Cocoa procyanidins with different degrees of polymerization possess distinct activities in models of colonic inflammation

A review on the effects of flavan-3-ols, their metabolites, and their dietary sources on gut barrier integrity

Impairment of gut barrier integrity is associated with the pathogenesis of gastrointestinal diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease, colorectal cancer, and coeliac disease. While many aspects of diet have been linked to improved barrier function, (poly)phenols, a broad group of bioactive phytochemicals, are of potential interest. The (poly)phenolic sub-class, flavan-3-ols, have been investigated in some detail owing to their abundance in commonly consumed foods, including grapes, tea, apples, cocoa, berries, and nuts. This review summarises studies on the effects of flavan-3-ols, their microbiome-mediated metabolites, and food sources of these compounds, on gut barrier structure. Extensive evidence demonstrates that flavan-3-ol rich foods, individual flavan-3-ols (e.g., (epi)catechin, epi(gallo)catechin-3-O-gallate, and pro(antho)cyanidins), and their related microbiota-mediated metabolites, could be effective in protecting and restoring the integrity of the gut barrier. In this context, various endpoints are assessed, including transepithelial electrical resistance of the epithelial layer and expression of tight junction proteins and mucins, in ex vivo, in vitro, and animal models. The differences in bioactivity reported for barrier integrity are structure-function dependent, related to the (poly)phenolic source or the tested compound, as well as their dose, exposure time, and presence or absence of a stressor in the experimental system. Overall, these results suggest that flavan-3-ols and related compounds could help to maintain, protect, and restore gut barrier integrity, indicating that they might contribute to the beneficial properties associated with the intake of their dietary sources. However, rigorous and robustly designed human intervention studies are needed to confirm these experimental observations.

Exploring the Therapeutic Potential of Theobroma cacao L.: Insights from In Vitro, In Vivo, and Nanoparticle Studies on Anti-Inflammatory and Anticancer Effects

Theobroma cacao L., commonly known as cocoa, has been an integral part of human culture and diet for thousands of years. However, recent scientific research has highlighted its potential therapeutic properties, particularly in the treatment of cancer and inflammatory diseases. This comprehensive review analyzes the anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects of Theobroma cacao extracts combined with nanoparticles using in vitro and in vivo studies. Its diverse biological activity can be attributed to its rich phytochemical profile, including polyphenols, flavonoids, and alkaloids. In vitro studies have found that cocoa extracts, alone or in combination with nanoparticles, inhibit cancer cell proliferation, induce apoptosis and modulate key signaling pathways in various cancer cell lines. The extracts have also been found to reduce tumor growth and enhance the efficacy of conventional chemotherapeutic agents, potentially reducing their side effects, in vivo. Its anti-inflammatory properties are based on its ability to modulate inflammatory mediators, inhibit NF-κB signaling, and regulate macrophage polarization. These effects have been observed in both cellular and animal models of inflammation. This review opens up new possibilities for future research and therapeutic applications, highlighting the potential of Theobroma cacao as a valuable complementary approach in the treatment and prevention of cancer and inflammatory diseases.

Circadian Rhythm-Dependent Therapy by Composite Targeted Polyphenol Nanoparticles for Myocardial Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury is a severe rhythmic disease with a high prevalence in the early morning. IR injury has a significant circadian rhythm in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inflammation levels. The development of rhythmic drugs has become a priority in myocardial IR injury. In this study, resveratrol (RES) and proanthocyanidins (OPC) were utilized to design nanoparticles (NPs), with hyaluronic acid (HA) as the core, grafted with MMP-targeting peptides to improve delivery to injured myocardial regions (HA-RES-OPC-MMP NPs). NPs significantly scavenged ROS, attenuated inflammation, and activated the rhythm gene. Notably, the difference in therapeutic effects on myocardial IR injury in mice at Zeitgeber time (ZT)1 and ZT13 confirms that NPs are rhythm-dependent drugs. At ZT13, echocardiographic and MRI confirm that IR injury in mice was not as severe as at ZT1, yet NPs were also less effective in treatment. Further, Per1/2 knockout mice confirmed the rhythm-dependent treatment of myocardial IR injury by NPs. Molecular studies have shown that rhythmic characteristics of inflammation and Sirt1 transcript levels are the main reasons for the different rhythmic therapeutic effects of NPs. Circadian rhythm-dependent treatment of HA-RES-OPC-MMP NPs has excellent potential for more precise treatment of myocardial IR injury in the future.

Polyphenols: Chemistry, bioavailability, bioactivity, nutritional aspects and human health benefits: A review

Polyphenols, including phenolics, alkaloids, and terpenes, are secondary metabolites that are commonly found in fruits, vegetables, and beverages, such as tea, coffee, wine, chocolate, and beer. These compounds have gained considerable attention and market demand because of their potential health benefits. However, their application is limited due to their low absorption rates and reduced tissue distribution efficiency. Engineering polyphenol-protein complexes or conjugates can enhance the antioxidant properties, bioavailability, and stability of polyphenols and improve digestive enzyme hydrolysis, target-specific delivery, and overall biological functions. Complex polyphenols, such as melanin, tannins, and ellagitannins, can promote gut microbiota balance, bolster antioxidant defense, and improve overall human health. Despite these benefits, the safety of polyphenol complexes must be thoroughly evaluated before their use as functional food additives or supplements. This review provides a detailed overview of the types of macromolecular polyphenols, their chemical composition, and their role in food enrichment. The mechanisms by which complex polyphenols act as antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer agents have also been discussed.

Biodiversity in nutrients and biological activities of 14 highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) cultivars

The present study aimed to identify nutrients (UPLC-PDA-ESI-MS/MS, HPLC-RI method) and biological activities (antioxidant activity to reduce Fe3+ and ABTS·+, pancreatic lipase inhibitory effect, α-amylase, and α-glucosidase, anti-bacterial) of 14 highbush blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) cultivars (Northern type) as well as a principal component analysis (PCA) to assess the variation of these properties in the context of biodiversity. Most of the cultivars in this research have been first presented in this paper. Phytochemical profiling of the tested highbush blueberry fruit revealed 75 bioactive compounds, including 5 macroelements, 7 microelements, 7 monophosphate nucleotides, 15 anthocyanins, 1 phenolic acid, 14 flavonols, 11 essential amino acids, 8 non-essential amino acids, 2 sugars, 7 organic acids. The PCA showed that the profile and contents of the analyzed compounds as well as their anti-bacterial, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and anti-obesity potentials depended significantly on the tested cultivars. Thus, the study provides comprehensive data on cultivar-specific biodiversity and correlations that can be used to design novel extracts rich in polyphenolic, amino acids, and/or minerals extracts from the selected cultivars of highbush blueberry as natural and alternative sources to fulfill the growing industry demand for supplements, pharmaceuticals, and nutraceutical products.

