Combined application of silicon and nitric oxide jointly alleviated cadmium accumulation and toxicity in maize

Nitric oxide mitigates cadmium stress by promoting the biosynthesis of cell walls in Robinia pseudoacacia roots

Cadmium (Cd) pollution is a growing concern worldwide, because it threatens human health through the food chain. Woody plants, such as the pioneer species black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.), are widely used in phytoremediation of Cd-contaminated soils, but strongly differ in Cd tolerance. Nitric oxide (NO), a highly reactive gas of biogenic and anthropogenic origin, has been shown to protect plants to Cd exposure. We investigated the protective mechanism of NO against Cd toxicity in black locust using physiological, transcriptomic and metabolomic approaches. We studied the correlation between cell wall traits, genes, and metabolites. The findings indicated that NO improved the growth of black locust under Cd exposure and elevated the fraction of Cd in the cell wall. NO increased cell wall thickness by stimulating the biosynthesis of pectin, cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses demonstrated that NO upregulated genes related to root cell wall biosynthesis and increased the accumulation of related metabolites, thereby increasing the Cd resistance of black locust. Our results elucidated a molecular mechanism underlying NO-mediated Cd tolerance in black locust and provided novel insights for phytoremediation of Cd-polluted soils by woody plants.

Effect of cadmium and fumonisin B1 co-exposure on mitochondrial dysfunction and ferroptosis pathway in Caenorhabditis elegans

Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a typical mycotoxin that widely contaminates food crops and their products and is known to be neurotoxic. In diverse dietary patterns, organisms are at risk of co-exposure to FB1 and the heavy metal cadmium (Cd), but how Cd affects the toxic damaging effects of FB1 is unknown. Therefore, this study explored the potential mechanism of co-exposure of Cd and FB1 using a Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) model. Our findings indicate that co-exposure with FB1 (200 μg/mL) and Cd (25, 100, and 200 μg/mL) for 24 h significantly aggravated oxidative stress damage and mitochondrial dysfunction in dose-dependent. This included abnormal expression of mitochondrial membrane proteins and disruptions in the division and fusion processes of mitochondria. Moreover, the co-exposure to Cd and FB1 induced ferroptosis, characterized by abnormally high levels of unstable ferrous iron and alterations in the expression levels of ferroptosis-related genes such as aat-9, acs-17, gpx-1, ftn-1, and frh-1. Collectively, these results underscore the aggravating effect of combined exposure to FB1 and Cd on mitochondrial dysfunction and ferroptosis pathways in C. elegans. This study offers a novel perspective for exploring the mixture toxicity between FB1 and Cd.

Enhancing cadmium stress resilience in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) via exogenous melatonin application

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) productivity is hindered by biotic and abiotic stresses, particularly heavy metal toxicity. The pot experiment was carried out at the botanical garden of The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur-Pakistan. The experimental treatments comprised of following details: T0 = Control + 0 µM MT, T1 = Control + 15 µM MT, T2= Control + 30 µM MT, T3 = 100 µM Cd + 0 µM MT, T4 = 100 µM Cd + 15 µM MT and T5 = 100 µM Cd + 30 µM MT. A completely randomized design (CRD) with three replicates was used. Cd stress significantly reduced shoot fresh (51.3%) and dry weight (50.4%), total chlorophyll (53.6%), and shoot Ca2+ (56.6%). However, it increased proline (38.3%), total phenolics (74.2%), glycine betaine (46.4%), TSS (67.7%), TSP (50%), SOD (49.5%), POD (107%), and CAT (74.2%). Conversely, 30 µM MT improved shoot fresh (78.5%) and dry weight (76%), total chlorophyll (47%), SOD (26.5%), POD (35.8%), CAT (27.8%), proline (19%), TSS (24.5%), TSP (25.8%), and shoot Ca2+ (56.6%). Results indicated that MT enhanced photosynthetic pigments and antioxidant activities, maintained ion homeostasis, and reduces reactive oxygen species. Desi variety performed better than Kabuli, and 30 µM MT application effectively mitigated Cd toxicity.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi mitigate cadmium stress in maize

Soil cadmium (Cd) pollution poses a significant environmental threat, impacting global food security and human health. Recent studies have highlighted the potential of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi to protect crops from various heavy metal stresses, including Cd toxicity. To elucidate the tolerance mechanisms of maize in response to Cd toxicity under AM symbiosis, this study used two maize genotypes with contrasting Cd tolerance: Zhengdan958 (Cd-tolerant) and Zhongke11 (Cd-sensitive). Rhizobox experiments were conducted with and without AM inoculation, alongside Cd treatment. The results revealed that Cd stress severely impaired growth and root development in both genotypes. However, AM symbiosis significantly improved plant height, stem diameter, biomass, root morphology, photosynthetic capacity, nutrient uptake, antioxidant enzyme activity, root Cd content, and concentration, while also reducing lipid peroxidation and shoot Cd accumulation in both genotypes. Notably, AM symbiosis had a more pronounced effect on stem diameter (increased 55 %), root dry weight (118 %), root superoxide dismutase (42 %), and peroxidase activity (209 %), as well as shoot translocation factor (77 %) in Zhongke11 compared to Zhengdan958. Overall, AM symbiosis alleviated Cd toxicity in maize through multiple mechanisms, including enhanced photosynthesis, nutrient uptake, antioxidant defenses, and modulation of Cd transport and accumulation. This study provides valuable insights into the potential application of Cd-tolerant maize genotypes and AM symbiosis for managing Cd-contaminated soils.

The transcription factor ZmbHLH105 confers cadmium tolerance by promoting abscisic acid biosynthesis in maize

Cadmium (Cd), a highly toxic heavy metal, profoundly impacts crop productivity. The bHLH-type transcription factors regulate plant stress responses, yet their involvement in maize's Cd stress response remains unclear. Here, we studied ZmbHLH105, a maize bHLH gene induced by Cd exposure. Overexpression of ZmbHLH105 in maize seedlings, which were treated with 1.0 mM CdCl2 for 7 days, increased endogenous ABA levels, decreased Cd accumulation, and enhanced Cd stress tolerance. ZmbHLH105 directly bound to promoter regions of two key ABA biosynthesis genes ZmNCED1/2, activating their transcription, thus boosting ABA levels and Cd tolerance. ZmbHLH105-overexpression promoted lignin synthesis, while ZmbHLH105-RNAi attenuated this effect. Exogenous ABA supplementation increased lignin content in Cd-stressed maize roots, suggesting ZmbHLH105-mediated Cd tolerance involves ABA-induced lignin deposition and cell wall thickening. Moreover, Cd transport-related gene expression was suppressed in ZmbHLH105 overexpression lines. Our findings demonstrate that ZmbHLH105 decreases Cd accumulation, improving Cd tolerance by enhancing ABA biosynthesis, increasing lignin deposition, thickening cell walls, and inhibiting Cd absorption in maize roots. This study unveils ZmbHLH105's mechanisms in Cd tolerance, highlighting its potential in breeding low Cd-accumulating crops for food and environment safety.

Nitric oxide and ascorbic acid confer cadmium (Cd) tolerance by improving plant terpenoid metabolism and epigenetically modifying DNA methylation

This study investigated the efficacy of incorporating nitric oxide (NO; 10 μM) and ascorbic acid (Asc; 10 μM) into the culture medium to confer cadmium (Cd; 5 μM) tolerance in thyme (Zataria multiflora). The phytotoxicity of Cd resulted in a decrease in shoot biomass, which NO or Asc mitigated. Adding Asc and NO to the culture medium was associated with substantial DNA hypomethylation. The NO + Cd and Asc + Cd treatments were accompanied by an increase in the unmethylation percentages, about 3-fold higher than the control. The hemi-methylation percentages in the Asc-supplemented seedlings also displayed an upward trend. The transcriptional upregulation in the γ-terpinene synthase (TPS) gene resulted from the applied elicitors, especially NO. In response to the NO and Asc treatments, the transcription of two cytochrome P450 monooxygenase genes (CYP71D178 and CYP71D180) went up. Incorporating Asc or NO into the culture medium enhanced the concentrations of proline, carvacrol, and thymol metabolites. Employing NO or Asc mitigated the 43% decrease in protein content due to the Cd cytotoxicity. The NO and Asc applications improved the activity of the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) enzyme. NO and Asc utilization increased the accumulation of flavonoids. NO and Asc also up-regulated the activities of two enzymatic antioxidants (catalase and peroxidase). Collectively, this study provided novel insight into how Asc or NO confers Cd tolerance by epigenetically remodeling DNA methylation, transcriptionally up-regulating terpenoid and phenylpropanoid metabolism, increasing proline concentration, and improving antioxidants.

