellow researchers, helping them navigate the abundance of findings in this field. The results indicate that applications of nanotechnological solutions for the delivery of medicinal products improving therapeutic outcomes will continue to expand.

Prospectives and challenges of nano-tailored biomaterials-assisted biological molecules delivery for tissue engineering purposes

Nano carriers have gained more attention for their possible medical and technological applications. Tailored nanomaterials can transport medications efficiently to targeted areas and allow for sustained medication discharge, reducing undesirable toxicities while boosting curative effectiveness. Nonetheless, transitioning nanomedicines from experimental to therapeutic applications has proven difficult, so different pharmaceutical incorporation approaches in nano scaffolds are discussed. Then numerous types of nanobiomaterials implemented as carriers and their manufacturing techniques are explored. This article is also supported by various applications of nanobiomaterials in the biomedical field.

Prodrug-inspired adenosine triphosphate-activatable celastrol-Fe(III) chelate for cancer therapy

Celastrol (CEL), an active compound isolated from the root of Tripterygium wilfordii, exhibits broad anticancer activities. However, its poor stability, narrow therapeutic window and numerous adverse effects limit its applications in vivo. In this study, an adenosine triphosphate (ATP) activatable CEL-Fe(III) chelate was designed, synthesized, and then encapsulated with a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive polymer to obtain CEL-Fe nanoparticles (CEL-Fe NPs). In normal tissues, CEL-Fe NPs maintain structural stability and exhibit reduced systemic toxicity, while at the tumor site, an ATP-ROS-rich tumor microenvironment, drug release is triggered by ROS, and antitumor potency is restored by competitive binding of ATP. This intelligent CEL delivery system improves the biosafety and bioavailability of CEL for cancer therapy. Such a CEL-metal chelate strategy not only mitigates the challenges associated with CEL but also opens avenues for the generation of CEL derivatives, thereby expanding the therapeutic potential of CEL in clinical settings.

Nanoparticle-mediated metronomic chemotherapy in cancer: A paradigm of precision and persistence

Current methods of cancer therapy have demonstrated enormous potential in tumor inhibition. However, a high dosage regimen of chemotherapy results in various complications which affect the normal body cells. Tumor cells also develop resistance against the prescribed drugs in the whole treatment regimen increasing the risk of cancer relapse. Metronomic chemotherapy is a modern treatment method that involves administering drugs at low doses continuously, allowing the drug sufficient time to take its effect. This method ensures that the toxicity of the drugs is to a minimum in comparison to conventional chemotherapy. Nanoparticles have shown efficacy in delivering drugs to the tumor cells in various cancer therapies. Combining nanoparticles with metronomic chemotherapy can yield better treatment results. This combination stimulates the immune system, improving cancer cells recognition by immune cells. Evidence from clinical and pre-clinical trials supports the use of metronomic delivery for drug-loaded nanoparticles. This review focuses on the functionalization of nanoparticles for improved drug delivery and inhibition of tumor growth. It emphasizes the mechanisms of metronomic chemotherapy and its conjunction with nanotechnology. Additionally, it explores tumor progression and the current methods of chemotherapy. The challenges associated with nano-based metronomic chemotherapy are outlined, paving the way for prospects in this dynamic field.

In vivo Fate of Targeted Drug Delivery Carriers

This review aimed to systematically investigate the intracellular and subcellular fate of various types of targeting carriers. Upon entering the body via intravenous injection or other routes, a targeting carrier that can deliver therapeutic agents initiates their journey. If administered intravenously, the carrier initially faces challenges presented by the blood circulation before reaching specific tissues and interacting with cells within the tissue. At the subcellular level, the car2rier undergoes processes, such as drug release, degradation, and metabolism, through specific pathways. While studies on the fate of 13 types of carriers have been relatively conclusive, these studies are incomplete and lack a comprehensive analysis. Furthermore, there are still carriers whose fate remains unclear, underscoring the need for continuous research. This study highlights the importance of comprehending the in vivo and intracellular fate of targeting carriers and provides valuable insights into the operational mechanisms of different carriers within the body. By doing so, researchers can effectively select appropriate carriers and enhance the successful clinical translation of new formulations.

Boron Neutron Capture Therapy Enhanced by Boronate Ester Polymer Micelles: Synthesis, Stability, and Tumor Inhibition Studies

Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) targets invasive, radioresistant cancers but requires a selective and high B-10 loading boron drug. This manuscript investigates boron-rich poly(ethylene glycol)-block-(poly(4-vinylphenyl boronate ester)) polymer micelles synthesized via atom transfer radical polymerization for their potential application in BNCT. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed spherical micelles with a uniform size of 43 ± 10 nm, ideal for drug delivery. Additionally, probe sonication proved effective in maintaining the micelles' size and morphology postlyophilization and reconstitution. In vitro studies with B16-F10 melanoma cells demonstrated a 38-fold increase in boron accumulation compared to the borophenylalanine drug for BNCT. In vivo studies in a B16-F10 tumor-bearing mouse model confirmed enhanced tumor selectivity and accumulation, with a tumor-to-blood (T/B) ratio of 2.5, surpassing BPA's T/B ratio of 1.8. As a result, mice treated with these micelles experienced a significant delay in tumor growth, highlighting their potential for BNCT and warranting further research.