Comparisons of procyanidins with different low polymerization degrees on prevention of lipid metabolism in high-fat diet/streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice

Procyanidins, which are oligomerized flavan-3-ols with a polyphenolic structure, are bioactive substances that exhibit various biological effects. However, the relationship between the degree of polymerization (DP) of procyanidins and their bioactivities remains largely unknown. In this study, the preventive effects of procyanidins with different DP (EC, PB2 and PC1) on glucose improvement and liver lipid deposition were investigated using a high-fat diet/streptozotocin-induced diabetes mouse model. The results demonstrated that all the procyanidins with different DP effectively reduced fasting blood glucose and glucose/insulin tolerance, decreased the lipid profile (total cholesterol, triglyceride, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol content) in serum and liver tissue as well as the liver oil red staining, indicating the improvement of glucose metabolism, insulin sensitivity and hepatic lipid deposition in diabetic mice. Furthermore, the procyanidins down-regulated expression of glucose regulated 78-kDa protein (GRP78) and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP), indicating a regulation role of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. The inhibition of ER stress by tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) treatment abolished the effects of procyanidins with different DP in PA-induced HepG2 cells, confirming that procyanidins alleviate liver hyperlipidemia through the modulation of ER stress. Molecular docking results showed that EC and PB2 could better bind GRP78 and CHOP. Collectively, our study reveals that the structure of procyanidins, particularly DP, is not directly correlated with the improvement of blood glucose and lipid deposition, while highlighting the important role of ER stress in the bioactivities of procyanidins.

Protective Effect of Procyanidin-Rich Grape Seed Extract against Gram-Negative Virulence Factors

Biofilm formation and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) are implicated in the pathogenesis of gastrointestinal (GI) diseases caused by Gram-negative bacteria. Grape seeds, wine industry by-products, have antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. In the present study, the protective effect of procyanidin-rich grape seed extract (prGSE), from unfermented pomace of Vitis vinifera L. cv Bellone, on bacterial LPS-induced oxidative stress and epithelial barrier integrity damage has been studied in a model of Caco-2 cells. The prGSE was characterized at the molecular level using HPLC and NMR. The in vitro activity of prGSE against formation of biofilm of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium and Escherichia coli was investigated. In vivo, prGSE activity using infected Galleria mellonella larvae has been evaluated. The results show that the prGSE, if administered with LPS, can significantly reduce the LPS-induced permeability alteration. Moreover, the ability of the extract to prevent Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) production induced by the LPS treatment of Caco-2 cells was demonstrated. prGSE inhibited the biofilm formation of E. coli and S. Typhimurium. In terms of in vivo activity, an increase in survival of infected G. mellonella larvae after treatment with prGSE was demonstrated. In conclusion, grape seed extracts could be used to reduce GI damage caused by bacterial endotoxin and biofilms of Gram-negative bacteria.

The synergistic ramification of insoluble dietary fiber and associated non-extractable polyphenols on gut microbial population escorting alleviation of lifestyle diseases

Most of the pertinent research which aims at exploring the therapeutic effects of polyphenols usually misapprehends a large fraction of non-extractable polyphenols due to their poor aqueous-organic solvent extractability. These polymeric polyphenols (i.e., proanthocyanins, hydrolysable tannins and phenolic acids) possess a unique property to adhere to the food matrix polysaccharides and protein sowing to their structural complexity with high glycosylation, degree of polymerization, and plenty of hydroxyl groups. Surprisingly resistance to intestinal absorption does not hinder its bioactivity but accelerates its functionality manifolds due to the colonic microbial catabolism in the gastrointestinal tract, thereby protecting the body from local and systemic inflammatory diseases. This review highlights not only the chemistry, digestion, colonic metabolism of non-extractable polyphenols (NEPP) but also summarises the synergistic effect of matrix-bound NEPP exerting local as well as systemic health benefits.

A model study on the site-specificity of (-)-epicatechin-induced reactions in β-lactoglobulin by high-resolution mass spectrometry in combination with bioinformatics

Polyphenol-protein reactions in model solutions of β-lactoglobulin (β-LG) incubated with (-)-epicatechin at 37 °C and 60 °C were monitored by microLC-timsTOF Pro-MS/MS combined with bioinformatics strategies. The addition of (-)-epicatechin to the model solutions resulted in changes in tryptic peptide profiles. Covalent bond formation between (-)-epicatechin o-quinones and β-LG was identified for the residues S27, S30, K60, C66, K69, and C160, with C160 being the predominant binding site. Furthermore, the incubation of β-LG with (-)-epicatechin significantly promoted oxidation, especially for the residues M7 and M24. The reaction of monomeric (-)-epicatechino-quinone at C160 was also identified in the milk chocolate sample. The adaptation of this study by extending the scope of the reaction products offers significant potential for comprehensive food profiling strategies.

Mediterranean Diet: The Role of Phenolic Compounds from Aromatic Plant Foods

Today's global food system aggravates climate change while failing in meeting SDG2 and more. Yet, some sustainable food cultures, such as the Mediterranean Diet (MD), are simultaneously safe, healthy, and rooted in biodiversity. Their wide range of fruits, herbs, and vegetables convey many bioactive compounds, often associated with colour, texture, and aroma. Phenolic compounds are largely responsible for such features of MD's foods. These plant secondary metabolites all share in vitro bioactivities (e.g., antioxidants), and some are evidenced in vivo (e.g., plant sterols lower cholesterol levels in blood). The present work examines the role of polyphenols in the MD, with respect to human and planetary health. Since the commercial interest in polyphenols is increasing, a strategy for the sustainable exploitation of Mediterranean plants is essential in preserving species at risk while valuing local cultivars (e.g., through the geographical indication mechanism). Finally, the linkage of food habits with cultural landscapes, a cornerstone of the MD, should enable awareness-raising about seasonality, endemism, and other natural constraints to ensure the sustainable exploitation of Mediterranean plants.