Silicon uptake and transport mechanisms in plants: processes, applications and challenges in sustainable plant management

Silicon (Si) is an abundant element in the earth's crust essential for plant growth and development. Recent studies silicon's potential for improving plant resilience to numerous biotic stressors, notably fungal diseases. This review seeks to offer a comprehensive understanding of the processes and advantages of silicon-induced systemic resistance in plants, with a special focus on its interactions with fungal pathogens. Furthermore, we investigate the effect of silicon on plant physiological and biochemical changes, such as enhanced lignification, strengthening of physical barriers, and activation of antioxidant systems. Additionally, we examine the influence of silicon on microbial populations within the rhizosphere and its effects on mycorrhizal associations. Lastly, we discuss the potential applications and challenges of integrating silicon-based strategies in sustainable plant disease management. This review provides valuable insights into using silicon as a novel approach to enhance plant systemic resistance against fungal pathogens, offering prospects for developing eco-friendly and efficient agricultural practices.

Melatonin mitigates cadmium toxicity by promoting root development, delaying root senescence, and regulating cadmium transport in cotton

Cd ions are absorbed and transported from the soil by crop roots, which are the first organ to be exposed to Cd. This results in an increase in cadmium ions in crops, significantly affecting crop growth and yield. Exogenous melatonin (MT) can help reduce cadmium (Cd) stress in cotton, but the specific contribution of roots to this process remains unclear. In order to address this knowledge gap, an in-situ root phenotyping study was conducted to investigate the the phenotype and lifespan of roots under cadmium stress (Cd) and melatonin treatment (Cd + MT). The results showed that MT alleviated the decreases in plant height, leaf area, SPAD value, stem diameter, stomatal conductance and net photosynthetic rate under Cd stress, which further promoted the biomass accumulation in various cotton organs. What is more, the Cd + MT treatment increased root volume, surface area, and length under Cd stress by 25.63 %, 10.58 %, and 21.89 %, respectively, compared with Cd treatment. Interestingly, compared to Cd treatment, Cd + MT treatment also significantly extended the lifespan of roots and root hairs by 6.68 days and 2.18 days, respectively. In addition, Cd + MT treatment reduced the transport of Cd from roots to shoots, particularly to bolls, and decreased the Cd bioconcentration factor in bolls by 61.17 %, compared to Cd treatment. In conclusion, these findings show that applying MT externally helps reduce Cd stress by delaying root senescence, promoting root development and regulating Cd transport. This method can be an effective approach to managing Cd stress in cotton.

GhRCD1 promotes cotton tolerance to cadmium by regulating the GhbHLH12-GhMYB44-GhHMA1 transcriptional cascade

Heavy metal pollution poses a significant risk to human health and wreaks havoc on agricultural productivity. Phytoremediation, a plant-based, environmentally benign, and cost-effective method, is employed to remove heavy metals from contaminated soil, particularly in agricultural or heavy metal-sensitive lands. However, the phytoremediation capacity of various plant species and germplasm resources display significant genetic diversity, and the mechanisms underlying these differences remain hitherto obscure. Given its potential benefits, genetic improvement of plants is essential for enhancing their uptake of heavy metals, tolerance to harmful levels, as well as overall growth and development in contaminated soil. In this study, we uncover a molecular cascade that regulates cadmium (Cd2+) tolerance in cotton, involving GhRCD1, GhbHLH12, GhMYB44, and GhHMA1. We identified a Cd2+-sensitive cotton T-DNA insertion mutant with disrupted GhRCD1 expression. Genetic knockout of GhRCD1 by CRISPR/Cas9 technology resulted in reduced Cd2+ tolerance in cotton seedlings, while GhRCD1 overexpression enhanced Cd2+ tolerance. Through molecular interaction studies, we demonstrated that, in response to Cd2+ presence, GhRCD1 directly interacts with GhbHLH12. This interaction activates GhMYB44, which subsequently activates a heavy metal transporter, GhHMA1, by directly binding to a G-box cis-element in its promoter. These findings provide critical insights into a novel GhRCD1-GhbHLH12-GhMYB44-GhHMA1 regulatory module responsible for Cd2+ tolerance in cotton. Furthermore, our study paves the way for the development of elite Cd2+-tolerant cultivars by elucidating the molecular mechanisms governing the genetic control of Cd2+ tolerance in cotton.

Enhanced phytoremediation of 2,4-DNP-contaminated wastewater by Salix matsudana Koidz with MeJA pretreatment and associated mechanism

2,4-Dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP) is recognized as an emerging contaminant due to its high toxicity and poor biodegradability, posing a threat to animals, plants, and human health. The efficient removal of 2,4-DNP remains a challenging issue in phytoremediation research, particularly because of its toxic effects on plants. To address this, a hydroponic simulation experiment was conducted to investigate the impact of adding exogenous methyl jasmonate (MeJA) on the tolerance and purification capabilities of Salix matsudana Koidz (S. matsudana) seedlings exposed to 2,4-DNP. The results indicated that the addition of exogenous MeJA mitigated the damage caused by 2,4-DNP to S. matsudana seedlings by enhancing the activity of antioxidant enzymes, reducing excess reactive oxygen species (ROS), lowering membrane lipid peroxidation, and minimizing membrane damage. Notably, the most effective alleviation was observed with the addition of 50 mg·L-1 MeJA. Furthermore, exogenous MeJA helped maintain the biomass indices of S. matsudana seedlings under 2,4-DNP stress and increased the removal efficiency of 2,4-DNP by these seedlings. Specifically, the addition of 50 mg·L-1 MeJA resulted in a removal percentage of 79.57%, which was 11.88% higher than that achieved with 2,4-DNP treatment. In conclusion, exogenous MeJA can improve the plant resistance and enhance 2,4-DNP phytoremediation.

Silicon nanoparticles vs trace elements toxicity: Modus operandi and its omics bases

Phytotoxicity of trace elements (commonly misunderstood as 'heavy metals') includes impairment of functional groups of enzymes, photo-assembly, redox homeostasis, and nutrient status in higher plants. Silicon nanoparticles (SiNPs) can ameliorate trace element toxicity. We discuss SiNPs response against several essential (such as Cu, Ni, Mn, Mo, and Zn) and non-essential (including Cd, Pb, Hg, Al, Cr, Sb, Se, and As) trace elements. SiNPs hinder root uptake and transport of trace elements as the first line of defence. SiNPs charge plant antioxidant defence against trace elements-induced oxidative stress. The enrolment of SiNPs in gene expressions was also noticed on many occasions. These genes are associated with several anatomical and physiological phenomena, such as cell wall composition, photosynthesis, and metal uptake and transport. On this note, we dedicate the later sections of this review to support an enhanced understanding of SiNPs influence on the metabolomic, proteomic, and genomic profile of plants under trace elements toxicity.

Differential responses of chili varieties grown under cadmium stress

Heavy metal cadmium (Cd) naturally occurs in soil and is a hazardous trace contaminant for humans, animals, and plants. The main sources of Cd pollution in soil include overuse of phosphatic fertilizers, manure, sewage sludge, and aerial deposition. That's why an experiment was conducted to analyze the effect of Cd toxicity in Capsicum annuum L. by selecting its seven varieties: Hybrid, Desi, Sathra, G-916, BR-763, BG-912, and F1-9226. Cadmium was spiked in soil with four levels, i.e., (0, 3, 4, and 5 mg Cd kg- 1 of soil) for a week for homogeneous dispersion of heavy metal. Chili seeds were sown in compost-filled loamy soil, and 25-day-old seedlings were transplanted into Cd-spiked soil. Cadmium increasing concentration in soil decreased chili growth characteristics, total soluble sugars, total proteins, and amino acids. On the other hand, the activities of antioxidant enzymes were increased with the increasing concentration of Cd in almost all the varieties. Treatment 5 mg Cd/kg application caused - 197.39%, -138.78%, -60.77%, -17.84%, -16.34%, -11.82% and - 10.37% decrease of carotenoids level in chili V2 (Desi) followed by V4 (G-916), V1 (Hy7brid), V7 (F1-9226), V6 (BG-912), V5 (BR-763) and V3 (Sathra) as compared to their controls. The maximum flavonoids among varieties were in V5 (BR-763), followed by V6 (BG-912), V7 (F1-9226), V3 (Sathra) and V1 (Hybrid). Flavonoids content was decreased with - 37.63% (Sathra), -34.78% (Hybrid), -33.85% (G-916), -31.96% (F1-9226), -31.44% (Desi), -30.58% (BR-763), -22.88% (BG-912) as compared to their control at 5 mg Cd/kg soil stress. The maximum decrease in POD, SOD, and CAT was - 31.81%, -25.98%, -16.39% in chili variety V7 (F1-9226) at 5 mg Cd/kg stress compared to its control. At the same time, maximum APX content decrease was - 82.91%, followed by -80.16%, -65.19%, -40.31%, -30.14%, -10.34% and - 6.45% in V4 (G-916), V2 (Desi), V3 (Sathra), V6 (BG-912), V1 (Hybrid), V7 (F1-9226) and V5 (BR-763) at 5 mg Cd/kg treatment as compared to control chili plants. The highest CAT was found in 5 chili varieties except Desi and G-916. Desi and G-916 varieties. V5 (BR-763) and V6 (BG-912) were susceptible, while V1 (Hybrid), V3 (Sathra), and V7 (F1-9226) were with intermediate growth attributes against Cd stress. Our results suggest that Desi and G-916 chili varieties are Cd tolerant and can be grown on a large scale to mitigate Cd stress naturally.