Synthesis of PEGylated amphiphilic block copolymers with pendant linoleic moieties by combining ring-opening polymerization and click chemistry

This study focused on synthesizing and characterizing PEGylated amphiphilic block copolymers with pendant linoleic acid (Lin) moieties as an alternative to enhance their potential in drug delivery applications. The synthesis involved a two-step process, starting with ring-opening polymerization of ε-caprolactone (CL) and propargylated cyclic carbonate (MCP) to obtain PEG-b-P(CL-co-MCP) copolymers, which were subsequently modified via click chemistry. Various reaction conditions were explored to improve the yield and efficiency of the click chemistry step. The use of anisole as a solvent, N-(3-azidopropyl)linoleamide as a substrate, and a reaction temperature of 60°C proved to be highly efficient, achieving nearly 100% conversion at a low catalyst concentration. The resulting copolymers exhibited controlled molecular weights and low polydispersity, confirming the successful synthesis. Furthermore, click chemistry allows for the attachment of Lin moieties to the copolymer, enhancing its hydrophobic character, as deduced from their significantly lower critical micelle concentration than that of traditional PEG-b-PCL systems, which is indicative of enhanced stability against dilution. The modified copolymers exhibited improved thermal stability, making them suitable for applications that require high processing temperatures. Dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy confirmed the formation of micellar structures with sizes below 100 nm and minimal aggregate formation. Additionally, 1H NMR spectroscopy in deuterated water revealed the presence of core-shell micelles, which provided higher kinetic stability against dilution.

Hybrid Microneedle-Mediated Transdermal Delivery of Atorvastatin Calcium-Loaded Polymeric Micelles for Hyperlipidemia Therapy

Hyperlipidemia has been a huge challenge to global health, leading to the cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and diabetes. Atorvastatin calcium (AC), a widely prescribed drug for hyperlipidemia, faces huge challenges with oral administration due to poor water solubility and hepatic first-pass effects, resulting in low therapeutic efficacy. In this work, we designed and developed a hybrid microneedle (MN) patch system constructed with soluble poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and AC-loaded polymeric micelles (AC@PMs) for transdermal delivery of AC to enhance the hyperlipidemia therapy. We first prepared various AC@PM formulations self-assembled from mPEG-PLA and mPEG-PLA-PEG block copolymers using a dialysis method and evaluated the physicochemical properties in combination with experiment skills and dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) simulations. Then, we encapsulated the AC@PMs into the PVA MN patch using a micromold filling method, followed by characterizing the performances, especially the structural stability, mechanical performance, and biosafety. After conducting in vivo experiments using a hyperlipidemic rat model, our findings revealed that the hybrid microneedle-mediated administration exhibited superior therapeutic efficacy when compared to oral delivery methods. In summary, we have successfully developed a hybrid microneedle (MN) patch system that holds promising potential for the efficient transdermal delivery of hydrophobic drugs.

Trastuzumab-functionalized bionic pyrotinib liposomes for targeted therapy of HER2-positive breast cancer

In this study, we prepared a bionic nanosystem of trastuzumab-functionalized SK-BR-3 cell membrane hybrid liposome-coated pyrotinib (Ptb-M-Lip-Her) for the treatment of HER2-positive breast cancer. Transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and western blotting were used to verify the successful preparation of Ptb-M-Lip-Her. In vitro drug release experiments proved that Ptb-M-Lip-Her had a sustained release effect. Cell uptake experiments and in vivo imaging experiments proved that Ptb-M-Lip-Her had good targeting ability to homologous tumor cells (SK-BR-3). The results of cell experiments such as MTT, flow cytometry, immunofluorescence staining and in vivo antitumor experiments showed that Ptb-M-Lip-Her could significantly promote apoptosis and inhibit the proliferation of SK-BR-3 cells. These results clearly indicated that Ptb-M-Lip-Her may be a promising biomimetic nanosystem for targeted therapy of HER2-positive breast cancer.