Bioactivities and mechanisms of dietary proanthocyanidins on blood pressure lowering: A critical review of in vivo and clinical studies

Proanthocyanidins, widespread in natural plant sources, are bioactive substances that exhibit broad benefits to human health. Of note, proanthocyanidins have been reported to lower blood pressure and prevent hypertension, but a critical review of this is lacking. In this review, information on the basic structures and absorption of dietary proanthocyanidins as well as their bioactivities and related mechanisms on the lowering of blood pressure derived via in vivo and clinical studies are summarized. Clinical studies have shown that proanthocyanidins have a pronounced blood pressure-lowering effect, effectively preventing hypertension and reducing the occurrence of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. The potential mechanisms, which are herein reviewed in detail, involve the improvement of vascular function, reduction of oxidative stress and inflammation, and modulation of lipid metabolism. Taken together, this work provides information for a better understanding of the antihypertensive effects of proanthocyanidins, which may promote their use to reduce the risk of developing hypertension.

Persimmon Proanthocyanidins with Different Degrees of Polymerization Possess Distinct Activities in Models of High Fat Diet Induced Obesity

Proanthocyanidins is a kind of polyphenol that had been found with strong prevention ability on high fat diet induced obesity. However, whether proanthocyanidins with different polymerization degree showed different anti-obesity ability is unclear. Therefore, in this study, the effects of persimmon proanthocyanidins (P-PCs) and persimmon oligo-proanthocyanidins (P-OPCs) on high-fat diet induced obesity were systematically investigated. The findings indicated that both of P-PCs and P-OPCs significantly reduced the body weight, and P-PCs showed stronger anti-obesity ability compared with P-OPCs, P-OPCs seemed with stronger ability on improvement of insulin resistance. Furthermore, gut microbiota results indicated that the composition of the gut microbiota was changed after P-PCs and P-OPCs intervention in C57BL/6J mice. In addition, P-PCs exhibited strong inhibitory on the digestion of starch and fat. Above all, this study indicated that P-PCs showed stronger anti-obesity ability compared with P-OPCs.

Phenol-Rich Botanicals Modulate Oxidative Stress and Epithelial Integrity in Intestinal Epithelial Cells

Botanicals are mainly known for their role as antimicrobials and anti-inflammatories. Thus, the dual purpose of the study was to verify the antioxidant potential of the tested botanicals and to evaluate their possible modulation of intestinal barrier integrity. As the effects of various phenol-rich extracts were screened, the human Caco-2 cell line was determined to be most suitable for use as the in vitro model for the intestinal epithelium. The tested botanicals, all approved as feed additives, are ginger essential oil, tea tree oil, grape seed extract, green tea extract, olive extract, chestnut extract, pomegranate extract, thyme essential oil, and capsicum oleoresin. The cells were treated with incremental doses of each botanical, followed by measurements of transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), gene expression of tight junctions (TJs), and reactive oxygen species (ROS). The results showed how different phenol-rich botanicals could modulate barrier functions and oxidative stress in different ways. Interestingly, all the botanicals tested exerted an antioxidant potential by dropping the cytoplasmatic ROS, while the beneficial effect was exerted at different concentrations for each botanical. Our data support the role of plant extracts and essential oils in controlling gut barrier function and in reducing the negative effects of oxidative stress in intestinal epithelial cells, thereby supporting gut barrier functionality.

Proanthocyanidins at the gastrointestinal tract: mechanisms involved in their capacity to mitigate obesity-associated metabolic disorders

The prevalence of overweight and obesity is continually increasing worldwide. Obesity is a major public health concern given the multiple associated comorbidities. Finding dietary approaches to prevent/mitigate these conditions is of critical relevance. Proanthocyanidins (PACs), oligomers or polymers of flavan-3-ols that are extensively distributed in nature, represent a major part of total dietary polyphenols. Although current evidence supports the capacity of PACs to mitigate obesity-associated comorbidities, the underlying mechanisms remain speculative due to the complexity of PACs' structure. Given their limited bioavailability, the major site of the biological actions of intact PACs is the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. This review discusses the actions of PACs at the GI tract which could underlie their anti-obesity effects. These mechanisms include: i) inhibition of digestive enzymes at the GI lumen, including pancreatic lipase, α-amylase, α-glucosidase; ii) modification of gut microbiota composition; iii) modulation of inflammation- and oxidative stress-triggered signaling pathways, e.g. NF-κB and MAPKs; iv) protection of the GI barrier integrity. Further understanding of the mechanisms and biological activities of PACs at the GI tract can contribute to develop nutritional and pharmacological strategies oriented to mitigate the serious comorbidities of obesity.

Proanthocyanidin oligomers extract from hawthorn mediates cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and lysosome vacuolation on HCT116 cells

In this study, Hawthorn oligomic procyanidins extracts (HPOE) were evaluated for their anticancer activity on colorectal cancer. Our results showed that HPOE arrested HCT116 cells cycle at G2/M phase through P53-Cyclin B pathway and promoted apoptosis partly via mitochondrial (Caspase 9-Caspase 3) and death receptor (Caspase 8-Caspase 3) pathways. Meanwhile, it was found that HPOE aggravated HCT116 cells death through lysosomal vacuolation, which was verified by inhibitor/activator of P53-ILC3 signaling pathway. Taken together, HPOE exerted anticancer effects which lays the foundation for the development of functional foods for clinical colon cancer patients.

Cocoa bean shells: a review into the chemical profile, the bioactivity and the biotransformation to enhance their potential applications in foods

During processing, cocoa bean shells (CBS) are de-hulled from the bean and discarded as waste. Undermined by its chemical and bioactive composition, CBS is abundant in dietary fiber and phenolic compounds that may serve the valorization purpose of this by-product material into prebiotic and functional ingredients. In addition, the cell-wall components of CBS can be combined through enzymatic feruloylation to obtain feruloylated oligo- and polysaccharides (FOs), further enhancing the techno-functional properties. FOs have attracted scientific attention due to their prebiotic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant functions inherent to their structural features. This review covers the chemical and bioactive compositions of CBS as well as their modifications upon cocoa processing. Physical, chemical, and enzymatic approaches to extract and bio-transform bioactive components from the cell wall matrix of CBS were also discussed. Although nonspecific to CBS, studies were compiled to investigate efforts done to extract and produce feruloylated oligo- and polysaccharides from the cell wall materials.