Variability in cadmium stress tolerance among four maize genotypes: Impacts on plant physiology, root morphology, and chloroplast microstructure

Cadmium (Cd) is detrimental to both plants and humans. Maize (Zea mays L.) genotypes exhibit variations in Cd accumulations. This study examined variations in Cd accumulation and tolerance among four maize genotypes with contrasting root morphology. The four maize genotypes were cultivated in a semi-hydroponic system with three Cd concentrations (0, 10, 20 μmol L-1). The effects of Cd on plant growth and physiology were assessed 39 days after transplanting. Results showed that root characteristics were positively correlated with root Cd accumulation and the bioconcentration factor under Cd20 treatment. Genotypes Shengrui999 and Zhengdan958 exhibited higher total Cd content than Xundan29 and Zhongke11 under Cd20 conditions. Cd toxicity led to membrane degradation of chloroplast mesophyll cells, loosening and swelling of grana lamella, and reduced starch reserves. The greater tolerance of Shengrui999 and Zhengdan958 was contributed to factors such as root biomass, shallower root depth, higher Cd content, accumulation of osmolyte such as soluble protein, antioxidant activities such as catalase (CAT), and the presence of phytohormone gibberellic acid. The study establishes a link between root morphology, Cd accumulation, and tolerance in maize plants, as demonstrated by the higher Cd accumulation and shallower root system in Cd-tolerant genotypes. This research provides a foundation for breeding maize cultivars better suited for adaptation to moderate Cd-contaminated environments.

Integrated physiological and omics analyses reveal the mechanism of beneficial fungal Trichoderma sp. alleviating cadmium toxicity in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.)

Cadmium (Cd) is a highly toxic heavy metal and readily accumulates in tobacco, which imperils public health via Cd exposure from smoking. Beneficial microbes have a pivotal role in promoting plant growth, especially under environmental stresses such as heavy metal stresses. In this study, we introduced a novel fungal strain Trichoderma nigricans T32781, and investigated its capacity to alleviate Cd-induced stress in tobacco plants through comprehensive physiological and omics analyses. Our findings revealed that T32781 inoculation in soil leads to a substantial reduction in Cd-induced growth inhibition. This was evidenced by increased plant height, enhanced biomass accumulation, and improved photosynthesis, as indicated by higher values of key photosynthetic parameters, including the maximum quantum yield of photosystem Ⅱ (Fv/Fm), stomatal conductance (Gs), photosynthetic rate (Pn) and transpiration rate (Tr). Furthermore, element analysis demonstrated that T. nigricans T32781 inoculation resulted in a remarkable reduction of Cd uptake by 62.2% and a 37.8% decrease in available soil Cd compared to Cd-stressed plants without inoculation. The protective role of T32781 extended to mitigating Cd-induced oxidative stress by improving antioxidant enzyme activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX). Metabolic profiling of tobacco roots identified 43 key metabolites, with notable contributions from compounds like nicotinic acid, succinic acid, and fumaric acid in reducing Cd toxicity in T32781-inoculated plants. Additionally, rhizosphere microbiome analysis highlighted the promotion of beneficial microbes, including Gemmatimonas and Sphingomonas, by T32781 inoculation, which potentially contributed to the restoration of plant growth under Cd exposure. In summary, our study demonstrated that T. nigricans T32781 effectively alleviated Cd stress in tobacco plants by reducing Cd uptake, alleviating Cd-induced oxidative stress, influencing plant metabolite and modulating the microbial composition in the rhizosphere. These findings offer a novel perspective and a promising candidate strain for enhancing Cd tolerance and prohibiting its accumulation in plants to reduce health risks associated with exposure to Cd-contaminated plants.

Unraveling the effects of zinc sulfate nanoparticles and potassium fertilizers on quality of maize and associated health risks in Cd contaminated soils under different moisture regimes

This study investigated the interactive effects of zinc sulfate nanoparticles (ZnSO4 NPs) and potassium fertilizers (SOP and MOP) on growth and quality of maize (Zea mays L.) under different moisture regimes in cadmium contaminated soils. It seeks to identify how these two different sources of nutrients interact to improve the quality of maize grains and fodder production to ensure food safety and food security under abiotic stresses. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse under two moisture regimes including M1 (non-limiting regime, 20-30 %) and M2 (water-limiting, 10-15 %) at Cd contamination of 20 mg kg-1. The results showed that ZnSO4 NPs combined with potassium fertilizers significantly increased the growth and proximate composition of maize in Cd contaminated soil. Moreover, applied amendments significantly alleviated the stress induced in maize by improving the growth. The greatest increase in maize growth and quality was observed when ZnSO4 NPs were applied in combination with SOP (K2SO4). The results also showed that the interactive effects of ZnSO4 NPs and potassium fertilizers significantly affected the Cd bioavailability in soil and concentration in plants. It was observed that MOP (KCl) enhanced the Cd bioavailability in soil due to presence of Cl anion. In addition, the application of ZnSO4 NPs combined with SOP fertilizer reduced the concentration of Cd in maize grain and shoot, and significantly reduced the probable health risks to humans and cattle. It suggested that this strategy could help to reduce Cd exposure through food consumption and therefore ensure food safety. Our findings suggest that ZnSO4 NPs and SOP can be used synergistically to improve maize crop production and development of agricultural practices in areas affected by Cd contamination. Moreover, by understanding the interactive effects of these two sources of nutrients, this research could help in the management of areas affected by heavy metals contamination. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATION: The application of zinc and potassium fertilizers can increase the biomass of maize, minimize abiotic stresses, and improve the nutritional value of the crop in Cd contaminated soils; this is particularly true when zinc sulfate nanoparticles and sulfate of potash (K2SO4) are used in conjunction. This form of fertilizer management can lead to a greater, more sustainable yield of maize under contaminated soils, which could have a major impact on global food supply. Remediation coupled with agro-production (RCA) not only improves the effectiveness of the process but will also encourage farmers to take part in soil remediation by easy management.

Ameliorative effects of Si-SNP synergy to mitigate chromium induced stress in Brassica juncea

Hyperaccumulation of heavy metal in agricultural land has hampered yield of important crops globally. It has consequently deepened concerns regarding the burning issue of food security in the world. Among heavy metals, Chromium (Cr) is not needed for plant growth and found to pose detrimental effects on plants. Present study highlights the role of exogenous application of sodium nitroprusside (SNP, exogenous donor of NO) and silicon (Si) in alleviating detrimental ramification of Cr toxicity in Brassica juncea. The exposure of B. juncea to Cr (100 μM) under hydroponic system hampered the morphological parameters of plant growth like length and biomass and physiological parameters like carotenoid and chlorophyll contents. It also resulted in oxidative stress by disrupting the equilibrium between ROS production and antioxidant quenching leading to accumulation of ROS such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and superoxide (O2•‾) radicle which causes lipid peroxidation. However, application of Si and SNP both individually and in combination counteracted oxidative stress due to Cr by regulating ROS accumulation and enhancing antioxidant metabolism by upregulation of antioxidant genes of DHAR, MDHAR, APX and GR. As the alleviatory effects were more pronounced in plants treated with combined application of Si and SNP; therefore, our findings suggest that dual application of these two alleviators can be used to mitigate Cr stress.

Silicon Combined with Melatonin Reduces Cd Absorption and Translocation in Maize

Cadmium (Cd) is one of the most toxic and widely distributed heavy metal pollutants, posing a huge threat to crop production, food security, and human health. Corn is an important food source and feed crop. Corn growth is subject to Cd stress; thus, reducing cadmium stress, absorption, and transportation is of great significance for achieving high yields, a high efficiency, and sustainable and safe corn production. The use of silicon or melatonin alone can reduce cadmium accumulation and toxicity in plants, but it is unclear whether the combination of silicon and melatonin can further reduce the damage caused by cadmium. Therefore, pot experiments were conducted to study the effects of melatonin and silicon on maize growth and cadmium accumulation. The results showed that cadmium stress significantly inhibited the growth of maize, disrupted its physiological processes, and led to cadmium accumulation in plants. Compared to the single treatment of silicon or melatonin, the combined application of melatonin and silicon significantly alleviated the inhibition of the growth of maize seedlings caused by cadmium stress. This was demonstrated by the increased plant heights, stem diameters, and characteristic root parameters and the bioaccumulation in maize seedlings. Under cadmium stress, the combined application of silicon and melatonin increased the plant height and stem diameter by 17.03% and 59.33%, respectively, and increased the total leaf area by 43.98%. The promotion of corn growth is related to the reduced oxidative damage under cadmium stress, manifested in decreases in the malondialdehyde content and relative conductivity and increases in antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase and guaiacol peroxidase activities, as well as in soluble protein and chlorophyll contents. In addition, cadmium accumulation in different parts of maize seedlings and the health risk index of cadmium were significantly reduced, reaching 48.44% (leaves), 19.15% (roots), and 20.86% (health risk index), respectively. Therefore, melatonin and silicon have a significant synergistic effect in inhibiting cadmium absorption and reducing the adverse effects of cadmium toxicity.

