Polymeric micelles in cancer therapy: State of the art

Mechanism of action of genistein on breast cancer and differential effects of different age stages

CONTEXT

Genistein, a soy-derived isoflavone, exhibits structural similarities with 17β-estradiol and demonstrates antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and estrogenic properties. Despite its low bioavailability limiting its clinical application, it shows potential for breast cancer prevention and treatment.

OBJECTIVE

This review aims to summarize the pharmacological effects and molecular mechanisms of genistein in breast cancer, focusing on its therapeutic potential, strategies to overcome bioavailability limitations, and its role in personalized medicine. Differential impacts among population subgroups are also discussed.

METHODS

A systematic review was conducted using PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar databases. Studies were selected based on their focus on genistein's mechanisms of action, strategies to enhance its bioavailability, and interactions with other therapies.

RESULTS

Genistein exerted anticancer effects by modulating estrogen receptor β (ERβ), inhibiting angiogenesis, arresting the cell cycle, and inducing apoptosis. Its antioxidant properties help mitigate tumor-associated oxidative stress. Bioavailability enhancement strategies, such as nanoparticle and lipid-based formulations, show promise. Age-dependent effects were evident, with distinct responses observed in prepubertal, menopausal, and postmenopausal populations, underscoring its potential for personalized therapies. Furthermore, genistein influences epigenetic modifications, including DNA methylation and miRNA expression, bolstering its anticancer efficacy.

CONCLUSION

Genistein is a promising candidate for breast cancer therapy, particularly for personalized treatment. Strategies to enhance bioavailability and further clinical research are essential to optimize its therapeutic potential and evaluate its efficacy in combination therapies.

Polymeric Nanosystems: A Breakthrough Approach to Treating Inflammation and Inflammation Related Diseases

Inflammation processes can cause mild to severe damage in the human body and can lead to a large number of inflammation-related diseases (IRD) such as cancer, neural, vascular, and pulmonary diseases. Limitations of anti-inflammatory drugs (AID) application are reflected in high therapeutic doses, toxicity, low bioavailability and solubility, side effects, etc. Polymeric nanosystems (PS) have been recognized as a safe and effective technology that is able to overcome these limitations by AID encapsulation and is able to answer to the specific demands of the IRD treatment. PS are attracting great attention due to their versatility, biocompatibility, low toxicity, fine-tuned properties, functionality, and ability for precise delivery of anti-inflammatory drugs to the targeted sites in the human body. This article offers an overview of three classes of polymeric nanosystems: a) dendrimers, b) polymeric micelles and polymeric nanoparticles, and c) polymeric filomicelles, as well as their properties, preparation, and application in IRD treatment. In the future, the number of PS formulations in clinical practice will certainly increase.

Sulfone-Modulated Aqueous Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly: Tailoring Adaptive Nanostructures via Competing Supramolecular Interactions

The integration of supramolecular chemistry with polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA) offers a promising avenue to advance the design and functionality of nanomaterials. Here, we elucidate the role of sulfone bonding in aqueous block copolymer (BCP) self-assembly by evaluating the aqueous PISA behaviors of sulfone-functionalized BCPs and the stimuli-responsive properties of the resulting assemblies. A series of 2-(alkylsulfonyl)ethyl acrylamides were designed for aqueous PISA, in which the sulfone moiety not only enhances monomer water solubility but also stabilizes polymer assemblies through sulfone bonding. Systematic variation of the alkyl tail revealed distinct PISA behaviors, where shorter tails favored sulfone-bond-dominated assembly, while longer tails introduced competitive hydrophobic interactions. This interplay between sulfone bonding and hydrophobicity enabled the fabrication of polymer assemblies with programmable ion-responsive morphology transitions. Our findings provide fundamental insights into the role of supramolecular interactions in PISA and establish a versatile strategy for engineering adaptive nanomaterials.

Cancer chemoprevention: signaling pathways and strategic approaches

Although cancer chemopreventive agents have been confirmed to effectively protect high-risk populations from cancer invasion or recurrence, only over ten drugs have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Therefore, screening potent cancer chemopreventive agents is crucial to reduce the constantly increasing incidence and mortality rate of cancer. Considering the lengthy prevention process, an ideal chemopreventive agent should be nontoxic, inexpensive, and oral. Natural compounds have become a natural treasure reservoir for cancer chemoprevention because of their superior ease of availability, cost-effectiveness, and safety. The benefits of natural compounds as chemopreventive agents in cancer prevention have been confirmed in various studies. In light of this, the present review is intended to fully delineate the entire scope of cancer chemoprevention, and primarily focuses on various aspects of cancer chemoprevention based on natural compounds, specifically focusing on the mechanism of action of natural compounds in cancer prevention, and discussing in detail how they exert cancer prevention effects by affecting classical signaling pathways, immune checkpoints, and gut microbiome. We also introduce novel cancer chemoprevention strategies and summarize the role of natural compounds in improving chemotherapy regimens. Furthermore, we describe strategies for discovering anticancer compounds with low abundance and high activity, revealing the broad prospects of natural compounds in drug discovery for cancer chemoprevention. Moreover, we associate cancer chemoprevention with precision medicine, and discuss the challenges encountered in cancer chemoprevention. Finally, we emphasize the transformative potential of natural compounds in advancing the field of cancer chemoprevention and their ability to introduce more effective and less toxic preventive options for oncology.

Retrospective perspectives and future trends in nanomedicine treatment: from single membranes to hybrid membranes

At present, various diseases seriously threaten human life and health, and the development of nanodrug delivery systems has brought about a turnaround for traditional drug treatments, with nanoparticles being precisely targeted to improve bioavailability. Surface modification of nanoparticles can prolong blood circulation time and enhance targeting ability. The application of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles further improves their biocompatibility and active targeting ability, providing new hope for the treatment of various diseases. Various types of cell membrane biomimetic nanoparticles have gradually attracted increasing attention due to their unique advantages. However, the pathological microenvironment of different diseases is complex and varied, and the single-cell membrane has several limitations because a single functional property cannot fully meet the requirements of disease treatment. Hybrid cell membranes integrate the advantages of multiple biological membranes and have become an emerging research hotspot. This review summarizes the application of cell membrane biomimetic nanoparticles in the treatment of various diseases and discusses the advantages, challenges and future development of biomimetic nanoparticles. We propose that the fusion of multiple membranes may be a reasonable trend in the future to provide some ideas and directions for the treatment of various diseases.