The underlying mechanism of A-type procyanidins from peanut skin on DSS-induced ulcerative colitis mice by regulating gut microbiota and metabolism

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a kind of inflammatory bowel disease. Procyanidins have been found to prevent UC. However, most research has been focused on the alleviation effect of B-type procyanidins on UC and ignored those of A-type procyanidins. Hence, this study aims to investigate the anti-UC effect and the potential mechanism of A-type procyanidins by combining gut microbiome and metabolic profile. UC was induced by dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) in Balb/c mice, and then the mice were administrated with peanut skin procyanidins (PSP; rich in A-type procyanidins) for 9 days. Administration of PSP can ameliorate DSS-induced UC by mediating the intestinal barrier, the expression of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-β, IL-6, and IL-10) and oxidative stress (MDA, T-SOD, NO, and iNOS) in mice. We observed that PSP affects the gut microbiota and colon metabolomic patterns of mice. The 16S rDNA sequencing showed increase in abundance of Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, Oscillibacter and Roseburia and decrease of Bacteroides, Helicobacter, Parabacteroides, Escherichia-Shigella, and Enterobacter after PSP treatment. The colon tissue metabolome was significantly altered, as reflected by regulating taste transduction, mTOR signaling pathway, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, and FoxO signaling pathway to improve the protection against UC. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: We investigated the anti-ulcerative colitis (UC) effect and its potential mechanism of peanut skin procyanidins (PSP). This suggests that PSP with abundant A-type procyanidins may be an effective candidate for dietary supplementation to alleviate the symptoms of UC by regulating gut microbiota and metabolism.

Dietary proanthocyanidins on gastrointestinal health and the interactions with gut microbiota

Many epidemiological and experimental studies have consistently reported the beneficial effects of dietary proanthocyanidins (PAC) on improving gastrointestinal physiological functions. This review aims to present a comprehensive perspective by focusing on structural properties, interactions and gastrointestinal protection of PAC. In brief, the main findings of this review are summarized as follows: (1) Structural features are critical factors in determining the bioavailability and subsequent pharmacology of PAC; (2) PAC and/or their bacterial metabolites can play a direct role in the gastrointestinal tract through their antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-proliferative properties; (3) PAC can reduce the digestion, absorption, and bioavailability of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids by interacting with them or their according enzymes and transporters in the gastrointestinal tract; (4). PAC showed a prebiotic-like effect by interacting with the microflora in the intestinal tract, and the enhancement of PAC on a variety of probiotics, such as Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp. could be associated with potential benefits to human health. In conclusion, the potential effects of PAC in prevention and alleviation of gastrointestinal diseases are remarkable but clinical evidence is urgently needed.

Kinetic Study of Fungal Growth of Several Tanninolytic Strains Using Coffee Pulp Procyanidins

Procyanidins are bioactive molecules with industrial and pharmaceutical relevance, they are present in recalcitrant agro-industrial wastes that are difficult to degrade. In this study, we evaluated the potential consumption of procyanidins from Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma harzianum strains in submerged fermentations. For this purpose, a culture medium containing salts, glucose, and procyanidins was formulated, where procyanidins were added to the medium after the near-total consumption of glucose. The submerged cultures were carried out in amber flasks at 30 °C and 120 rpm. The addition of procyanidins to the culture medium increased the formation of micellar biomass for all the strains used. The use of glucose affected the growth of A. niger GH1 and A. niger HS1, however, in these assays, a total consumption of procyanidins was obtained. These results show that the consumption of procyanidins by fungal strains in submerged fermentations was influenced by the pH, the use of glucose as the first source of carbon, and the delayed addition of procyanidins to the medium. The study showed that A. niger and T. harzianum strains can be used as a natural strategy for the consumption or removal of procyanidins present in recalcitrant residues of risk to the environment and human health.

Neuroprotective Effects of B-Type Cinnamon Procyanidin Oligomers on MPP+-Induced Apoptosis in a Cell Culture Model of Parkinson's Disease

Cinnamon procyanidin oligomers (CPOs) are water-soluble components extracted from cinnamon. This study aims to explore the neuroprotection of B-type CPO (CPO-B) against 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP⁺)-mediated cytotoxicity and the molecular mechanisms underlying its protection. The results demonstrated that CPO-B showed protection by increasing cell viability, attenuating an intracellular level of reactive oxygen species, downregulating cleaved caspase-3 expression, and upregulating the Bcl-2/Bax ratio. Moreover, CPO-B completely blocked the dephosphorylation of extracellular, signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (Erk1/2) caused by MPP⁺. Treatment with an Erk1/2 inhibitor, SCH772984, significantly abolished the neuroprotection of CPO-B against MPP⁺. Taken together, we demonstrate that CPO-B from cinnamon bark provided protection against MPP⁺ in cultured SH-SY5Y cells, and the potential mechanisms may be attributed to its ability to modulate the dysregulation between pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic proteins through the Erk1/2 signaling pathway. Our findings suggest that the addition of cinnamon to food or supplements might benefit patients with PD.