Interactive effect of silicon and zinc on cadmium toxicity alleviation in wheat plants

Silicon (Si) and Zinc (Zn) have been frequently used to alleviate cadmium (Cd) toxicity, which are feasible strategies for crop safety production. However, the mechanisms underlying the interaction of Si and Zn on alleviating Cd toxicity are not well understood. A hydroponic system was adopted to evaluate morphological, physiological-biochemical responses, and related gene expression of wheat seedlings to Si (1 mM) and Zn (50 µM) addition under Cd stress (10 µM). Cd induced obvious inhibition of wheat growth by disturbing photosynthesis and chlorophyll synthesis, provoking generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and interfering ion homeostasis. Cd concentration was decreased by 68.3%, 43.1% and 73.3% in shoot, and 78.9%, 44.1% and 85.8% in root by Si, Zn, and combination of Si with Zn, relative to Cd only, respectively. Si and Zn effectively ameliorated Cd toxicity and enhanced wheat growth; but single Si or combination of Si with Zn had more efficient ability on alleviating Cd stress than only Zn, indicating Si and Zn have synergistic effect on Cd toxicity; Interaction of them alleviated oxidative stress by reducing ROS content, improving AsA-GSH cycle and antioxidant enzymes activities, and regulating Cd into vacuole through PC-Cd complexes transported by HMA3 transporter. Our results suggest that fertilizers including Si and Zn should be made to reduce Cd content, which will beneficial for food production and safety.

Argon-stimulated nitric oxide production and its function in alfalfa cadmium tolerance

Recent results showed that argon may have great potential in both medicines (especially) and agriculture. However, how argon positively influences crop physiology remains elusive. Here, we observed that the stimulation of nitric oxide (NO) production upon cadmium (Cd) stress in hydroponic alfalfa root tissues was strengthened by argon-rich water and/or a NO-releasing compound. The pharmacological results further indicated that above potential source of NO stimulation achieved by argon might be attributed to NO synthase (NOS) and nitrate reductase (NR). Under hydroponic and pot conditions, the improvement of Cd tolerance elicited by argon, confirmed by the alleviation in the plant growth inhibition, oxidative damage, and Cd accumulation, was sensitive to the scavenger of NO. These results suggested a crucial role of argon-induced NO synthesis in response to Cd stress. Subsequent evidence showed that the improved iron homeostasis and increased S-nitrosylation were also dependent on argon-stimulated NO. Above results were matched with the transcriptional profiles of representative target genes involved in heavy metal detoxification, antioxidant defence, and iron homeostasis. Taken together, our results clearly indicated that argon-stimulated NO production contributes to Cd tolerance by favoring important defense strategies against heavy metal exposure.

Nitric oxide induces antioxidant machinery, PSII functioning and artemisinin biosynthesis in Artemisia annua under cadmium stress

Soil contamination by heavy metals poses a significant environmental challenge, as the practical implementation of existing remediation technologies in the field has encountered numerous obstacles. This has necessitated the requirement of finding alternate solutions to reduce the harm caused to plants. In this study, nitric oxide (NO) was investigated for its potential to reduce cadmium (Cd) toxicity in A. annua plants. Although NO plays a vital role in the growth and development of plants, information on its role in reducing abiotic stress in plants is limited. A. annua plants were exposed to 20 and 40 mg/kg Cd regardless of the addition of exogenous sodium nitroprusside (SNP), a NO donor, at 200 µM concentration. Results showed that SNP treatment improved plant growth, photosynthesis, chlorophyll fluorescence, pigment content, and artemisinin production while reducing Cd accumulation and improving membrane stability in A. annua during Cd stress. The results demonstrated that NO can effectively reverse Cd-induced damage in A. annua by modulating the antioxidant system, maintaining redox homeostasis, and improving photosynthetic performance and different fluorescence parameters such as Fv/Fm, ФPSII, and ETR. The supplementation of SNP caused a substantial improvement in chloroplast ultrastructure, stomatal behavior, and different attributes relate to glandular secretory trichomes, which in turn increased artemisinin production; 14.11 % in plants exposed to Cd stress of 20 mg/kg. Our findings highlight that NO could be useful in mediating the repair of Cd-induced damage to A. annua, and suggest that it may play a critical role in plant signaling networks, improving plant adaptability to Cd stress. The results have important implications for developing new strategies to mitigate the negative impacts of environmental contaminants on plant health, and ultimately, the ecosystem.

Unraveling the role of multi-walled carbon nanotubes in a corn-soil system: Plant growth, oxidative stress and heavy metal(loid)s behavior

In the age of nanotechnological advancement, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are drawing global attention. However, few studies have been published on the crop growth responses to CNTs in heavy metal(loid)s contaminated environments. A pot experiment was conducted to assess the effect of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) on plant development, oxidative stress, and heavy metal(loid)s behavior in a corn-soil system. Corn (Zea mays L.) seedlings were cultivated in soil containing Cadmium (Cd) and Arsenic (As) that had been primed with 0, 100, 500, and 1000 mg kg^-1 MWCNTs. The application of 100 and 500 mg kg^-1 MWCNTs improved shoot length by 6.45% and 9.21% after 45 days, respectively. Total plant dry biomass increased by 14.71% when treated with 500 mg kg^-1 MWCNTs but decreased by 9.26% when exposed to 1000 mg kg^-1 MWCNTs. MWCNTs treatment did not affect Cd accumulation in plants. On the other hand, the bio-concentration factor of As was inversely associated with plant growth (p < 0.05), which was declined in MWCNTs treatments. Oxidative stress was aggravated when plants were exposed to MWCNTs, thus activating the antioxidant enzymes system in the corn. In contrast, TCLP-extractable Cd and As in soil significantly decreased than in the control. Additionally, the soil nutrients were changed under MWCNTs treatments. Our findings also revealed that a particular concentration of MWCNTs can mitigate the toxicity of Cd and As in corn seedlings. Therefore, these results suggest the prospective application of CNTs in agricultural production, ensuring environmental and soil sustainability.

Production and Fiber Characteristics of Colored Cotton Cultivares under Salt Stress and H2O2

Salt stress reduces the yield and quality of colored fiber cotton production, but this problem can be mitigated by the foliar application of hydrogen peroxide in adequate concentrations. In this context, the objective of the present study was to evaluate the production and characteristics of fibers of naturally colored cotton cultivares under irrigation with low- and high-salinity water and leaf application of hydrogen peroxide. The experiment was carried out in a greenhouse under a randomized block design, arranged in 4 × 3 × 2 factorial scheme, corresponding to four concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (0, 25, 50, and 75 μM), three cultivares of colored fiber cotton ('BRS Rubi', 'BRS Topázio', and 'BRS Verde'), and two electrical conductivities of water (0.8 and 5.3 dS m^-1), with three replicates and one plant per plot. Irrigation with water of 0.8 dS m^-1 associated with a foliar application of 75 μM of hydrogen peroxide favored the lint and seed weight, strength, micronaire index, and maturity of 'BRS Topázio'. The 'BRS Rubi' cotton cultivar showed higher tolerance to salinity, followed by the 'BRS Topázio' and 'BRS Verde' cultivares regarding the yield of seed cotton weight, with reduction below 20% under water of 5.3 dS m^-1.

TGase-induced Cd tolerance by boosting polyamine, nitric oxide, cell wall composition and phytochelatin synthesis in tomato

In highly intensive greenhouse vegetable production, soil acidification was caused by excessive fertilization, increasing cadmium (Cd) concentrations in the vegetables, which bears environmental hazards and is a negative influence on vegetables and humans. Transglutaminases (TGases), a central mediator for certain physiological effects of polyamines (PAs) in the plant kingdom, play important roles in plant development and stress response. Despite increased research on the crucial role of TGase in protecting against environmental stresses, relatively little is known about the mechanisms of Cd tolerance. In this study, we found, TGase activity and transcript level, which was upregulated by Cd, and TGase-induced Cd tolerance related to endogenous bound PAs increase and formation of nitric oxide (NO). Plant growth of tgase mutants was hypersensitive to Cd, chemical complementation by putrescine, sodium nitroprusside (SNP, nitric oxide donor) or gain of function TGase experiments restore Cd tolerance. α-diflouromethylornithine (DFMO, a selective ODC inhibitor) and 2-4-carboxyphenyl-4,4,5,5-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide (cPTIO, NO scavenger), were respectively found declined drastically endogenous bound PA and NO content in TGase overexpression plants. Likewise, we reported that TGase interacted with polyamine uptake protein 3 (Put3), and the silencing of Put3 largely reduced TGase-induced Cd tolerance and bound PAs formation. This salvage strategy depends on TGase-regulated synthesis of bound PAs and NO that is able to positively increase the concentration of thiol and phytochelatins, elevate Cd in the cell wall, as well as induce the levels of expression Cd uptake and transport genes. Collectively, these findings indicate that TGase-mediated enhanced levels of bound PA and NO acts as a vital mechanism to protect the plant from Cd-caused toxicity.