Topoisomerase II-targeting anticancer clinical candidates and drugs: A critical analysis, unravelling molecular medicinal insights and promising research roadmap

In recent years, the USFDA-approved drug molecules are being frequently analyzed to provide perspectives and strategies for novel therapeutic discovery and development. Some of the remarkable analyses include physicochemical properties of drugs relevant to oral bioavailability, frequent presence of drug relevant-structural motifs, natural products as sources of new drugs, and synthetic approaches to new drugs. In this review article, for the first time, we present a structure-function analysis of human topoisomerase II (hTopo II) inhibitors those are currently clinically used or under clinical trials for anticancer treatment. The case studies and a critical molecular medicinal insight for their therapeutic development have been presented. The review illustrates various key aspects: the hTopo II inhibitors' molecular modulations, common pharmacophores, interactions at molecular level crucial for inhibition of enzyme at its various stages of catalytic function, and network polypharmacology of Topo II with different targets. Numerous toxicophore motifs have been identified, which provide important alerts while designing and discovering novel therapeutic agents. A range of innovative approaches including property-focused strategies, ADCs, and Click Activated Protodrugs Against Cancer (CAPAC) that have addressed challenges faced in the hTopo II-based therapeutic development have been discussed. The analysis with perspectives represents a valuable educational and research resource that will encourage hTopo II-inhibition and its network polypharmacology based drug discovery studies.

Drug delivery for platinum therapeutics

Cancer remains a severe threat to human health. Platinum drugs, such as cisplatin (CDDP), oxaliplatin, and carboplatin, are extensively utilized for treating various cancers and have become the primary drugs in first-line treatments for numerous solid tumors due to their effective anticancer properties. However, their side effects, including drug resistance, nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity, limit the clinical application. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop targeted delivery and controlled release systems for platinum drugs to address the disadvantages, enhancing tumor accumulation and improving therapeutic effects. In this review, we first review the progress of platinum drugs, their anticancer mechanism, clinical applications and limitations. Then, we comprehensively summarize the platinum-based delivery using drug carriers and responsive strategies. We especially highlight the platinum-delivery formulations in ongoing clinical trials. Finally, we provide perspectives for this field. The review could provide an increasingly in-depth understanding of platinum therapeutics and motivate increasing delivery tactics to overcome the limitations of platinum application.

Crystallization of supersaturated PEG-b-PLA for the production of drug-loaded polymeric micelles

In this study, we propose the "crystallization from supersaturated solution" method for producing drug-loaded polymeric micelles. This method involves the formation of solid drug-encapsulating crystals of a diblock copolymer through isothermal crystallization from a supersaturated solution of the copolymer in low molecular weight PEGs containing the drug, followed by dissolution of the crystals to obtain drug-loaded micelles. We fabricated and characterized micelles loaded with several model drugs (paclitaxel, rapamycin, and docetaxel) and their oligo(lactic acid)8-prodrugs using PEG4kDa-b-PLA2.2kDa as the micelle-forming copolymer and PEGs of varying molecular weights (200, 400, and 600 Da) as solvents. Our findings indicate that the molecular weight of the solvent PEG and the target drug loading significantly influence the physicochemical properties of the resulting micelles, including loading efficiency and particle size distribution. Micelles produced with PEG200 as the solvent exhibited the highest loading efficiency, followed by those made with PEG600 and PEG400 for all the drugs and prodrugs tested. Increasing the target drug loading enhanced both the loading efficiency and average particle size across all formulations. Furthermore, prodrug-loaded micelles showed higher loading efficiency and improved stability in aqueous solutions compared to their parent drug counterparts. Crystals encapsulating both parent drugs and prodrugs could be stored at room temperature for extended periods, producing micelles with no significant differences in loading efficiency and particle size distribution compared to freshly prepared micelles. Additionally, the crystals demonstrated a rapid dissolution rate, forming uniform micelles after just 5 s of hydration and agitation. Cytotoxicity studies against 4 T1 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines revealed that the molecular weight of the PEG used as the solvent impacts the cytotoxicity of the resulting micelles, with those produced using PEG200 displaying the highest cytotoxicity, followed by PEG400 and PEG600. Overall, the crystallization from supersaturated solution method proves to be an effective platform for prolonged storage and rapid formation of stable, drug-loaded polymeric micelles. It has the potential to eliminate the need for freeze-drying in the formulation and storage of drug-loaded polymeric micelles. These findings highlight the method's potential for advancing drug delivery systems, particularly for the solubilization of hydrophobic drugs using micellar formulations.

Comprehensive insights into pancreatic cancer treatment approaches and cutting-edge nanocarrier solutions: from pathology to nanomedicine

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most lethal malignancies worldwide. It is characterized by poor prognosis, high mortality, and recurrence rates. Various modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors are associated with pancreatic cancer incidence. Available treatments for pancreatic cancer include surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, photodynamic therapy, supportive care, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy. However, the survival rates for PC are very low. Regrettably, despite efforts to enhance prognosis, the survival rate of pancreatic cancer remains relatively low. Therefore, it is essential to investigate new approaches to improve pancreatic cancer treatment. By synthesizing current knowledge and identifying existing gaps, this article provides a comprehensive overview of risk factors, pathology, conventional treatments, targeted therapies, and recent advancements in nanocarriers for its treatment, along with various clinical trials and patents that justify the safety and efficacy of innovative carriers for drug delivery systems. Ultimately, this review underscores the potential of these innovative formulations to improve outcomes and contribute significantly to the advancement of Pancreatic Cancer treatment. Together, these insights highlight nano-formulations as a promising frontier for effectively treating Pancreatic Cancer.

Bioactivity and biomedical applications of pomegranate peel extract: a comprehensive review

Pomegranate peel is a by-product generated during the processing of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) fruit, accounting for approximately 50% of the total mass of the fruit. Although pomegranate peel is usually regarded as waste, it is rich in various bioactive metabolites such as polyphenols, tannins, and flavonoids, demonstrating significant medicinal and nutritional value. In recent years, Pomegranate peel extract (PPE) has shown broad application prospects in the biomedical field due to its multiple effects, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-apoptotic properties, and promotion of cell regeneration. This review consolidates the major bioactive metabolites of PPE and explores its applications in biomedical materials, including nanodrug carriers, hydrogels, and tissue engineering scaffolds. By synthesizing the existing literature, we delve into the potential value of PPE in biomedicine, the challenges currently encountered, and the future directions for research. The aim of this review is to provide a scientific basis for optimizing the utilization of PPE and to facilitate its broader application in the biomedical field.

Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor Lenvatinib Based Nano Formulations and Cutting-Edge Scale-Up Technologies in revolutionizing Cancer Therapy

Lenvatinib (LEN), a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, has emerged as a promising therapeutic agent for various solid tumors. Nevertheless, a number of constraints, including diminished bioavailability, incapacity to elicit localized inflammation, and inability to selectively accumulate at the tumor site, may impede the comprehensive exploitation of its versatile tyrosine kinase inhibitory capabilities. In order to achieve targeted delivery of LEN while also reducing its high dose used in conventional therapeutics, nanoformulation approaches can be adopted. The integration of LEN into various nanoformulations, such as nanoparticles, nanocrystals, high density lipoproteins (HDLs), liposomes, and micelles, is discussed, highlighting the advantages of these innovative approaches in a comparative manner; however, given that the current methods of nanoformulation synthesis employ toxic organic solvents and chemicals, there is an imperative need for exploring alternative, environmentally friendly approaches. The multifaceted effects of nanocarriers have rendered them profoundly applicable within the biomedical domain, serving as instrumental entities in various capacities such as vehicles for drug delivery and genetic material, diagnostic agents, facilitators of photothermal therapy, and radiotherapy. However, the scalability of these nanotechnological methodologies must be rigorously investigated and addressed to refine drug delivery mechanisms. This endeavor offers promising prospects for revolutionizing strategies in cancer therapeutics, thereby laying the foundation for future research in scale-up techniques in the pursuit of more effective and less toxic therapies for cancer.