Characterization of PACs profile and bioactivity of a novel nutraceutical combining cranberry extracts with different PAC-A oligomers, D-mannose and ascorbic acid: An in vivo/ex vivo evaluation of dual mechanism of action on intestinal barrier and urinary epithelium

In this paper, an A-type procyanidin (PAC)-rich cranberry extract (CB-B) was obtained mixing different extracts and was formulated with D-mannose and ascorbic acid to obtain a novel nutraceutical (URO-F) aimed at preventing non-complicated bacterial urinary tract infections (UTIs). To assess the bioactivity of CB-B and URO-F, urine samples collected from six healthy volunteers undergoing a 2-days oral consumption of 0.41 g/day of CB-B or 10 g/day of URO-F (corresponding to 72 mg/day of PACs) were tested against uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) incubated on urinary bladder epithelial cells (T24). Urinary markers of CB-B and URO-F consumption were assessed in the same urine output by UPLC-QTOF-based untargeted metabolomics approach. CB-B and URO-F were evaluated for their ability to promote the intestinal barrier function by restoring the trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and to inhibit the production of inflammatory cytokines in intestinal epithelial Caco2 cells. CB-B was characterized by a high PAC-A content (70% of total PACs) and a broad distribution of different PACs polymers (dimers-hexamers). Urine from subjects consuming CB-B and URO-F showed a significant effect in reducing the adhesion of UPEC to urothelium in vitro, supporting their efficacy as anti-adhesive agents after oral intake. CB-B inhibited the release of cytokine IL-8, and both products were effective in restoring the TEER. Overall, our results show that the beneficial effects of CB-B and URO-F on UTIs are not only due to the antiadhesive activity of cranberry on UPEC in the urothelium, but also to a multi-target activity involving anti-inflammatory and permeability-enhancing effects on intestinal epithelium.

Proanthocyanidins and Where to Find Them: A Meta-Analytic Approach to Investigate Their Chemistry, Biosynthesis, Distribution, and Effect on Human Health

Proanthocyanidins (PACs) are a class of polyphenolic compounds that are attracting considerable interest in the nutraceutical field due to their potential health benefits. However, knowledge about the chemistry, biosynthesis, and distribution of PACs is limited. This review summarizes the main chemical characteristics and biosynthetic pathways and the main analytical methods aimed at their identification and quantification in raw plant matrices. Furthermore, meta-analytic approaches were used to identify the main plant sources in which PACs were contained and to investigate their potential effect on human health. In particular, a cluster analysis identified PACs in 35 different plant families and 60 different plant parts normally consumed in the human diet. On the other hand, a literature search, coupled with forest plot analyses, highlighted how PACs can be actively involved in both local and systemic effects. Finally, the potential mechanisms of action through which PACs may impact human health were investigated, focusing on their systemic hypoglycemic and lipid-lowering effects and their local anti-inflammatory actions on the intestinal epithelium. Overall, this review may be considered a complete report in which chemical, biosynthetic, ecological, and pharmacological aspects of PACs are discussed.

Structure-function analysis of purified proanthocyanidins reveals a role for polymer size in suppressing inflammatory responses

Proanthocyanidins (PAC) are dietary compounds that have been extensively studied for beneficial health effects due to their anti-inflammatory properties. However, the structure-function relationships of PAC and their mode-of-action remain obscure. Here, we isolated a wide range of diverse PAC polymer mixtures of high purity from plant material. Polymer size was a key factor in determining the ability of PAC to regulate inflammatory cytokine responses in murine macrophages. PAC polymers with a medium (9.1) mean degree of polymerization (mDP) induced substantial transcriptomic changes, whereas PAC with either low (2.6) or high (12.3) mDP were significantly less active. Short-term oral treatment of mice with PAC modulated gene pathways connected to nutrient metabolism and inflammation in ileal tissue in a polymerization-dependent manner. Mechanistically, the bioactive PAC polymers modulated autophagic flux and inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced autophagy in macrophages. Collectively, our results highlight the importance of defined structural features in the health-promoting effects of PAC-rich foods.

Pre-Treatment with Grape Seed Extract Reduces Inflammatory Response and Oxidative Stress Induced by Helicobacter pylori Infection in Human Gastric Epithelial Cells

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a pathogenic bacteria identified as a potential risk factor for gastritis, gastric ulcers and gastric cancer. During the stomach colonization, H. pylori triggers a strong inflammatory response and subsequent oxidative stress, which are associated with tissue damage. For this reason, it is of particular interest to develop alternative natural tools that enable modulation of the associated damaging immune response. With this purpose, we obtained grape seed extract (GSE) from sweet (not fermented) food grade seeds. The aim of our study was to investigate the effect of GSE and its two enriched procyanidins fractions (OPC and PPC) on the inflammatory process and oxidative stress produced by different H. pylori strains in human gastric epithelial cells (AGS). Anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated by measuring the level of interleukin-8 (IL-8) secretion. IL-8 production was significantly reduced in H. pylori-infected human gastric epithelial cells pre-treated with GSE or its enriched fractions when compared with non-pre-treated infected cells (from 21.6% to 87.8%). Pre-treatment with GSE or its fractions significantly decreased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in AGS cells after infection, depending on the H. pylori strain. Our results also showed that GSE and its fractions demonstrate antibacterial activity against all strains of H. pylori used in the study. This work demonstrates the effectiveness of GSE enriched in procyanidins against the main events associated with H. pylori infection.

A cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) extract impairs the growth, virulence properties, and inflammatory potential of Fusobacterium nucleatum and improves oral epithelial barrier function

Fusobacterium nucleatum is associated with many conditions and diseases, including periodontal diseases that affect tooth-supporting tissues. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of a cocoa extract (Theobroma cacao L.) on F. nucleatum with respect to growth, biofilm formation, adherence, and hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) production. The anti-inflammatory properties and the effect on epithelial barrier function of the cocoa extract were also assessed. The cocoa extract, whose major phenolic compound is epicatechin, dose-dependently inhibited the growth, biofilm formation, adherence properties (basement membrane matrix, oral epithelial cells), and H₂S production of F. nucleatum. It also decreased IL-6 and IL-8 production by F. nucleatum-stimulated oral epithelial cells and inhibited F. nucleatum-induced NF-κB activation in monocytes. Lastly, the cocoa extract enhanced the barrier function of an oral epithelial model by increasing the transepithelial electrical resistance. We provide evidence that the beneficial properties of an epicatechin-rich cocoa extract may be useful for preventing and/or treating periodontal diseases.