How different is the remediation effect of biochar for cadmium contaminated soil in various cropping systems? A global meta-analysis

Cadmium (Cd) poses great threats to human health as a major contaminant in agricultural soil. Biochar shows great potential in the remediation of agricultural soil. However, it remains unclear whether the remediation effect of biochar on Cd pollution is affected by various cropping systems. Here, this study used 2007 paired observations from 227 peer-reviewed articles and employed hierarchical meta-analysis to investigate the response of three types of cropping systems to the remediation of Cd pollution by using biochar. As a result, biochar application significantly reduced the Cd content in soil, plant roots and edible parts of various cropping systems. The decrease in Cd level ranged from 24.9% to 45.0%. The feedstock, application rate, and pH of biochar as well as soil pH and cation exchange capacity were dominant factors for Cd remediation effect of biochar, and their relative importance all exceeded 37.4%. Lignocellulosic and herbal biochar were found to be suitable for all cropping systems, while the effects of manure, wood and biomass biochar were limited in cereal cropping systems. Furthermore, biochar exhibited a more long-lasting remediation effect on paddy soils than on dryland. This study provides new insights into the sustainable agricultural management of typical cropping systems.

Genotypic variation in the tolerance to moderate cadmium toxicity among 20 maize genotypes with contrasting root systems

BACKGROUND

Cadmium (Cd) contamination in farmland is a serious environmental and safety issue affecting plant growth, crop productivity, and human health. This study aimed to investigate genotypic variation in root morphology and Cd accumulations under moderate Cd stress among diverse maize genotypes. Twenty maize genotypes with contrasting root systems were assessed for Cd tolerance 39 days after transplanting (V6, six-leaf stage) under 20 μmol L^-1 CdCl₂ using a semi-hydroponic phenotyping platform in a glasshouse.

RESULTS

Cadmium stress significantly inhibited plant growth across all genotypes. Genotypic variation in response to Cd toxicity was apparent: shoot dry weight varied from 0.13 (genotype NS2020) to 0.35 g plant^-1 (Dongke301) with deductions up to 63% compared with non-Cd treatment (CK). Root dry weight of 20 genotypes ranged from 0.06 (NS2020) to 0.18 g plant^-1 (Dongke301) with a deduction up to 56%. Root length ranged from 2.21 (NS590b) to 9.22 m (Dongke301) with a maximal decline of 76%. Cadmium-treated genotypes generally had thicker roots and average diameter increased by 34% compared with CK. Genotypes had up to 3.25 and 3.50 times differences in shoot and root Cd concentrations, respectively. Principal component and cluster analyses assigned the 20 genotypes into Cd-tolerant (five genotypes) and Cd-sensitive (15 genotypes) groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Maize genotypes varied significantly in response to moderate Cd stress. Cadmium-tolerant genotypes optimized root morphology and Cd accumulation and distribution. This study could assist in the selection and breeding of new cultivars with improved adaptation to Cd-contaminated soil for food and feed or land remediation purposes. © 2022 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Overexpression of RtSYP121 confers cadmium colerance by promoting vesicle trafficking, maintaining ion homeostasis, and alleviating photosynthetic inhibition in Arabidopsis

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic heavy metal in soil that seriously threatens crop production, food security, and human health. Syntaxins, a prototype family of Soluble N-ethyl-maleimide-associated protein receptors (SNAREs) involved in vesicle trafficking, are implicated in resistance to abiotic stresses, including Cd stress, but the molecular mechanisms underlying the involvement of syntaxins in Cd tolerance in plants are unclear. In this study, we isolated and functionally characterized the syntaxin gene RtSYP121 from Reaumuria trigyna to evaluate its potential for phytoremediation. RtSYP121 resides in the plasma membrane. The transcriptional level of RtSYP121 was strongly increased by salt, drought, and Cd stress. Overexpression of RtSYP121 significantly enhanced the Cd tolerance of transgenic Arabidopsis. The Cd tolerance of transgenic plants mainly depended on elevated vesicle trafficking, which increased the content of K⁺ and Ca²⁺ and thus decreased the accumulation of Cd²⁺ by regulating the delivery or activity of ion transporters, channels, and pumps. Moreover, overexpression of RtSYP121 in Arabidopsis ameliorated Cd stress-induced phytotoxic effects, including growth inhibition, ROS burst, photosynthetic impairment, and cell death. Therefore, we suggest that RtSYP121 plays multiple roles in the plant response to Cd stress by promoting vesicle trafficking, maintaining ion homeostasis, and alleviating photosynthetic inhibition.

A state-of-the-art review on cadmium uptake, toxicity, and tolerance in rice: From physiological response to remediation process

Cadmium (Cd), a major contaminant of concern, has been extensively reviewed and debated for its anthropogenic global shifts. Cadmium levels in rice grains raise wide food safety concerns. The aim of this review is therefore to capture the dynamics of Cd in paddy soil, translocation pathways of Cd from soil to consumption rice, and assess its bio-accessibility in human consumption. In crop plants, Cd reduces absorption of nutrients and water, triggers oxidative stress, and inhibits plant metabolism. Understanding the mechanisms and behaviour of Cd in paddy soil and rice allows to explain, predict and intervene in Cd transferability from soil to grains and human exposure. Factors affecting Cd movement in soil, and further to rice grain, are elucidated. Recently, physiological and molecular understanding of Cd transport in rice plants have been advanced. Morphological-biochemical characteristics and Cd transporters of plants in such a movement were also highlighted. Ecologically viable remediation approaches, including low input cost agronomic methods, phytoremediation and microbial bioremediation methods, are emerging.

Melatonin Alleviates Chromium Toxicity in Maize by Modulation of Cell Wall Polysaccharides Biosynthesis, Glutathione Metabolism, and Antioxidant Capacity

Melatonin, a pleiotropic regulatory molecule, is involved in the defense against heavy metal stress. Here, we used a combined transcriptomic and physiological approach to investigate the underlying mechanism of melatonin in mitigating chromium (Cr) toxicity in Zea mays L. Maize plants were treated with either melatonin (10, 25, 50 and 100 μM) or water and exposed to 100 μM K₂Cr₂O₇ for seven days. We showed that melatonin treatment significantly decreased the Cr content in leaves. However, the Cr content in the roots was not affected by melatonin. Analyses of RNA sequencing, enzyme activities, and metabolite contents showed that melatonin affected cell wall polysaccharide biosynthesis, glutathione (GSH) metabolism, and redox homeostasis. During Cr stress, melatonin treatment increased cell wall polysaccharide contents, thereby retaining more Cr in the cell wall. Meanwhile, melatonin improved the GSH and phytochelatin contents to chelate Cr, and the chelated complexes were then transported to the vacuoles for sequestration. Furthermore, melatonin mitigated Cr-induced oxidative stress by enhancing the capacity of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants. Moreover, melatonin biosynthesis-defective mutants exhibited decreased Cr stress resistance, which was related to lower pectin, hemicellulose 1, and hemicellulose 2 than wild-type plants. These results suggest that melatonin alleviates Cr toxicity in maize by promoting Cr sequestration, re-establishing redox homeostasis, and inhibiting Cr transport from the root to the shoot.

Silicon-mediated regulation of cadmium transport and activation of antioxidant defense system enhances Pennisetum glaucum resistance to cadmium stress

Pennisetum glaucum is an important forage grass for livestock. However, the large accumulation of cadmium (Cd) in plant tissues increases the risk of heavy metals entering the food chain in Cd-contaminated soils. Silicon (Si) can inhibit cadmium (Cd) uptake and enhance tolerance of plant to Cd toxicity, but whether and how Si alleviates Cd toxicity in grass and the underlying mechanisms are unclear. The present study explored the differential mechanisms of silicon-induced Cd transport in apoplast and symplast, Cd distribution in root tissue and antioxidant defense system in P. glaucum under Cd stress through hydroponic and pot experiments. The present results showed that exogenous Si supply significantly reduced Cd concentrations in apoplast and symplast; Si treatment increased monosilicic acid concentration in apoplast and symplast of the roots and shoots under Cd stress. Elemental analysis of root microdomains showed that Si treatment increased the distribution of Cd and Si in the endodermis by 42.6% and 14.0%, respectively. Si alleviated the adverse influences of Cd on plant growth, which were manifested in root morphological traits and root activity. In addition, Si addition significantly increased the activities of catalase and superoxide dismutase by 37.0% and 72.7%, and improved the efficiency of the ascorbate-glutathione cycle in Cd-stress shoots. Furthermore, Si significantly reduced the contents of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion in Cd-stressed shoots by 16.6% and 48.7%, respectively. These findings demonstrate that Si enhances the resistance of P. glaucum to Cd stress through regulating Cd transport pathways and activating antioxidant defense systems.