Tailoring the Composition of HA/PEG Mixed Nano-Assemblies for Anticancer Drug Delivery

Self-assembling amphiphilic polymers represent highly promising materials with emerging applications across various fields. In these polymers, the presence of hydrophilic and hydrophobic segments within their structure drives the self-assembly process in aqueous environments, leading to organized structures capable of incorporating lipophilic drugs. Their high chemical versatility enables the design of tailored structures to meet specific requirements, such as the active targeting ability, thereby broadening their potential applications. In this work, a polyethylene glycol-phospholipid conjugate was employed to form nanocarriers loaded with a lipophilic derivative of gemcitabine. To achieve nano-assemblies actively targeted towards cancer cells overexpressing the hyaluronic acid (HA) receptor CD44, a HA-phospholipid conjugate was co-formulated in various molar ratios (1%, 10%, and 20%). All formulations exhibited a mean diameter below 130 nm, a negative zeta potential (approximately -30 mV), and a high encapsulation efficiency (above 90%). These nano-assemblies demonstrated stability during storage and effectively released the encapsulated drug in a cell culture medium. Upon incubation with cancer cells, the nano-assemblies were internalized via a CD44 endocytosis-mediated mechanism, with the extent of internalization depending on the HA conjugate content. Consistently, cell viability studies revealed that the nanocarriers decorated with higher amounts of HA exerted a higher cytotoxicity, enabling a fine tuning of the nano-assembly properties.

Redefining hepatocellular carcinoma treatment: nanotechnology meets tumor immune microenvironment

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most lethal malignancies worldwide, characterised by its complex pathogenesis and poor therapeutic outcomes. Despite recent advances in targeted molecular therapies, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), radiotherapy and conventional chemotherapy, the 5-year survival rate for this neoplasm remains dismally low. The progress in nanotechnology has revolutionised cancer treatment in recent years. These advances provide unprecedented opportunities to overcome the current limitations of different therapeutic modalities. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of how nanotechnology interfaces with the tumour immune microenvironment (TIME) in HCC and can present a new frontier in therapeutic interventions for HCC. We critically overview the latest developments in nanoparticle-based delivery systems for various drugs and also other antitumor agents like thermal therapy and radiotherapy. We also highlight the unique ability of nanoparticles to modulate the immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment (TME) and enhance therapeutic efficacy. Furthermore, we analyse emerging strategies that exploit nanoformulations to overcome biological barriers and enhance drug bioavailability in HCC treatment.

Aliphatic polycarbonates with acid degradable ketal side groups as multi-pH-responsive immunodrug nanocarriers

Pharmacokinetics and biodistribution profiles of active substances are crucial aspects for their safe and successful administration. Since many immunogenic compounds do not meet all requirements for safe and effective administration, well-defined drug nanocarrier systems are necessary with a stimuli-responsive drug-release profile. For this purpose, a novel pH-responsive aliphatic cyclic carbonate is introduced with benzyl ketal side chains and polymerized onto a poly(ethylene glycol) macroinitiator. The resulting block copolymers could be formulated via a solvent-evaporation method into well-defined polymeric micelles. The hydrophobic carbonate block was equipped with an acid degradable ketal side group that served as an acid-responsive functional group. Already subtle pH alternations led to micelle disassembly and the release of the active cargo. Furthermore, basic carbonate backbone degradation assured the pH responsiveness of the nanocarriers in both acidic and basic conditions. To investigate the delivery capacity of polymeric micelles, the model small molecule compound CL075, which serves as an immunotherapeutic TLR7/8 agonist, was encapsulated. Incubation studies with human blood plasma revealed the absence of undesirable protein adsorption on the drug-loaded nanoparticles. Furthermore, in vitro applications confirmed cell uptake of the nanodrug formulations by macrophages and the induction of payload-mediated immune stimulation. Altogether, these results underline the huge potential of the developed multi-pH-responsive polymeric nanocarrier for immunodrug delivery.

Multifunctional Zwitterionic N-Oxide Polymers to Overcome Cascade Physiological Barriers for Efficient Anticancer Drug Delivery

For efficient anticancer drug delivery, cascade physiological barriers must be overcome, which requires the drug delivery vehicles to possess different or even opposite properties at different stages. Poly(tertiary amine-oxide) (PTAO) polymers with the zwitterionic feature have distinct antifouling properties in blood circulation, which can be reduced and protonated in hypoxic tumors to promote cellular internalization. Nevertheless, the effects of various PTAO structures have not been studied systemically and optimized. In this report, the side groups of PTAO are proposed to be optimized by modulating the structures. Poly(2-(N-oxide-hexamethyleneimino)ethyl methacrylate) (POC7A) with a cyclic seven-membered ring is screened as the optimized PTAO structure for in vivo applications. Moreover, the block copolymer POC7A-block-poly(ε-caprolactone) (POC7A-PCL) is prepared for the formation of micelles in aqueous solution for delivery of doxorubicin (DOX). The zwitterionic nature of POC7A shells with efficient bioreductive activity and protonation in the tumor microenvironment endows the micelles with excellent antifouling properties for long blood circulation, efficient tumor accumulation, deep penetration, and effective cellular internalization. Thus, the DOX-loaded micelles exhibit potent antitumor efficacy after intravenous administration. Zwitterionic POC7A can be used as antifouling shells of the anticancer drug delivery nanocarriers to overcome the cascade physiological barriers efficiently.

Machine Learning-Driven Prediction, Preparation, and Evaluation of Functional Nanomedicines Via Drug-Drug Self-Assembly

Small molecules as nanomedicine carriers offer advantages in drug loading and preparation. Selecting effective small molecules for stable nanomedicines is challenging. This study used artificial intelligence (AI) to screen drug combinations for self-assembling nanomedicines, employing physiochemical parameters to predict formation via machine learning. Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) are identified as effective carriers for antineoplastic drugs, with high drug loading. Nanomedicines, PEG-coated indomethacin/paclitaxel nanomedicine (PiPTX), and laminarin-modified indomethacin/paclitaxel nanomedicine (LiDOX), are developed with extended circulation and active targeting functions. Indomethacin/paclitaxel nanomedicine iDOX exhibits pH-responsive drug release in the tumor microenvironment. These nanomedicines enhance anti-tumor effects and reduce side effects, offering a rapid approach to clinical nanomedicine development.