Development of MALDI MS peptide array for thrombin inhibitor screening

The development of in situ methods for the analysis and visualization of enzyme activity is of paramount importance in drug discovery, research, and development. In this work, the functionalized and array patterned indium tin oxide (ITO) glass slides were fabricated by non-covalent immobilization of amphipathic phospholipid-tagged peptides encompassing the thrombin cleavage site on steric acid-modified ITO slides. The fabricated peptide arrays provide 60 spots per slide, and are compatible with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI MS) measurement, free matrix peak interference, and tolerance to repeated aqueous washing. The peptide arrays were used for the investigation of thrombin activity and screening for its potential inhibitors. The thrombin activity and its Michaelis-Menten constant (K_m) for immobilized peptide substrate was determined using developed MALDI MS peptide array. To investigate the applicability and effectiveness of peptide arrays, the anti-thrombin activity of grape seed proanthocyanidins with different degrees of polymerization (DP) was monitored and visualized. MALDI MS imaging results showed that the fractions of proanthocyanidins with the mean DP of 4.61-6.82 had good thrombin inhibitory activity and their half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) were below 10 μg/mL. Therefore, the developed peptide array is a reliable platform for the discovery of natural thrombin inhibitors.

Regulation of Enteric Infection and Immunity by Dietary Proanthocyanidins

The role of dietary components in immune function has acquired considerable attention in recent years. An important focus area is to unravel the role of bioactive dietary compounds in relation to enteric disease and their impact on gut mucosal immunity. Proanthocyanidins (PAC) are among the most common and most consumed dietary polyphenols, and are characterised by their variable molecular structures and diverse bioactivities. In particular, their anti-oxidative effects and ability to modulate gut microbiota have been widely described. However, there is limited evidence on the mechanism of action of PAC on the immune system, nor is it clearly established how PAC may influence susceptibility to enteric infections. Establishing the sites of action of PAC and their metabolites within the gut environment is fundamental to determine the applicability of PAC against enteric pathogens. Some mechanistic studies have shown that PAC have direct modulatory effects on immune cell signalling, isolated pathogens, and gut mucosal barrier integrity. Boosting the recruitment of immune cells and suppressing the amount of pro-inflammatory cytokines are modulating factors regulated by PAC, and can either be beneficial or detrimental in the course of re-establishing gut homeostasis. Herein, we review how PAC may alter distinct immune responses towards enteric bacterial, viral and parasitic infections, and how the modulation of gut microbiota may act as a mediating factor. Furthermore, we discuss how future studies could help unravel the role of PAC in preventing and/or alleviating intestinal inflammation and dysbiosis caused by enteric disease.

Advances of microfluidic intestine-on-a-chip for analyzing anti-inflammation of food

Microfluidic intestine-on-a-chip enables novel means of emulating human intestinal pathophysiology in vitro, which can potentially reduce animal testing and substitute simple 2D culture system. Though a great deal of work has been done in the development of microfluidic platforms for intestinal disease modeling and drug screening, potential investigation of the effect of bioactive food compounds on intestinal inflammation remains largely unexplored. In this review, different biomaterials and chip designs have been explored in the fabrication of intestine-on-a-chip. Other key parameters must be carefully controlled and selected, including shear stress, cell type and cell co-culture spatial configuration, etc. Appropriate techniques to quantify the barrier integrity including trans-epithelial electric resistance, specific tight junction markers and permeability measurements should be standardized and compared with in vivo data. Integration of the gut microbiome and the provision of intestinal-specific environment are the key parameters to realize the in vivo intestinal model simulation and accelerate the screening efficiency of bioactive food compounds.

Tuning of Proanthocyanidin Extract's Composition through Quaternary Eutectic Solvents Extraction

Currently available proanthocyanidins extraction methods rely on dedicated crops and have low specificity and yield which limits their industrial application. Consequently, the development of novel methodologies and the use of sustainable sources is of great importance. Eutectic solvents have been proposed has good alternatives for conventional solvents due to their low price, easiness of preparation, biocompatibility and ability of being custom made to a specific application. Herein the effective extraction of proanthocyanidins from grape pomace and the possibility of tuning the extract's characteristics such as mean degree of polymerization and galloylation percentage is explored by means of varying the composition of a quaternary eutectic solvent composed by choline chloride, glycerol, ethanol and water. It was found that mean degree of polymerization values can vary from 6.0 to 7.37 and galloylation percentage can vary from 32.5% to 47.1% while maintaining extraction yield above 72.2 mg of proanthocyanidins per g of biomass. Furthermore, the increase of temperature up to 100 °C has showed a significant effect on the extraction yield being possible to increase it by 238% when compared to the conventional extraction method.

Health-Promoting Properties of Proanthocyanidins for Intestinal Dysfunction

The intestinal barrier is constantly exposed to potentially harmful environmental factors, including food components and bacterial endotoxins. When intestinal barrier function and immune homeostasis are compromised (intestinal dysfunction), inflammatory conditions may develop and impact overall health. Evidence from experimental animal and cell culture studies suggests that exposure of intestinal mucosa to proanthocyanidin (PAC)-rich plant products, such as grape seeds, may contribute to maintaining the barrier function and to ameliorating the pathological inflammation present in diet-induced obesity and inflammatory bowel disease. In this review, we aim to update the current knowledge on the bioactivity of PACs in experimental models of intestinal dysfunction and in humans, and to provide insights into the underlying biochemical and molecular mechanisms.

Proanthocyanidins attenuate breast cancer-induced bone metastasis by inhibiting Irf-3/c-jun activation

We have previously demonstrated the pivotal role of Jnk-mediated Irf-3/c-Jun in regulating nuclear factor kappa-Β ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclastogenesis. Here, we demonstrated that proanthocyanidins (PACs) target Irf-3 to alleviate breast cancer-induced activation of osteoclasts. We also found that PACs induced apoptosis of osteoclast precursors by upregulating the ratio of bax/bcl-2 and activating caspase-3 activity. Such bone protective effect also could be observed in a bone metastasis model of breast cancer. These findings provided a novel therapeutic intervention targeting abnormal bone metabolism to alleviate bone metastasis of breast cancer.

A Dietary Mixture of Oxysterols Induces In Vitro Intestinal Inflammation through TLR2/4 Activation: The Protective Effect of Cocoa Bean Shells

BACKGROUND

Exaggerated Toll-like receptor (TLR)-mediated immune and inflammatory responses play a role in inflammatory bowel diseases. This report deals with the ability of a mixture of oxysterols widely present in cholesterol-rich foods to induce in vitro intestinal inflammation through TLR up-regulation. The anti-inflammatory action of four cocoa bean shell (CBS) extracts with different polyphenol content, was tested.