Leveraging high-throughput screening technologies in targeted mRNA delivery

Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) has emerged as a promising molecular preventive and therapeutic approach that opens new avenues for healthcare. Although the use of delivery systems, especially lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), greatly improves the efficiency and stability of mRNA, mRNA tends to accumulate in the liver and hardly penetrates physiological barriers to reach the target site after intravenous injection. Hence, the rational design of targeting strategies aimed at directing mRNA to specific tissues and cells remains an enormous challenge in mRNA therapy. High-throughput screening (HTS) is a cutting-edge targeted technique capable of synthesizing chemical compound libraries for the large-scale experiments to validate the efficiency of mRNA delivery system. In this review, we firstly provide an overview of conventional low-throughput targeting strategies. Then the latest advancements in HTS techniques for mRNA targeted delivery, encompassing optimizing structures of large-scale delivery vehicles and developing large-scale surface ligands, as well as the applications of HTS techniques in extrahepatic systemic diseases are comprehensively summarized. Moreover, we illustrate the selection of administration routes for targeted mRNA delivery. Finally, challenges in the field and potential solutions to tackle them are proposed, offering insights for future development toward mRNA targeted therapy.

Engineering customized nanovaccines for enhanced cancer immunotherapy

Nanovaccines have gathered significant attention for their potential to elicit tumor-specific immunological responses. Despite notable progress in tumor immunotherapy, nanovaccines still encounter considerable challenges such as low delivery efficiency, limited targeting ability, and suboptimal efficacy. With an aim of addressing these issues, engineering customized nanovaccines through modification or functionalization has emerged as a promising approach. These tailored nanovaccines not only enhance antigen presentation, but also effectively modulate immunosuppression within the tumor microenvironment. Specifically, they are distinguished by their diverse sizes, shapes, charges, structures, and unique physicochemical properties, along with targeting ligands. These features of nanovaccines facilitate lymph node accumulation and activation/regulation of immune cells. This overview of bespoke nanovaccines underscores their potential in both prophylactic and therapeutic applications, offering insights into their future development and role in cancer immunotherapy.

Old drug, new tricks: polymer-based nanoscale systems for effective cytarabine delivery

Cytarabine, an antimetabolite antineoplastic agent, has been utilized to treat various cancers. However, because of its short half-life, low stability, and limited bioavailability, achieving an optimal plasma concentration requires continuous intravenous administration, which can lead to toxicity in normal cells and tissues. Addressing these limitations is crucial to optimize the therapeutic efficacy of cytarabine while minimizing its adverse effects. The use of novel drug delivery systems, such as polymer-based nanocarriers have emerged as promising vehicles for targeted drug delivery due to their unique properties, including high stability, biocompatibility, and tunable release kinetics. In this review, we examine the application of various polymer-based nanocarriers, including polymeric nanoparticles, polymeric micelles, dendrimers, polymer-drug conjugates, and nano-hydrogels, for the delivery of cytarabine. The article highlights the limitations of conventional cytarabine administration which often lead to suboptimal therapeutic outcomes and systemic toxicity. The rationale for using polymer-based nanocarriers is discussed, highlighting their ability to overcome challenges by providing controlled drug release, improved stability, and enhanced targeting capabilities. In summary, this review offers a valuable resource for drug delivery scientists by providing insights into the design principles, formulation strategies, and potential applications of polymer-based nanocarriers that can enhance the therapeutic efficacy of cytarabine.

Enhanced drug resistance suppression by serum-stable micelles from multi-arm amphiphilic block copolymers and tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate

Aim: To develop a robust drug-delivery system using multi-arm amphiphilic block copolymers for enhanced efficacy in cancer therapy. Materials & methods: Two series of amphiphilic polymer micelles, PEG-b-PCLm and PEG-b-PCLm/TPGS, were synthesized. Doxorubicin (DOX) loading into the micelles was achieved via solvent dialysis. Results: The micelles displayed excellent biocompatibility, narrow size distribution, and uniform morphology. DOX-loaded micelles exhibited enhanced antitumor efficacy and increased drug accumulation at tumor sites compared with free DOX. Additionally, 4A-PEG47-b-PCL21/TPGS micelles effectively suppressed drug-resistant MCF-7/ADR cells. Conclusion: This study introduces a novel micelle formulation with exceptional serum stability and efficacy against drug resistance, promising for cancer therapy. It highlights innovative strategies for refining clinical translation and ensuring sustained efficacy and safety in vivo.

Tailoring micellar nanocarriers for pemetrexed in breast cancer: design, fabrication and in vitro evaluation

Aim: To investigate the pemetrexed encapsulated polymeric mixed micelles (PMMs) against breast cancer treatment.Methods: We meticulously optimized the formulation and conducted extensive characterizations, including photon correlation spectroscopy for micellization, advanced analytical techniques and in vitro cell line assessments.Results: The PMM exhibited favorable characteristics, with a spherical morphology, hydrodynamic particle size of 19.58 ± 0.89 nm, polydispersity index of 0.245 ± 0.1, and a surface charge of -9.70 ± 0.61 mV. Encapsulation efficiency and drug payload reached 96.16 ± 0.37% and 4.5 ± 0.32%, respectively. Cytotoxicity analysis indicated superior efficacy of the PMM over the drug solution.Conclusion: The PMM formulation exhibited controlled release of the drug, and demonstrated enhanced cytotoxicity against breast cancer cells, highlighting its therapeutic promise.