A comprehensive insight of innovations and recent advancements in nanocarriers for nose-to-brain drug targeting

Central Nervous System (CNS) disorders are the leading cause of illness and affect the everyday lives of people all around the globe and are predicted to increase tremendously in the upcoming decades. Traditional methods of delivering drugs to the CNS face considerable limitations. Nose-to-brain targeting offers a promising alternative that bypasses the blood-brain barrier (BBB), enabling targeted drug administration to the central nervous system (CNS). Nanotechnology has brought forward innovative solutions to the challenges of drug delivery in CNS disorders. Nanocarriers such as liposomes, nanoparticles, nanoemulsions and dendrimers can enhance drug stability, bioavailability, and targeted delivery to the brain. These nanocarriers are designed to overcome physiological barriers and provide controlled and sustained drug release directly to the CNS. Nanocarrier technology has made significant strides in recent years, enabling more effective and targeted delivery of drugs to the brain. With recent advancements, intranasal delivery coupled with nanocarriers seems to be a promising combination that can provide better clinical profiles, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics for neurodegenerative disorders. This study focuses on exploring the nose-to-brain drug delivery system, emphasizing the use of various nanocarriers designed for this purpose. Additionally, the study encompasses recent advancements in nanocarrier technology tailored specifically to improve the efficiency of drug administration through the nasal route to the brain.

Recent development of micro-nano carriers for oral antineoplastic drug delivery

Chemotherapy is widely recognized as a highly efficacious modality for cancer treatment, involving the administration of chemotherapeutic agents to target and eradicate tumor cells. Currently, oral administration stands as the prevailing and widely utilized method of delivering chemotherapy drugs. However, the majority of anti-tumor medications exhibit limited solubility and permeability, and poor stability in harsh gastrointestinal environments, thereby impeding their therapeutic efficacy for chemotherapy. Therefore, more and more micro-nano drug delivery carriers have been developed and used to effectively deliver anti-cancer drugs, which can overcome physiological barriers, facilitate oral administration, and ultimately improve drug efficacy. In this paper, we first discuss the effects of various biological barriers on micro-nano drug carriers and oral administration approach. Then, the development of micro-nano drug carriers based on various biomedical components, such as micelles, dendrimers, hydrogels, liposomes, inorganic nanoparticles, etc. were introduced. Finally, the current dilemma and the potential of oral drug delivery for clinical treatment were discussed. The primary objective of this review is to introduce various oral delivery methods and serve as a point of reference for the advancement of novel oral delivery carriers, with the ultimate goal of informing the development of future clinical applications.

A state-of-the-art review of the recent advances of theranostic liposome hybrid nanoparticles in cancer treatment and diagnosis

Theranostics is a way of treating illness that blends medicine with testing. Specific characteristics should be present in the best theranostic agents for cancer: (1) the drugs should be safe and non-toxic; (2) they should be able to treat cancer selectively; and (3) they should be able to build up only in the cancerous tissue. Liposomes (LPs) are one of the most efficient drug delivery methods based on nanotechnology. Stealth LPs and commercial LPs have recently had an impact on cancer treatment. Using the valuable information from each imaging technique, along with the multimodality imaging functionality of liposomal therapeutic agents, makes them very appealing for personalized monitoring of how well therapeutic drugs are working against cancer in vivo and for predicting how well therapies will work. On the other hand, their use as nanoparticle delivery systems is currently in the research and development phase. Nanoscale delivery system innovation has made LP-nanoparticle hybrid structures very useful for combining therapeutic and imaging methods. LP-hybrid nanoparticles are better at killing cancer cells than their LP counterparts, making them excellent options for in vivo and in vitro drug delivery applications. Hybrid liposomes (HLs) could be used in the future as theranostic carriers to find and treat cancer targets. This would combine the best features of synthetic and biological drug delivery systems. Overarchingly, this article provided a comprehensive overview of the many LP types used in cancer detection, therapy, and theranostic analysis. An evaluation of the pros and cons of the many HLs types used in cancer detection and treatment has also been conducted. The study also included recent and significant research on HLs for cancer theranostic applications. We conclude by outlining the potential benefits and drawbacks of this theranostic approach to the concurrent detection and treatment of different malignancies, as well as its prospects.

Recent advances in delivery systems of ginsenosides for oral diseases

BACKGROUND

Ginsenosides, the principal active ingredients in ginseng, have anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, osteogenic, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective properties. Oral diseases afflict about half of the world's population. Ginsenosides' multifunctional properties have led to substantial investigation into their potential to prevent and treat oral disorders. However, their low absorption and poor targeting limit their effectiveness.

PURPOSE

This review summarizes the latest research progress on ginsenoside-based drug delivery systems and the potential of ginsenosides in preventing and treating oral diseases to provide a theoretical basis for clinical applications.

METHODS

Using "ginsenoside", "drug delivery", "nanoparticles", "liposomes", "hydrogel", "oral disease", "toxicology", "pharmacology", "clinical translation" and combinations of these keywords in PubMed, Web of Science, and Science Direct. The search was conducted until December 2024.

RESULTS

The limitations of natural ginsenosides can be overcome by utilizing drug delivery systems to improve pharmacological activity, bioavailability and targeting. The multifunctional pharmacological activities of ginsenosides offer promising avenues for treating oral diseases. In addition, the susceptibility of the oral cavity to infection by pathogenic bacteria and the diluting effect of saliva pose significant challenges to treatment. The emergence of drug delivery marks a breakthrough in addressing these issues.

CONCLUSION

Ginsenoside-based drug delivery methods improve bioactivity, targeting, and reduce costs. This review emphasizes current advancements in ginsenosides within novel drug delivery systems, specifically on its potential in preventing and treating oral disorders. However, multiple well-designed clinical trials are needed to further evaluate the efficacy and safety of these drugs.

Exploring the Potential of Nanocarriers for Cancer Immunotherapy: Insights into Mechanism, Nanocarriers, and Regulatory Perspectives

Immunotherapy is a cutting-edge approach that leverages sophisticated technology to target tumor-specific antibodies and modulate the immune system to eradicate cancer and enhance patients' quality of life. Bioinformatics and genetic science advancements have made it possible to diagnose and treat cancer patients using immunotherapy technology. However, current immunotherapies against cancer have limited clinical benefits due to cancer-associated antigens, which often fail to interact with immune cells and exhibit insufficient therapeutic targeting with unintended side effects. To surmount this challenge, nanoparticle systems have emerged as a potential strategy for transporting immunotherapeutic agents to cancer cells and activating immune cells to combat tumors. Consequently, this process potentially generates an antigen-specific T cells response that effectively suppresses cancer growth. Furthermore, nanoplatforms have high specificity, efficacy, diagnostic potential, and imaging capabilities, making them promising tools for cancer treatment. However, this informative paper delves into the various available immunotherapies, including CAR T cells therapy and immune checkpoint blockade, cytokines, cancer vaccines, and monoclonal antibodies. Furthermore, the paper delves into the concept of theragnostic nanotechnology, which integrates therapy and diagnostics for a more personalized treatment approach for cancer therapy. Additionally, the paper covers the potential benefits of different nanocarrier systems, including marketed immunotherapy products, clinical trials, regulatory considerations, and future prospects for cancer immunotherapy.