METHODS

Differentiated intestinal CaCo-2 cells were treated with a dietary oxysterol mixture (Oxy-mix) (60 µM). The expression and activation of TLR2 and TLR4, as well as the production of their downstream signaling effectors IL-8, IFNβ and TNFα were analyzed in the presence or absence of TLR antibodies. Honduras CBS extracts were characterized for their polyphenol contents; their anti-inflammatory action was analyzed in CaCo-2 cells treated with Oxy-mix.

RESULTS

Oxysterol-dependent TLR-2 and TLR4 over-expression and activation together with cytokine induction were abolished by blocking TLRs with specific antibodies. Polyphenol-rich CBS extracts consisting of high quantities of (-)-epicatechin and tannins also prevented TLR induction.

CONCLUSIONS

TLR2 and TLR4 mainly contribute to inducing oxysterol-dependent intestinal inflammation. The fractionation method of CBS allowed the recovery of fractions rich in (-)-epicatechin and tannins able to counteract oxysterol-induced inflammation, thus highlighting the beneficial biological potential of specific CBS extracts.

Development of a rapid ultra performance hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method for procyanidins with enhanced ionization efficiency

Cocoa flavanols (catechins and procyanidins) can exist in various polymerization states and are commonly classified by their degree of polymerization (DP). There is increasing evidence that flavanols of distinct DP possess different biological activities, but separation and quantification of the higher DP procyanidins is challenging and has thus created the need for new methodologies that utilize advancements in columns and LC-MS/MS systems. An aqueous normal phase (hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography, HILIC), UPLC method with post-column ESI adjuvant infusion was developed to reduce the total analysis time, increase peak separation, and increase detection specificity (compared to traditional fluorescence methods) by coupling with mass spectrometry detection. The total elution time was reduced from 70 to 90 min (typically used for normal phase and HILIC HPLC separation of procyanidins) down to 9 min by employing UPLC. Results indicate that by using a post-column 0.04 M ammonium formate infusion (5 μL/min), ionization of procyanidins was significantly enhanced. Lower limits of detection ranged from 3.19 × 10^-2 to 4.56 pmol-on-column, and lower limits of quantification ranged from 2.79 × 10^-2 to 1.17 × 10² pmol-on-column across compounds DP 1-9. This method builds upon the foundation set by existing analytical methods and employs new technologies to dramatically increase sample throughput and enhance detection limits and specificity, facilitating improved analysis for procyanidins.

An update on dietary consideration in inflammatory bowel disease: anthocyanins and more

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic idiopathic inflammatory disorder. A wealth of data pointed out that various aspects of chronic inflammation may be affected by several specific dietary factors. This paper calls attention to anthocyanins enriched plant food and anthocyanin dietary supplements, whose role in the management of IBD and its associated oncogenesis deems crucial. Area covered: We updated the most relevant dietary anthocyanins with potential anti-colitis and preventive effect on inflammatory associated colorectal cancer based on the recent animal and human researches along with revealing the major cellular and molecular mechanisms of action. Mounting evidence reported that anthocyanins enriched plant foods perform their protective role on IBD and inflammatory-induced colorectal cancer via different cellular transduction signaling pathways, including inflammatory transcription factors, SAPK/JNK and p38 MAPK cascade, JAK/STAT signaling, NF-kB/pERK/MAPK, Wnt signaling pathway, Nrf2 cytoprotective pathway as well as AMPK pathway and autophagy. Expert commentary: Combination of anthocyanins enriched dietary supplements with existing medications can provide new therapeutic options for IBD patients. Further, well-designed randomized control trials (RCTs) are essential to evaluate the role of anthocyanins enriched medicinal foods as well as isolated anthocyanin components as promising preventive and therapeutic dietary agents for IBD and its associated oncogenesis.

Common gut microbial metabolites of dietary flavonoids exert potent protective activities in β-cells and skeletal muscle cells

Flavonoids are dietary compounds with potential anti-diabetes activities. Many flavonoids have poor bioavailability and thus low circulating concentrations. Unabsorbed flavonoids are metabolized by the gut microbiota to smaller metabolites, which are more bioavailable than their precursors. The activities of these metabolites may be partly responsible for associations between flavonoids and health. However, these activities remain poorly understood. We investigated bioactivities of flavonoid microbial metabolites [hippuric acid (HA), homovanillic acid (HVA), and 5-phenylvaleric acid (5PVA)] in primary skeletal muscle and β-cells compared to a native flavonoid [(-)-epicatechin, EC]. In muscle, EC was the most potent stimulator of glucose oxidation, while 5PVA and HA simulated glucose metabolism at 25 μM, and all compounds preserved mitochondrial function after insult. However, EC and the metabolites did not uncouple mitochonndrial respiration, with the exception of 5PVA at10 μM. In β-cells, all metabolites more potently enhanced glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) compared to EC. Unlike EC, the metabolites appear to enhance GSIS without enhancing β-cell mitochondrial respiration or increasing expression of mitochondrial electron transport chain components, and with varying effects on β-cell insulin content. The present results demonstrate the activities of flavonoid microbial metabolites for preservation of β-cell function and glucose utilization. Additionally, our data suggest that metabolites and native compounds may act by distinct mechanisms, suggesting complementary and synergistic activities in vivo which warrant further investigation. This raises the intriguing prospect that bioavailability of native dietary flavonoids may not be as critical of a limiting factor to bioactivity as previously thought.

Antisolvent precipitation for the preparation of high polymeric procyanidin nanoparticles under ultrasonication and evaluation of their antioxidant activity in vitro

An improved method of ultrasonic antisolvent precipitation was used to prepare micronized high polymeric procyanidins (HPC). Response surface methodology (Plackett-Burman and Box-Behnken design) was employed to predict the optimal preparation conditions and satisfactory mean particle size. Among seven parameters, three parameters (i.e., ultrasonic irradiation power, ultrasonic-stirring time, and stirring speed) were identified as the most significant variables using Plackett-Burman design; thus, these three parameters were further optimized using Box-Behnken design. The optimal preparation conditions for micronized HPC were obtained as follows: dropping speed of 4 mL/min, HPC solution concentration of 0.3 mg/mL, ratio of antisolvent and solvent of 5 mL/mL, precipitation temperature of 10 °C, ultrasonic-stirring time of 14 min, ultrasonic irradiation power of 620 W, and stirring speed of 760 r/min. A minimum mean particle size of 96 ± 2 nm was achieved under the aforementioned conditions. The obtained micronized HPC was analysed by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric and X-ray powder diffraction patterns. Micronized HPC enjoyed the higher quantity dissolved and exhibited stronger antioxidant activity in compared to the unprocessed HPC. These results demonstrated that the improved method has great potential for the production of micronized particles.