Silicon nanoparticles in higher plants: Uptake, action, stress tolerance, and crosstalk with phytohormones, antioxidants, and other signalling molecules

Silicon is absorbed as uncharged mono-silicic acid by plant roots through passive absorption of Lsi1, an influx transporter belonging to the aquaporin protein family. Lsi2 then actively effluxes silicon from root cells towards the xylem from where it is exported by Lsi6 for silicon distribution and accumulation to other parts. Recently, it was proposed that silicon nanoparticles (SiNPs) might share a similar route for their uptake and transport. SiNPs then initiate a cascade of morphophysiological adjustments that improve the plant physiology through regulating the expression of many photosynthetic genes and proteins along with photosystem I (PSI) and PSII assemblies. Subsequent improvement in photosynthetic performance and stomatal behaviour correspond to higher growth, development, and productivity. On many occasions, SiNPs have demonstrated a protective role during stressful environments by improving plant-water status, source-sink potential, reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism, and enzymatic profile. The present review comprehensively discusses the crop improvement potential of SiNPs stretching their role during optimal and abiotic stress conditions including salinity, drought, temperature, heavy metals, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Moreover, in the later section of this review, we offered the understanding that most of these upgrades can be explained by SiNPs intricate correspondence with phytohormones, antioxidants, and signalling molecules. SiNPs can modulate the endogenous phytohormones level such as abscisic acid (ABA), auxins (IAAs), cytokinins (CKs), ethylene (ET), gibberellins (GAs), and jasmonic acid (JA). Altered phytohormones level affects plant growth, development, and productivity at various organ and tissue levels. Similarly, SiNPs regulate the activities of catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and ascorbate-glutathione (AsA-GSH) cycle leading to an upgraded defence system. At the cellular and subcellular levels, SiNPs crosstalk with various signalling molecules such as Ca²⁺, K⁺, Na⁺, nitric oxide (NO), ROS, soluble sugars, and transcription factors (TFs) was also explained.

WRKY74 regulates cadmium tolerance through glutathione-dependent pathway in wheat

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic heavy metal to plants and human health. Ascorbate (ASA)-glutathione (GSH) synthesis pathway plays key roles in Cd detoxification, while its molecular regulatory mechanism remains largely unknown, especially in wheat. Here, we found a WRKY transcription factor-TaWRKY74, and its function in wheat Cd stress is not clear in previous studies. The expression levels of TaWRKY74 were significantly induced by Cd stress. Compared to control, the activities of GST, GR, or APX were significantly increased by 1.55-, 1.43-, or 1.75-fold and 1.63-, 2.65-, or 2.30-fold in shoots and roots of transiently TaWRKY74-silenced wheat plants under Cd stress. Similarly, the contents of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), malondialdehyde (MDA), GSH, or Cd were also significantly increased by 2.39- or 1.25-fold, 1.54- or 1.20-fold, and 1.34- or 5.94-fold in shoots or roots in transiently TaWRKY74-silenced wheat plants, while ASA content was decreased by 47.4 or 43.3% in shoots, 10.7 or 6.5% in roots in these silenced wheat plants, respectively. Moreover, the expression levels of GSH, GPX, GR, DHAR, MDHAR, and APX genes, which are involved in ASA-GSH synthesis, were separately induced by 2.42-, 2.16-, 3.28-, 2.08-, 1.92-, and 2.23-fold in shoots, or by 10.69-, 3.33-, 3.26-, 1.81-, 16.53-, and 3.57-fold in roots of the BSMV-VIGS-TaWRKY74-inoculated wheat plants, respectively. However, the expression levels of TaNramp1, TaNramp5, TaHMA2, TaHMA3, TaLCT1, and TaIRT1 metal transporters genes were decreased by 21.2-76.3% (56.6%, 59.2%, 76.3%, 53.6%, 35.8%, and 21.2%) in roots of the BSMV-VIGS-TaWRKY74-inoculated wheat plants. Taken together, our results suggested that TaWRKY74 alleviated Cd toxicity in wheat by affecting the expression of ASA-GSH synthesis genes and suppressing the expression of Cd transporter genes, and further affecting Cd uptake and translocation in wheat plants.

The involvement of nitric oxide and ethylene on the formation of endodermal barriers in response to Cd in hyperaccumulator Sedum alfredii

Nitric oxide (NO) and ethylene are both important signaling molecules which participate in numerous plant development processes and environmental stress resistance. Here, we investigate whether and how NO interacts with ethylene during the development of endodermal barriers that have major consequences for the apoplastic uptake of cadmium (Cd) in the hyperaccumulator Sedum alfredii. In response to Cd, an increased NO accumulation, while a decrease in ethylene production was observed in the roots of S. alfredii. Exogenous supplementation of NO donor SNP (sodium nitroprusside) decreased the ethylene production in roots, while NO scavenger cPTIO (2-(4-carboxyphenyl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide) had the opposite effect. The exogenous addition of NO affected the ethylene production through regulating the expression of genes related to ethylene synthesis. However, upon exogenous ethylene addition, roots retained their NO accumulation. The abovementioned results suggest that ethylene is downstream of the NO signaling pathway in S. alfredii. Regardless of Cd, addition of SNP promoted the deposition of endodermal barriers via regulating the genes related to Casparian strips deposition and suberization. Correlation analyses indicate that NO positively modifies the formation of endodermal barriers via the NO-ethylene signaling pathway, Cd-induced NO accumulation interferes with the synthesis of ethylene, leading to a deposition of endodermal barriers in S. alfredii.

Occurrence of Microplastics and Heavy Metals in Aquatic and Agroecosystem: A Case Study

A case study was conducted to evaluate the microplastics and heavy metals distribution in Pakistani farmland. Wastewater, soil, and vegetable samples were collected from four locations that received raw effluents for irrigation in the Faisalabad district. The average MPs abundances found in soil was 2790.75 items/kg, FSD-S has higher MPs (3865 items/kg) which is almost 34.62% from the total. However, the highest metal pollution (3.666 mg/kg) was recorded in the FSD-E zone, Cr showed the highest transfer factor about 34.24% in FSD-N in comparison with other sites. This research establishes a benchmark for estimating the environmental harm posed by microplastics and heavy metals in this rapidly emerging field of study.

Proteomic and physiological analyses to elucidate nitric oxide-mediated adaptive responses of barley under cadmium stress

Nitric oxide (NO) is known to induce plant resistance for several environmental stresses. The protective roles of NO in cadmium (Cd) toxicity have been well documented for various plant species; nevertheless, little information is available about its molecular regulation in improving Cd tolerance of barley plants. Therefore, we combined a comparative proteomics with physiological analyses to evaluate the potential roles of NO in alleviating Cd stress (50 μM) in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) seedlings. Exogenous application of NO donor sodium nitroprusside (SNP, 100 μM) decreased the Cd-mediated seedling growth inhibition. This observation was supported by the reduction of lipid peroxidation as well as the improvement of chlorophyll content and inhibition of hydrogen peroxide accumulation. Activities of the superoxide dismutase and guaiacol peroxidase were reduced following the application of SNP, while ascorbate peroxidase activity was enhanced. In this study, a total of 34 proteins were significantly regulated by NO in the leaves under Cd stress using a gel-based proteomic approach. The proteomic analysis showed that several pathways were noticeably influenced by NO including photosynthesis and carbohydrate metabolism, protein metabolism, energy metabolism, stress defense, and signal transduction. These results provide new evidence that NO induce photosynthesis and energy metabolism which may enhance Cd tolerance in barley seedlings.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-022-01214-3.

Growth, Nutrient Accumulation, and Drought Tolerance in Crop Plants with Silicon Application: A Review

Plants take up silicon (Si) from the soil which impacts their growth and nutrient accumulation. It increases plant resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses such as drought, salinity, and heavy metal, diseases, and pest infestation. However, until recently, research of Si application on the crop is limited. This article reviews the recent progress of research on Si application on crop growth and yield, nutrient availability in soil and accumulation, and drought tolerance of crop plants. The review’s findings show that Si improves crop development and output under stressful environmental conditions. Silicon increases the availability and accumulation of both macronutrients (nitrogen, potassium, calcium, and sulphur) and micronutrients (iron and manganese). It improves drought resistance by increasing plant water usage efficiency and reducing water loss during transportation. Silicon application is a crucial aspect of crop productivity because of all of these favorable attributes. The gaps in current understandings are identified. Based on the outcome of the present research, future scopes of research on this field are proposed.

Nitric oxide amplifies cadmium binding in root cell wall of a high cadmium-accumulating rice (Oryza sativa L.) line by promoting hemicellulose synthesis and pectin demethylesterification

Nitric oxide (NO) is tightly associated with plant response against cadmium (Cd) stress in rice since NO impacts Cd accumulation via modulating cell wall components. In the present study, we investigated that whether and how NO regulates Cd accumulation in root in two rice lines with different Cd accumulation ability. The variation of polysaccharides in root cell wall (RCW) of a high Cd-accumulating rice line Lu527-8 and a normal rice line Lu527-4 in response to Cd stress when exogenous NO supplied by sodium nitroprusside (SNP, a NO donor) was studied. Appreciable amounts of Cd distributed in RCW, in which most Cd ions were bound to pectin for the two rice lines when exposed to Cd. Exogenous NO upregulated the expression of OsPME11 and OsPME12 that were involved in pectin demethylesterification, resulting in more low methyl-esterified pectin and therefore stronger pectin-Cd binding. Exogenous NO also enhanced the concentration of hemicellulose and the amount of Cd ions in it. These results demonstrate that NO-induced more Cd binding in RCW in the two rice lines through promoting pectin demethylesterification and increasing hemicellulose accumulation. Higher OsPMEs expression and more hemicellulose synthesis contributed to more Cd immobilization in RCW of the high Cd-accumulating rice line Lu527-8. The main findings of this study reveal the regulation of NO on cell wall polysaccharides modification under Cd stress and help to elucidate the physiological and molecular mechanism of NO participating in Cd responses of rice.