Harnessing Dual-Responsive Polymeric Micelles for Precision Oxidative Stress Amplification in Targeted Cancer Therapy

Targeting the altered redox balance in cancer cells, this study explores a strategy to induce selective cancer cell death by combining reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation with glutathione (GSH) depletion. We developed oxidative stress-amplifying polymeric (pCB) micelles that function both as therapeutic agents and carriers for GSH-depleting retinoic acid prodrug (BRDP). pCB incorporating ROS-generating cinnamaldehyde and a GSH-depleting quinone methide precursor could self-assemble into micelles encapsulating BRDP, delivering both ROS generators and GSH-depleting drugs. The micelles were surface-functionalized with the tripeptide Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) for targeted delivery to integrin-overexpressing tumors. In a mouse xenograft model, RGD-decorated BRDP-loaded micelles significantly accumulated in tumor sites, enhancing anticancer efficacy without toxicity to normal tissues. This study marks significant advancement in the field of oxidative stress-amplifying polymeric precursors, presenting a novel and highly effective anticancer therapeutic approach that integrates multiple tumor-specific triggers and ROS-mediated mechanisms.

Advancements in nanoscale delivery systems: optimizing intermolecular interactions for superior drug encapsulation and precision release

Nanoscale preparations, such as nanoparticles, micelles, and liposomes, are increasingly recognized in pharmaceutical technology for their high capability in tailoring the pharmacokinetics of the encapsulated drug within the body. These preparations have great potential in extending drug half-life, reducing dosing frequency, mitigating drug side effects, and enhancing drug efficacy. Consequently, nanoscale preparations offer promising prospects for the treatment of metabolic disorders, malignant tumors, and various chronic diseases. Nevertheless, the complete clinical potential of nanoscale preparations remains untapped due to the challenges associated with low drug loading degrees and insufficient control over drug release. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the vital role of intermolecular interactions in enhancing encapsulation and controlling drug release within nanoscale delivery systems. Our analysis critically evaluates the characteristics of common intermolecular interactions and elucidates the techniques employed to assess them. Moreover, we highlight the significant potential of intermolecular interactions in clinical translation, particularly in the screening and optimization of preparation prescriptions. By attaining a deeper understanding of intermolecular interaction properties and mechanisms, we can adopt a more rational approach to designing drug carriers, leading to substantial advancements in the application and clinical transformation of nanoscale preparations. Moving forward, continued research in this field offers exciting prospects for unlocking the full clinical potential of nanoscale preparations and revolutionizing the field of drug delivery.

Revolutionizing Stroke Care: Nanotechnology-Based Brain Delivery as a Novel Paradigm for Treatment and Diagnosis

Stroke, a severe medical condition arising from abnormalities in the coagulation-fibrinolysis cycle and metabolic processes, results in brain cell impairment and injury due to blood flow obstruction within the brain. Prompt and efficient therapeutic approaches are imperative to control and preserve brain functions. Conventional stroke medications, including fibrinolytic agents, play a crucial role in facilitating reperfusion to the ischemic brain. However, their clinical efficacy is hampered by short plasma half-lives, limited brain tissue distribution attributed to the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and lack of targeted drug delivery to the ischemic region. To address these challenges, diverse nanomedicine strategies, such as vesicular systems, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, exosomes, inorganic nanoparticles, and biomimetic nanoparticles, have emerged. These platforms enhance drug pharmacokinetics by facilitating targeted drug accumulation at the ischemic site. By leveraging nanocarriers, engineered drug delivery systems hold the potential to overcome challenges associated with conventional stroke medications. This comprehensive review explores the pathophysiological mechanism underlying stroke and BBB disruption in stroke. Additionally, this review investigates the utilization of nanocarriers for current therapeutic and diagnostic interventions in stroke management. By addressing these aspects, the review aims to provide insight into potential strategies for improving stroke treatment and diagnosis through a nanomedicine approach.

Nano-delivery of Silibinin Potentiate the Induction of Immunogenic Cell Death (ICD) in Melanoma Cells

BACKGROUND

Induction of immunogenic cell death (ICD) in tumors can enhance antitumor immunity and modulate immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment (TME).

OBJECTIVE

In the current study, we investigated the effect of silibinin, a natural compound with anticancer activity, and its polymer-based nanoformulations on the induction of apoptosis and ICD in cancer cells.

METHODS

Free and nanoparticulate silibinin were evaluated for their growth-inhibitory effects using an MTT assay. Annexin V/PI staining was used to analyze apoptosis. Calreticulin (CRT) expression was measured by flow cytometry. Western blotting was conducted to examine the levels of elf2α, which plays a role in the ICD pathway. The HSP90 and ATP levels were determined using specific detection kits.

RESULTS

Compared to the free drug, silibinin-loaded nanocarriers significantly increased the induction of apoptosis and ICD in B16F10 cells. ICD induction was characterized by significantly increased levels of ICD biomarkers, including CRT, HSP90, and ATP. We also observed an increased expression of p-elf-2α/ elf-2α in B16F10 cells treated with silibinin-loaded micelles compared to cells that received free silibinin.

CONCLUSION

Our findings showed that the encapsulation of silibinin in polymeric nanocarriers can potentiate the effects of this drug on the induction of apoptosis and ICD in B16F10 melanoma cells.

Recent advances in the development and application of curcumin-loaded micro/nanocarriers in food research

The application of curcumin in food science is challenged by its poor water solubility, easy degradation under processing and within the gastrointestinal tract, and poor bioavailability. Micro/nanocarrier is an emerging and efficient platform to overcome these drawbacks. This review focuses on the recent advances in the development and application of curcumin-loaded micro/nanocarriers in food research. The recent development advances of curcumin-loaded micro/nanocarriers could be classified into ten basic systems: emulsions, micelles, dendrimers, hydrogel polymeric particles, polymer nanofibers, polymer inclusion complexes, liposomes, solid lipid particles, structured lipid carriers, and extracellular vesicles. The application advances of curcumin-loaded micro/nanocarriers for food research could be classified into four types: coloring agents, functional active agents, preservation agents, and quality sensors. This review demonstrated that micro/nanocarriers were excellent carriers for the fat-soluble curcumin and the obtained curcumin-loaded micro/nanocarriers had promising application prospects in the field of food science.

Mechano-assisted strategies to improve cancer chemotherapy

Chemotherapy remains a cornerstone in cancer treatment; however, its effectiveness is frequently undermined by the development of drug resistance. Recent studies underscores the pivotal role of the tumor mechanical microenvironment (TMME) and the emerging field of mechanical nanomedicine in tackling chemo-resistance. This review offers an in-depth analysis of mechano-assisted strategies aimed at mitigating chemo-resistance through the modification of the TMME and the refinement of mechanical nanomedicine delivery systems. We explore the potential of targeting abnormal tumor mechanical properties as a promising avenue for enhancing the efficacy of cancer chemotherapy, which offers novel directions for advancing future cancer therapies, especially from the mechanomedicine perspective.