Oligomeric proanthocyanidins (OPCs) target cancer stem-like cells and suppress tumor organoid formation in colorectal cancer

Proanthocyanidins are a heterogeneous group of flavan-3-ol or flavan-3,4-diol oligomers present in various fruits and vegetables. In particular, the smaller oligomeric subset of proanthocyanidins, termed the oligomeric proanthocyanidins (OPCs) appear to have potent anti-tumorigenic properties, but the underlying mechanisms for their effectiveness remain unclear. Herein, we utilized a series of in vitro, in vivo and patient-derived organoid approaches to systematically investigate the chemoprotective role of OPCs in colorectal cancer. OPCs exerted anti-tumorigenic effects through inhibition of cellular proliferation, and induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. Intriguingly, OPCs suppressed spheroid derived cancer stem-like cell formation and decreased the expression of intestinal cancer stem cell markers including LGR5, CD44 and CD133. Mechanistically, RNA-sequencing results confirmed that OPCs prominently interfered with developmental and self-renewal pathways and identified several self-renewal associated oncogenes targeted by OPCs. Furthermore, OPCs inhibited Hippo pathway through downregulation of its key transcriptional regulators, YAP and TAZ. Finally, we confirmed anti-tumorigenic effects of OPCs using multiple xenograft experiments and recapitulated its protective effects using patient-derived colorectal tumor organoids. Collectively, we have comprehensively assessed anti-tumorigenic properties of OPCs and our data throws light on previously unrecognized chemopreventive mechanisms of OPCs highlighting its therapeutic potential.

Impact of roasting on the flavan-3-ol composition, sensory-related chemistry, and in vitro pancreatic lipase inhibitory activity of cocoa beans

Roasting is an important cocoa processing step, but has been reported to reduce the polyphenol content in the beans. We investigated the impact of whole-bean roasting on the polyphenol content, aroma-related chemistry, and in vitro pancreatic lipase (PL) inhibitory activity of cocoa under a range of roasting conditions. Total phenolics, (-)-epicatechin, and proanthocyanidin (PAC) dimer - pentamer content was reduced by roasting. By contrast, roasting at 150 °C or greater increased the levels of catechin and PAC hexamers and heptamers. These compounds have greater PL inhibitory potency. Consistent with these changes in PAC composition and this previous data, we found that roasting at 170 °C time-dependently increased PL inhibitory activity. Cocoa aroma-related compounds increased with roasting above 100 °C, whereas deleterious sensory-related compounds formed at more severe temperatures. Our results indicate that cocoa roasting can be optimized to increase the content of larger PACs and anti-PL activity, while maintaining a favorable aroma profile.

Cocoa procyanidins modulate transcriptional pathways linked to inflammation and metabolism in human dendritic cells

A mechanistic insight into the immunomodulatory effects of a purified procyanidin fraction from cocoa beans.

Centrifugal partition chromatography enables selective enrichment of trimeric and tetrameric proanthocyanidins for biomaterial development

Proanthocyanidins (PACs) find wide applications for human use including food, cosmetics, dietary supplements, and pharmaceuticals. The chemical complexity associated with PACs has triggered the development of various chromatographic techniques, with countercurrent separation (CCS) gaining in popularity. This study applied the recently developed DESIGNER (Depletion and Enrichment of Select Ingredients Generating Normalized Extract Resources) approach for the selective enrichment of trimeric and tetrameric PACs using centrifugal partition chromatography (CPC). This CPC method aims at developing PAC based biomaterials, particularly for their application in restoring and repairing dental hard tissue. A general separation scheme beginning with the depletion of polymeric PACs, followed by the removal of monomeric flavan-3-ols and a final enrichment step produced PAC trimer and tetramer enriched fractions. A successful application of this separation scheme is demonstrated for four polyphenol rich plant sources: grape seeds, pine bark, cinnamon bark, and cocoa seeds. Minor modifications to the generic DESIGNER CCS method were sufficient to accommodate the varying chemical complexities of the individual source materials. The step-wise enrichment of PAC trimers and tetramers was monitored using normal phase TLC and Diol-HPLC-UV analyses. CPC proved to be a reliable tool for the selective enrichment of medium size oligomeric PACs (OPACs). This method plays a key role in the development of dental biomaterials considering its reliability and reproducibility, as well as its scale-up capabilities for possible larger-scale manufacturing.

Cocoa Diet and Antibody Immune Response in Preclinical Studies

The ability of cocoa to interact with the immune system in vitro and in vivo has been described. In the latter context, a cocoa-enriched diet in healthy rats was able to modify the immune system's functionality. This fact could be observed in the composition and functionality of lymphoid tissues, such as the thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes. Consequently, immune effector mechanisms, such as antibody synthesis, were modified. A cocoa-enriched diet in young rats was able to attenuate the serum levels of immunoglobulin (Ig) G, IgM, and IgA and also the intestinal IgM and IgA secretion. Moreover, in immunized rats, the intake of cocoa decreased specific IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2c, and IgM concentrations in serum. This immune-regulator potential was then tested in disease models in which antibodies play a pathogenic role. A cocoa-enriched diet was able to partially prevent the synthesis of autoantibodies in a model of autoimmune arthritis in rats and was also able to protect against IgE and T helper 2-related antibody synthesis in two rat models of allergy. Likewise, a cocoa-enriched diet prevented an oral sensitization process in young rats. In this review, we will focus on the influence of cocoa on the acquired branch of the immune function. Therefore, we will focus on how a cocoa diet influences lymphocyte function both in the systemic and intestinal immune system. Likewise, its potential role in preventing some antibody-induced immune diseases is also included. Although further studies must characterize the particular cocoa components responsible for such effects and nutritional studies in humans need to be carried out, cocoa has potential as a nutraceutical agent in some hypersensitivity status.