Accumulation and partitioning of toxic trace metal(loid)s in phytoliths of wheat grown in a multi-element contaminated soil

Cropland contamination by toxic trace metal (loid)s (TTMs) has attracted increasing attention due to the serious consequential threat to crop quality and human health. Mitigation of plant TTM stress by silica amendment has been proposed recently. However, the relationship between the siliceous structure of phytoliths and TTMs in plants, and the environmental implications of phytolith-occluded trace metal (loid)s (PhytTMs) remain unclear. This study assessed the accumulation of five metal (loid)s, including lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu) and arsenic (As), in the organic tissues and phytoliths of wheat grown in a mixed-TTM contaminated soil under both lightly and heavily contaminated conditions. The results show that the concentrations of plant TTMs and PhytTMs were significantly (p < 0.05) positively correlated, and higher in heavily contaminated wheats than those in lightly contaminated ones. The bio-enrichment factors between phytoliths and organic tissues were higher for As (1.83), Pb (0.27) and Zn (0.30) than for Cd (0.03) and Cu (0.14), implying that As, Pb and Zn were more readily co-precipitated with silicon (Si) in phytolith structures than Cd and Cu. Network analysis of the relationship between soil and plant elements with PhytTMs showed that severe contamination could impact the homeostasis of elements in plants by altering the translocation of TTMs between soils, plants, and phytoliths. The accumulation of TTMs in phytoliths was affected by the capacity of Si deposition in tissues and chelation of TTMs with silica, which could impact the role of PhytTMs in global biogeochemical TTM cycles.

Involvement of nitric oxide (NO) in plant responses to metalloids

Plants respond to the limited or excess supply of metalloids, boron (B), silicon (Si), selenium (Se), arsenic (As), and antimony (Sb) via complex signaling pathways that are mainly regulated by nitric oxide (NO). The absorption of metalloids from the soil is facilitated by pathways that involve aquaporins, aquaglyceroporins, phosphate, and sulfate transporters; however, their regulation by NO is poorly understood. Using in silico software, we predicted the S-nitrosation of known metalloid transporters, proposing NO-dependent regulation of metalloid transport systems at the posttranslational level. NO intensifies the stress-mitigating effect of Si, whereas in the case of Se, As, and Sb, the accumulation of NO or reactive nitrogen species contributes to toxicity. NO promotes the beneficial effect of low Se concentrations and mitigates the damage caused by B deficiency. In addition, the exogenous application of NO donor, sodium nitroprusside, reduces B, Se, and As toxicity. The primary role of NO in metalloid stress response is to mitigate oxidative stress by activating antioxidant defense at the level of protein activity and gene expression. This review discusses the role of NO in plant responses to metalloids and suggests future research directions.

Jasmonic acid (JA) and gibberellic acid (GA3) mitigated Cd-toxicity in chickpea plants through restricted cd uptake and oxidative stress management

Cadmium stress is one of the chief environmental cues that can substantially reduce plant growth. In the present research, we studied the effect of jasmonic acid (JA) and gibberellic acid (GA₃) applied individually and/or in combination to chickpea (Cicer arietinum) plants exposed to 150 µM cadmium sulphate. Cadmium stress resulted in reduced plant growth and pigment contents. Moreover, chickpea plants under cadmium contamination displayed higher levels of electrolytic leakage, H₂O_2, and malonaldehyde, as well as lower relative water content. Plants primed with JA (1 nM) and those foliar-fed with GA₃ (10^-6 M) showed improved metal tolerance by reducing the accumulation of reactive oxygen species, malonaldehyde and electrolytic leakage, and increasing relative water content. . Osmoprotectants like proline and glycinebetaine increased under cadmium contamination. Additionally, the enzymatic activities and non-enzymatic antioxidant levels increased markedly under Cd stress, but application of JA as well as of GA₃ further improved these attributes. Enzymes pertaining to the ascorbate glutathione and glyoxylase systems increased significantly when the chickpea plants were exposed to Cd. However, JA and GA₃ applied singly or in combination showed improved enzymatic activities as well as nutrient uptake, whereas they reduced the metal accumulation in chickpea plants. Taken together, our findings demonstrated that JA and GA₃ are suitable agents for regulating Cd stress resistance in chickpea plants.

Interplay of hydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide: systemic regulation of photosynthetic performance and nitrogen metabolism in cadmium challenged cyanobacteria

In the present study, the potential role of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and nitric oxide (NO) has been well recorded in the induction of cadmium (Cd) stress tolerance in cyanobacteria. In this regard, H₂O₂ and SNP (sodium nitroprusside, NO donor), were applied to Nostoc muscorum and Anabaena sp. exposed to Cd (6 µM) stress, to analyze different physiological and biochemical parameters. Results revealed that treatment of Cd reduced the growth, pigment contents, photosynthetic oxygen yield and performance of PS II photochemistry (decreased chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters, i.e., ФP_o, Ψ_o, ФE_o, PI_ABS along with F_v/F_o and increased the energy flux parameters, i.e., ABS/RC, TR_o/RC, ET_o/RC, DI_o/RC along with F_o/F_v. Similarly, uptake of nitrate (NO₃ ^-) and nitrite (NO₂ ^-), as well as the activities of nitrate and ammonia assimilating enzymes along with carbohydrate content, were severely affected by Cd toxicity and notwithstanding this, glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) activity exhibited reverse trend. Exogenous application of a very low dose (1 µM) of H₂O₂ (only for 3 h) and NO (SNP; 10 µM) notably counteracted Cd-induced toxicity. Nevertheless, the positive impact of H₂O₂ got reversed under the treatment of PTIO (NO scavenger) and _LNAME (inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase; NOS) while NO could work efficiently even in the presence of NAC (H₂O₂ scavenger) and DPI (inhibitor of NADPH oxidase); hence indicated towards the H₂O₂ mediated NO signaling in averting Cd induced toxicity in test cyanobacteria. In conclusion, current finding demonstrated a positive cross-talk between H₂O₂ and NO for providing tolerance to cyanobacteria against Cd stress.

Effects of silicon on heavy metal uptake at the soil-plant interphase: A review

Silicon (Si) is the second richest element in the soil and surface of earth crust with a variety of positive roles in soils and plants. Different soil factors influence the Si bioavailability in soil-plant system. The Si involves in the mitigation of various biotic (insect pests and pathogenic diseases) and abiotic stresses (salt, drought, heat, and heavy metals etc.) in plants by improving plant tolerance mechanism at various levels. However, Si-mediated restrictions in heavy metals uptake and translocation from soil to plants and within plants require deep understandings. Recently, Si-based improvements in plant defense system, cell damage repair, cell homeostasis, and regulation of metabolism under heavy metal stress are getting more attention. However, limited knowledge is available on the molecular mechanisms by which Si can reduce the toxicity of heavy metals, their uptake and transfer from soil to plant roots. Thus, this review is focused the following facets in greater detail to provide better understandings about the role of Si at molecular level; (i) how Si improves tolerance in plants to variable environmental conditions, (ii) how biological factors affect Si pools in the soil (iii) how soil properties impact the release and capability of Si to decrease the bioavailability of heavy metals in soil and their accumulation in plant roots; (iv) how Si influences the plant root system with respect to heavy metals uptake or sequestration, root Fe/Mn plaque, root cell wall and compartment; (v) how Si makes complexes with heavy metals and restricts their translocation/transfer in root cell and influences the plant hormonal regulation; (vi) the competition of uptake between Si and heavy metals such as arsenic, aluminum, and cadmium due to similar membrane transporters, and (vii) how Si-mediated regulation of gene expression involves in the uptake, transportation and accumulation of heavy metals by plants and their possible detoxification mechanisms. Furthermore, future research work with respect to mitigation of heavy metal toxicity in plants is also discussed.

Effect of exogenous silicon and methyl jasmonate on the alleviation of cadmium-induced phytotoxicity in tomato plants

In the present study, a hydroponic experiment was performed to evaluate the effect of exogenous silicon (Si) and methyl jasmonate (MeJA) on the mitigation of Cd toxicity in tomato seedlings. The results revealed that Cd-stressed plants exhibited growth inhibition, increased lipid peroxidation, and impaired photosynthetic pigment accumulation. However, Si and MeJA applied alone or in combination significantly ameliorated the above-mentioned adverse effects induced by Cd. Among all treatments, Cd+Si+MeJA treatment elevated the dry mass of roots, stems, and leaves by 317.39%, 110.85%, and 119.71%, respectively. The chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoid contents in Cd+Si+MeJA-treated group were dramatically elevated (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, the malondialdehyde content in roots and shoots were reduced by 32.24% and 69.94%, respectively. The Si and MeJA applied separately or in combination also resulted in a prominent decrease of Cd influxes in tomato roots; therefore, a reduction of Cd content in tomato tissues were detected, and the Cd concentration in tomato roots were decreased by 27.19%, 25.18%, and 17.51% in Cd+Si, Cd+MeJA and Cd+Si+MeJA-treated plants, respectively. Moreover, in Cd+Si+MeJA-treated group, the percentage of Cd in cell wall fraction was enhanced while that in organelle fraction was decreased as compared with Cd-stressed plants. Collectively, our findings indicated that Si and MeJA application provide a beneficial role in enhancing Cd tolerance and reducing Cd uptake in tomato plants.