Enhancing cancer therapy: advanced nanovehicle delivery systems for oridonin

Oridonin (ORI), an ent-kaurane diterpenoid derived from Rabdosia rubescens (Hemsl.) H.Hara, serves as the primary bioactive component of this plant. It demonstrates a broad spectrum of therapeutic activities, including moderate to potent anticancer properties, alongside anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifibrotic, immunomodulatory, and neuromodulatory effects, thus influencing diverse biological processes. However, its clinical potential is significantly constrained by poor aqueous solubility and limited bioavailability. In alignment with the approach of developing drug candidates from natural compounds, various strategies, such as structural modification and nanocarrier systems, have been employed to address these challenges. This review provides an overview of ORI-based nano-delivery systems, emphasizing their potential to improve the clinical applicability of oridonin in oncology. Although some progress has been made in advancing ORI nano-delivery research, it remains insufficient for clinical implementation, necessitating further investigation.

Review of recent preclinical and clinical research on ligand-targeted liposomes as delivery systems in triple negative breast cancer therapy

Triple-negative breast Cancer (TNBC) is one of the deadliest types, making up about 20% of all breast cancers. Chemotherapy is the traditional manner of progressed TNBC treatment; however, it has a short-term result with a high reversibility pace. The lack of targeted treatment limited and person-dependent treatment options for those suffering from TNBC cautions to be the worst type of cancer among breast cancer patients. Consequently, appropriate treatment for this disease is considered a major clinical challenge. Therefore, various treatment methods have been developed to treat TNBC, among which chemotherapy is the most common and well-known approach recently studied. Although effective methods are chemotherapies, they are often accompanied by critical limitations, especially the lack of specific functionality. These methods lead to systematic toxicity and, ultimately, the expansion of multidrug-resistant (MDR) cancer cells. Therefore, finding novel and efficient techniques to enhance the targeting of TNBC treatment is an essential requirement. Liposomes have demonstrated that they are an effective method for drug delivery; however, among a large number of liposome-based drug delivery systems annually developed, a small number have just received authorization for clinical application. The new approaches to using liposomes target their structure with various ligands to increase therapeutic efficiency and diminish undesired side effects on various body tissues. The current study describes the most recent strategies and research associated with functionalizing the liposomes' structure with different ligands as targeted drug carriers in treating TNBCs in preclinical and clinical stages.

Preparation and characterization of poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(tert-butyl methacrylate) micelles as potential nanocarriers for donepezil

Polymeric micelles were prepared for the delivery of donepezil, a leading Alzheimer's disease drug, to enhance its transport across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(tert-butyl methacrylate) amphiphilic block copolymers were synthesized via reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. The polymers were characterized by gel permeation chromatography and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Empty and donepezil loaded polymer micelles were formed using the dialysis method and characterized by dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy. Drug loading efficiency and release behavior were monitored using UV/Vis spectroscopy, and cytotoxicity was evaluated via colorimetric tests and impedance measurements. Additionally, the permeability of the nanocarriers across an in vitro BBB culture model was assessed. Drug-loaded micelles demonstrated similar permeability to free donepezil but offered sustained release and improved stability. This micellar delivery system holds significant potential for improving therapeutic outcomes in Alzheimer's treatment by enhancing donepezil's delivery across the BBB. Improved BBB permeability and sustained drug release could lead to more effective concentration of the drug in the brain, potentially reducing peripheral cholinergic side effects, such as nausea and vomiting, often observed with traditional donepezil administration. This could result in better patient compliance and improved cognitive outcomes, making this nanocarrier system a promising alternative for Alzheimer's therapy.

Polyoxazolines with Cholesterol Lipid Anchor for Fast Intracellular Delivery

Due to the increasing challenges posed by the growing immunity to poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), there is growing interest in innovative polymer-based materials as viable alternatives. In this study, the advantages of lipids and polymers are combined to allow efficient and rapid cytoplasmic drug delivery. Specifically, poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline) is modified with a cholesteryl hemisuccinate group as a lipid anchor (CHEMSPOx). The CHEMSPOx is additionally functionalized with a coumarin group (CHEMSPOx-coumarin). Both polymers self-assembled in water into vesicles of ≈100 nm and are successfully loaded with a hydrophobic model drug. The loaded vesicles reveal high cellular internalization across variant cell lines within 1 h at 37 °C as well as 4 °C, albeit to a lesser extent. A kinetic study confirms the fast internalization within 5 min after the sample's addition. Therefore, different internalization pathways are involved, e.g., active uptake but also nonenergy dependent mechanisms. CHEMSPOx and CHEMSPOx-coumarin further demonstrate excellent cyto-, hemo-, and membrane compatibility, as well as a membrane-protecting effect, which underlines their good safety profile for potential biological intravenous application. Overall, CHEMSPOx, as a lipopolyoxazoline, holds great potential for versatile biological applications such as fast and direct intracellular delivery or cellular lysis protection.

Tumor microenvironment-responsive hyperbranched polymers for controlled drug delivery

Hyperbranched polymers (HBPs) have drawn great interest in the biomedical field on account of their special morphology, low viscosity, self-regulation, and facile preparation methods. Moreover, their large intramolecular cavities, high biocompatibility, biodegradability, and targeting properties render them very suitable for anti-tumor drug delivery. Recently, exploiting the specific characteristics of the tumor microenvironment, a range of multifunctional HBPs responsive to the tumor microenvironment have emerged. By further introducing various types of drugs through physical embedding or chemical coupling, the resulting HBPs based delivery systems have played a crucial part in improving drug stability, increasing effective drug concentration, decreasing drug toxicity and side effects, and enhancing anti-tumor effect. Here, based on different types of tumor microenvironment stimulation signals such as pH, redox, temperature, etc., we systematically review the preparation and response mechanism of HBPs, summarize the latest advances in drug delivery applications, and analyze the challenges and future research directions for such nanomaterials in biomedical clinical applications.

Recent advances in targeted drug delivery systems for multiple myeloma

Despite significant therapeutic advances, multiple myeloma (MM) remains a challenging, incurable, hematological malignancy. The efficacy of traditional chemotherapy and currently available anti-MM agents is in part limited by their adverse effects, which restrict their therapeutic potential. Nanotherapeutics is an emerging field of cancer therapy that can overcome the biological and chemical barriers of existing anticancer drugs. This review presents an overview of recent advancements in nanoparticle- and immunotherapy-based drug delivery systems for MM treatment. It further delves into the targeting strategies, mechanism of controlled drug release, and challenges associated with the development of drug delivery systems for the treatment of MM.

Synergistic integration of mRNA-LNP with CAR-engineered immune cells: Pioneering progress in immunotherapy

Chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T) therapy has emerged as a revolutionary approach in the treatment of malignancies. Despite its remarkable successes, this field continues to grapple with challenges such as scalability, safety concerns, limited therapeutic effect, in vivo persistence, and the need for precise control over CAR expression. In the post-pandemic era of COVID-19 vaccine immunization, the application of messenger RNA (mRNA) encapsulated within lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) has recently garnered significant attention as a potential solution to address these challenges. This review delves into the dynamic landscape of mRNA-LNP technology and its potential implications for CAR-engineered immune cell-based immunotherapy.

Solubilization techniques used for poorly water-soluble drugs

About 40% of approved drugs and nearly 90% of drug candidates are poorly water-soluble drugs. Low solubility reduces the drugability. Effectively improving the solubility and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs is a critical issue that needs to be urgently addressed in drug development and application. This review briefly introduces the conventional solubilization techniques such as solubilizers, hydrotropes, cosolvents, prodrugs, salt modification, micronization, cyclodextrin inclusion, solid dispersions, and details the crystallization strategies, ionic liquids, and polymer-based, lipid-based, and inorganic-based carriers in improving solubility and bioavailability. Some of the most commonly used approved carrier materials for solubilization techniques are presented. Several approved poorly water-soluble drugs using solubilization techniques are summarized. Furthermore, this review summarizes the solubilization mechanism of each solubilization technique, reviews the latest research advances and challenges, and evaluates the potential for clinical translation. This review could guide the selection of a solubilization approach, dosage form, and administration route for poorly water-soluble drugs. Moreover, we discuss several promising solubilization techniques attracting increasing attention worldwide.

Endoplasmic reticulum-targeted biomimetic nanoparticles induce apoptosis and ferroptosis by regulating endoplasmic reticulum function in colon cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a major threat to human health, as it is one of the most common malignancies with a high incidence and mortality rate. The cancer cell membrane (CCM) has significant potential in targeted tumor drug delivery due to its membrane antigen-mediated homologous targeting ability. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in cancer cells plays a crucial role in apoptosis and ferroptosis. In this study, we developed an ER-targeted peptide-modified CCM-biomimetic nanoparticle-delivered lovastatin (LOV) nanomedicine delivery system (EMPP-LOV) for cancer treatment. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated that EMPP could effectively target cancer cells and localize within the ER. EMPP-LOV modulated ER function to promote apoptosis and ferroptosis in tumor cells. Furthermore, synergistic antitumor efficacy was observed in both in vitro and in vivo models. EMPP-LOV induced apoptosis in CRC cells by over-activating endoplasmic reticulum stress and promoted ferroptosis by inhibiting the mevalonate pathway, leading to synergistic tumor growth inhibition with minimal toxicity to major organs. Overall, the EMPP-LOV delivery system, with its subcellular targeting capability within tumor cells, presents a promising therapeutic platform for CRC treatment.

Targeting anticancer immunity in melanoma tumour microenvironment: unleashing the potential of adjuvants, drugs, and phytochemicals

Melanoma poses a challenge in oncology because of its aggressive nature and limited treatment modalities. The tumour microenvironment (TME) in melanoma contains unique properties such as an immunosuppressive and high-density environment, unusual vasculature, and a high number of stromal and immunosuppressive cells. In recent years, numerous experiments have focused on boosting the immune system to effectively remove malignant cells. Adjuvants, consisting of phytochemicals, toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists, and cytokines, have shown encouraging results in triggering antitumor immunity and augmenting the therapeutic effectiveness of anticancer therapy. These adjuvants can stimulate the maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) and infiltration of cytotoxic CD8+ T lymphocytes (CTLs). Furthermore, nanocarriers can help to deliver immunomodulators and antigens directly to the tumour stroma, thereby improving their efficacy against malignant cells. The remodelling of melanoma TME utilising phytochemicals, agonists, and other adjuvants can be combined with current modalities for improving therapy outcomes. This review article explores the potential of adjuvants, drugs, and their nanoformulations in enhancing the anticancer potency of macrophages, CTLs, and natural killer (NK) cells. Additionally, the capacity of these agents to repress the function of immunosuppressive components of melanoma TME, such as immunosuppressive subsets of macrophages, stromal and myeloid cells will be discussed.

Comprehensive insights into mechanism of nanotoxicity, assessment methods and regulatory challenges of nanomedicines

Nanomedicine has the potential to transform healthcare by offering targeted therapies, precise diagnostics, and enhanced drug delivery systems. The National Institutes of Health has coined the term "nanomedicine" to describe the use of nanotechnology in biological system monitoring, control, diagnosis, and treatment. Nanomedicine continues to receive increasing interest for the rationalized delivery of therapeutics and pharmaceutical agents to achieve the required response while reducing its side effects. However, as nanotechnology continues to advance, concerns about its potential toxicological effects have also grown. This review explores the current state of nanomedicine, focusing on the types of nanoparticles used and their associated properties that contribute to nanotoxicity. It examines the mechanisms through which nanoparticles exert toxicity, encompassing various cellular and molecular interactions. Furthermore, it discusses the assessment methods employed to evaluate nanotoxicity, encompassing in-vitro and in-vivo models, as well as emerging techniques. The review also addresses the regulatory issues surrounding nanotoxicology, highlighting the challenges in developing standardized guidelines and ensuring the secure translation of nanomedicine into clinical settings. It also explores into the challenges and ethical issues associated with nanotoxicology, as understanding the safety profile of nanoparticles is essential for their effective translation into therapeutic applications.

Tumor targeting pH-triggered fluorescence-switchable hyaluronic acid-based micelles with aggregation-induced emission activity for tracing drug release and intelligent drug delivery

In this study, an amphiphilic polymer (Bio-HA(TPE-CN)-mPEG) was designed and synthesized, which was fabricated by introducing hydrophobic aggregation-induced emission (AIE) fluorophore, acid-labile imine bond, methoxy poly (ethylene glycol) (mPEG) and tumor targeting ligand biotin to the backbone of hyaluronic acid. The polymer could self-assemble into micelles and solubilize hydrophobic anticancer drugs. In vitro drug release study indicated that the micelles could disassemble rapidly under acidic environment. The involvement of biotin and HA could enhance the cellular uptake of micelles by tumor cells. Modification of micelles by mPEG could minimize non-specific protein adsorption. Fluorescence studies indicated that the micelles exhibited excellent AIE features and emitted intense long-wavelength fluorescence. More excitingly, the micelles were red emissive in the normal physiological environment, but switched to blue fluorescence in the acidic tumor environment, which could be further applied for real-time monitoring and quantification of the drug release. The in vivo antitumor efficacy study demonstrated the superior antitumor activity of the PTX-loaded micelles. The Bio-HA(TPE-CN)-mPEG micelles were promising drug carriers for chemotherapy and bioimaging.