Exploring the significant contribution of silicon in regulation of cellular redox homeostasis for conferring stress tolerance in plants

Silicon (Si), a bioactive metalloid is beneficial for plant growth and development. It also plays a key role in the amelioration of different abiotic and biotic stresses. Extensive studies have elucidated the morpho-physiological, biochemical and molecular background of Si-mediated stress tolerance in plants. However, the mechanism acquired by Si to enhance stress tolerance in plants is still unheeded. Present review summarized the prospective mechanisms of Si in acquisition of stress tolerance with emphasis on its interactions with secondary messengers. Silicon usually modulates the different gene expressions in plants under stress conditions rather than acting as a direct signal or secondary messengers. Silicon regulates the production and accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in plants under stress conditions. Furthermore, Si also activates the antioxidant defence system in plants; thereby, maintaining the cellular redox homeostasis and preventing the oxidative damage of cells. Silicon also up-regulates the synthesis of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) or acts synergistically with nitric oxide (NO), consequently conferring stress tolerance in plants. Overall, the review may provide a progressive understanding of the role of Si in conservation of the redox homeostasis in plants.

Exogenous Glutathione Alleviates Cadmium Toxicity in Wheat by Influencing the Absorption and Translocation of Cadmium

Cadmium (Cd), a toxic heavy metal, is harmful to plants and human health. Glutathione (GSH) could alleviate Cd toxicity of plant species, whereas its mechanism responsible for wheat remains poorly understood. Here, we found that exogenous GSH application significantly increased the fresh and dry weight, root elongation, chlorophyll contents, while decreased the contents of malondialdehyde (MDA) and GSH, and translocation factor of Cd compared with Cd treatment. Moreover, GSH application significantly increased activities of antioxidant enzymes and expression of related genes, which involved in GSH synthesis, especially in roots. In addition, we found that GSH application suppressed Cd-induced expression of metal transporter genes TaNramp1, TaNramp5, TaHMA2, TaHMA3, TaLCT1 and TaIRT2 in roots. Taken together, our results suggested that GSH could alleviate Cd toxicity in wheat by increasing GSH synthesis gene expression or suppressing Cd transporter genes expression, and further affecting Cd uptake and translocation in wheat plants.

Small structures with big impact: Multi-walled carbon nanotubes enhanced remediation efficiency in hyperaccumulator Solanum nigrum L. under cadmium and arsenic stress

With the fast development of nanotechnology, nanomaterials are being increasingly applied for the remediation of contaminated soils. However, few researches have been reported on the complex interactions of carbon nanotubes with heavy metal (loid)s in phytoremediation. Here, we conduct a pot experiment to investigate the effects of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) on the plant growth and behavior of heavy metal (loid)s in hyperaccumulator-soil system. Cd hyperaccumulator Solanum nigrum L. (S. nigrum) were cultivated in Cadmium (Cd) and Arsenic (As) contaminated soils amended with MWCNTs at 100, 500, and 1000 mg kg^-1 for 60 days, respectively. The application of MWCNTs increased the shoot length and plant dry biomass by 5.56%∼25.13% and 5.23%∼27.97%. Whereas, root and leaf growth were inhibited in 1000 mg kg^-1 MWCNTs treatments. Meanwhile, MWCNTs at 500 mg kg^-1 significantly enhanced the accumulation of heavy metal (loid)s in S. nigrum（18.29% for Cd and 32.47% for As）and alleviated co-contamination induced toxicity, by motivating plant growth, stimulating antioxidant enzymatic activities, and increasing micronutrient content (p < 0.05). The bio-concentration factor of As was decreased (15.31-28.08%) under MWCNTs application, which plays an important role in the alleviation of phytotoxicity. Besides, bioavailable Cd and As were reduced in rhizosphere soils, and the most significant reduction (16.29% for Cd and 8.19% for As) were shown in 500 mg kg^-1 MWCNTs treatment. These findings demonstrate that suitable concentration of MWCNTs can enhance remediation efficiency. Our study gives a strong evidence to promote the phytoremediation for co-contaminated soils by using nanomaterials.

The intricacy of silicon, plant growth regulators and other signaling molecules for abiotic stress tolerance: An entrancing crosstalk between stress alleviators

Unfavorable environmental conditions are the critical inimical to the sustainable agriculture. Among various novel strategies designed to protect plants from abiotic stress threats, use of mineral elements as 'stress mitigators' has emerged as the most crucial and interesting aspect. Silicon (Si) is a quasi-essential nutrient that mediates plant growth and development and interacts with plant growth regulators (PGRs) and signaling molecules to combat abiotic stress induced adversities in plants and increase stress tolerance. PGRs are one of the most important chemical messengers that mediate plant growth and development during stressful conditions. However, the individual roles of Si and PGRs have extensively defined but their exquisite crosstalk with each other to mediate plant stress responses is still indiscernible. The present review is an upfront effort to delineate an intricate crosstalk/interaction between Si and PGRs to reduce abiotic stress adversities. The combined effects of interaction of Si with other signaling molecules such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO) and calcium (Ca²⁺) for the survival of plants under stress and optimal conditions are also discussed.

Nano-selenium, silicon and H2O2 boost growth and productivity of cucumber under combined salinity and heat stress

The production of cucumber under combined salinity and heat stress is a crucial challenge facing many countries particularly in arid environments. This challenge could be controlled through exogenous foliar application of some bio-stimulants or anti-stressors. This study was carried out to investigate the management and improving cucumber production under combined salinity and heat stress. Nano-selenium (nano-Se, 25 mg L^-1), silicon (Si, 200 mg L^-1) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂, 20 mmol L^-1) were foliar applied on cucumber plants as anti-stress compounds. The results revealed that studied anti-stressors improved growth and productivity of cucumber grown in saline soil regardless the kind of anti-stressor under heat stress. The foliar application of nano-Se (25 mg L^-1) clearly improved cucumber growth parameters (plant height and leaf area) compared to other anti-stressor and control. Foliar Si application showed the greatest impact on enzymatic antioxidant capacities among the other anti-stressor treatments. This applied rate of Si also showed the greatest increase in marketable fruit yield and yield quality (fruit firmness and total soluble solids) compared to untreated plants. These increases could be due to increasing nutrient uptake particularly N, P, K, and Mg, as well as Se (by 40.2% and 43%) in leaves and Si (by 11.2% and 22.1% in fruits) in both seasons, respectively. The potential role of Si in mitigating soil salinity under heat stress could be referred to high Si content found in leaf which regulates water losses via transpiration as well as high nutrient uptake of other nutrients (N, P, K, Mg and Se). The distinguished high K⁺ content found in cucumber leaves might help stressed plants to tolerate studied stresses by regulating the osmotic balance and controlling stomatal opening, which support cultivated plants to adapt to soil salinity under heat stress. Further studies are needed to be carried out concerning the different response of cultivated plants to combined stresses.

NO Network for Plant-Microbe Communication Underground: A Review

Mechanisms governing plant-microbe interaction in the rhizosphere attracted a lot of investigative attention in the last decade. The rhizosphere is not simply a source of nutrients and support for the plants; it is rather an ecosystem teeming with diverse flora and fauna including different groups of microbes that are useful as well as harmful for the plants. Plant-microbe interaction occurs via a highly complex communication network that involves sophisticated machinery for the recognition of friend and foe at both sides. On the other hand, nitric oxide (NO) is a key, signaling molecule involved in plant development and defense. Studies on legume-rhizobia symbiosis suggest the involvement of NO during recognition, root hair curling, development of infection threads, nodule development, and nodule senescence. A similar role of NO is also suggested in the case of plant interaction with the mycorrhizal fungi. Another, insight into the plant-microbe interaction in the rhizosphere comes from the recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)/microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) by the host plant and thereby NO-mediated activation of the defense signaling cascade. Thus, NO plays a major role in mediating the communication between plants and microbes in the rhizosphere. Interestingly, reports suggesting the role of silicon in increasing the number of nodules, enhancing nitrogen fixation, and also the combined effect of silicon and NO may indicate a possibility of their interaction in mediating microbial communication underground. However, the exact role of NO in mediating plant-microbe interaction remains elusive. Therefore, understanding the role of NO in underground plant physiology is very important, especially in relation to the plant's interaction with the rhizospheric microbiome. This will help devise new strategies for protection against phytopathogens and enhancing plant productivity by promoting symbiotic interaction. This review focuses on the role of NO in plant-microbe communication underground.