Brain-targeting redox-sensitive micelles for codelivery of TMZ and β-lapachone for glioblastoma therapy

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a central nervous system cancer with high incidence and poor survival rates. Enhancing drug penetration of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and targeting efficacy is crucial for improving treatment outcomes. In this study, we developed a redox-sensitive targeted nano-delivery system (HCA-A2) for temozolomide (TMZ) and β-lapachone (β-Lapa). This system used hyaluronic acid (HA) as the hydrophilic group, arachidonic acid (CA) as the hydrophobic group, and angiopep-2 (A2) as the targeting group. Control systems included non-redox sensitive (HDA-A2) and non-targeting (HCA) versions. In vitro, HCA-TMZ-Lapa micelles released 100 % of their payload in a simulated tumor microenvironment within 24 h, compared to 43.97 % under normal conditions. HCA-A2 micelles, internalized via clathrin-mediated endocytosis, showed stronger cytotoxicity and better BBB penetration and cellular uptake than controls. In vivo studies demonstrated superior tumor growth inhibition with HCA-A2 micelles, indicating their potential for GBM treatment.

Natural compounds-based nanomedicines for cancer treatment: Future directions and challenges

Several efforts have been extensively accomplished for the amelioration of the cancer treatments using different types of new drugs and less invasives therapies in comparison with the traditional therapeutic modalities, which are widely associated with numerous drawbacks, such as drug resistance, non-selectivity and high costs, restraining their clinical response. The application of natural compounds for the prevention and treatment of different cancer cells has attracted significant attention from the pharmaceuticals and scientific communities over the past decades. Although the use of nanotechnology in cancer therapy is still in the preliminary stages, the application of nanotherapeutics has demonstrated to decrease the various limitations related to the use of natural compounds, such as physical/chemical instability, poor aqueous solubility, and low bioavailability. Despite the nanotechnology has emerged as a promise to improve the bioavailability of the natural compounds, there are still limited clinical trials performed for their application with various challenges required for the pre-clinical and clinical trials, such as production at an industrial level, assurance of nanotherapeutics long-term stability, physiological barriers and safety and regulatory issues. This review highlights the most recent advances in the nanocarriers for natural compounds secreted from plants, bacteria, fungi, and marine organisms, as well as their role on cell signaling pathways for anticancer treatments. Additionally, the clinical status and the main challenges regarding the natural compounds loaded in nanocarriers for clinical applications were also discussed.

Extracellular vesicles for cancer therapy: potential, progress, and clinical challenges

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play an important role in normal life activities and disease treatment. In recent years, there have been abundant relevant studies focusing on EVs for cancer therapy and showing good performance on tumor inhibition. To enhance the effectiveness of EVs, EV analogs have been developed. This review summarizes the classification, origin, production, purification, modification, drug loading and cancer treatment applications of EVs and their analogs. Also, the characteristics of technologies involved are analyzed, which provides the basis for the development and application of biogenic vesicle-based drug delivery platform for cancer therapy. Meanwhile, challenges in translating these vesicles into clinic, such as limited sources, lack of production standards, and insufficient targeting and effectiveness are discussed. With ongoing exploration and clinical studies, EV-based drugs will make great contributions to cancer therapy.

Hepatoma-Targeting and ROS-Responsive Polymeric Micelle-Based Chemotherapy Combined with Photodynamic Therapy for Hepatoma Treatment

Background

The combination of nanoplatform-based chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising way to treat cancer. Celastrol (Cela) exhibits highly effective anti-hepatoma activity with low water solubility, poor bioavailability, non-tumor targeting, and toxic side effects. The combination of Cela-based chemotherapy and PDT via hepatoma-targeting and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive polymeric micelles (PMs) could solve the application problem of Cela and further enhance antitumor efficacy.

Methods

In this study, Cela and photosensitizer chlorin e6 (Ce6) co-loaded glycyrrhetinic acid-modified carboxymethyl chitosan-thioketal-rhein (GCTR) PMs (Cela/Ce6/GCTR PMs) were prepared and characterized. The safety, ROS-sensitive drug release, and intracellular ROS production were evaluated. Furthermore, the in vitro anti-hepatoma effect and cellular uptaken in HepG2 and BEL-7402 cells, and in vivo pharmacokinetic, tissue distribution, and antitumor efficacy of Cela/Ce6/GCTR PMs in H22 tumor-bearing mice were then investigated.

Results

Cela/Ce6/GCTR PMs were successfully prepared with nanometer-scale particle size, favorable drug loading capacity, and encapsulation efficiency. Cela/Ce6/GCTR PMs exhibited a strong safety profile and better hemocompatibility, exhibiting less damage to normal tissues. Compared with Cela-loaded GCTR PMs, the ROS-responsiveness of Cela/Ce6/GCTR PMs was increased, and the release of Cela was accelerated after combination with PDT. Cela/Ce6/GCTR PMs can efficiently target liver tumor cells by uptake and have a high cell-killing effect in response to ROS. The combination of GCTR PM-based chemotherapy and PDT resulted in increased bioavailability of Cela and Ce6, improved liver tumor targeting, and better anti-hepatoma effects in vivo.

Conclusion

Hepatoma-targeting and ROS-responsive GCTR PMs co-loaded with Cela and Ce6 combined with PDT exhibited improved primary hepatic carcinoma therapeutic effects with lower toxicity to normal tissues, overcoming the limitations of monotherapy and providing new strategies for tumor treatment.

Nanodelivery Optimization of IDO1 Inhibitors in Tumor Immunotherapy: Challenges and Strategies

Tryptophan (Trp) metabolism plays a vital role in cancer immunity. Indoleamine 2.3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1), is a crucial enzyme in the metabolic pathway by which Trp is degraded to kynurenine (Kyn). IDO1-mediated Trp metabolites can inhibit tumor immunity and facilitate immune evasion by cancer cells; thus, targeting IDO1 is a potential tumor immunotherapy strategy. Recently, numerous IDO1 inhibitors have been introduced into clinical trials as immunotherapeutic agents for cancer treatment. However, drawbacks such as low oral bioavailability, slow onset of action, and high toxicity are associated with these drugs. With the continuous development of nanotechnology, medicine is gradually entering an era of precision healthcare. Nanodrugs carried by inorganic, lipid, and polymer nanoparticles (NPs) have shown great potential for tumor therapy, providing new ways to overcome tumor diversity and improve therapeutic efficacy. Compared to traditional drugs, nanomedicines offer numerous significant advantages, including a prolonged half-life, low toxicity, targeted delivery, and responsive release. Moreover, based on the physicochemical properties of these nanomaterials (eg, photothermal, ultrasonic response, and chemocatalytic properties), various combination therapeutic strategies have been developed to synergize the effects of IDO1 inhibitors and enhance their anticancer efficacy. This review is an overview of the mechanism by which the Trp-IDO1-Kyn pathway acts in tumor immune escape. The classification of IDO1 inhibitors, their clinical applications, and barriers for translational development are discussed, the use of IDO1 inhibitor-based nanodrug delivery systems as combination therapy strategies is summarized, and the issues faced in their clinical application are elucidated. We expect that this review will provide guidance for the development of IDO1 inhibitor-based nanoparticle nanomedicines that can overcome the limitations of current treatments, improve the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy, and lead to new breakthroughs in the field of cancer immunotherapy.