Ancient wheat species and human health: Biochemical and clinical implications

Lipids and Fatty Acid Composition Reveal Differences between Durum Wheat Landraces and Modern Cultivars

Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. ssp. durum) landraces, traditional local varieties representing an intermediate stage in domestication, are gaining attention due to their high genetic variability and performance in challenging environments. While major kernel metabolites have been examined, limited research has been conducted on minor bioactive components like lipids, despite their nutritional benefits. To address this, we analyzed twenty-two tetraploid accessions, comprising modern elite cultivars and landraces, to (i) verify if the selection process for yield-related traits carried out during the Green Revolution has influenced lipid amount and composition; (ii) uncover the extent of lipid compositional variability, giving evidence that lipid fingerprinting effectively identifies evolutionary signatures; and (iii) identify genotypes interesting for breeding programs to improve yield and nutrition. Interestingly, total fat did not correlate with kernel weight, indicating lipid composition as a promising trait for selection. Tri- and di-acylglycerol were the major lipid components along with free fatty acids, and their relative content varied significantly among genotypes. In particular, landraces belonging to T. turanicum and carthlicum ecotypes differed significantly in total lipid and fatty acid profiles. Our findings provide evidence that landraces can be a genetically relevant source of lipid variability, with potential to be exploited for improving wheat nutritional quality.

Nutritional composition, in vitro carbohydrates digestibility, textural and sensory characteristics of bread as affected by ancient wheat flour type and sourdough fermentation time

This study aimed to investigate the effect of ancient wheat flour type and sourdough fermentation time on the nutritional, textural and sensorial properties of fiber-rich sourdough bread. The proximate composition, minerals, carbohydrates, organic acids, volatiles, total phenolic content, simulated gastrointestinal digestion, textural and sensorial characteristics were investigated. Bread's minerals, total phenolics, cellulose contents and radical scavenging activity variations clearly indicates an increasing trend with sourdoughs fermentation time. Compared to maltose and glucose, fructose was predominant in all bread samples. Sourdough fermentation time and wheat type had non-significant influence on fructose content from digested fraction. Excepting emmer bread, fermentation time increased in vitro digestibility values for tested samples. The crumb textural parameters (hardness, gumminess, chewiness, cohesiveness and springiness index) were positively influenced by fermentation time. The specific clustering of the analysed characteristics distinguished emmer bread from other samples in terms of volatile compounds, textural and overall acceptability, being preferred by panellists.

Use of ancient grains for the management of diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis

AIMS

A systematic review and meta-analysis of published randomized controlled trials was conducted to collate evidence from studies implementing ancient grains and investigate the impact of ancient grain consumption on health outcomes of patients with Diabetes Mellitus (DM).

DATA SYNTHESIS

Twenty-nine randomized controlled trials were included, and 13 were meta-analyzed. Interventions ranged from 1 day to 24 weeks; most samples were affected by DM type 2 (n = 28 studies) and the ancient grains used were oats (n = 10 studies), brown rice (n = 6 studies), buckwheat (n = 4 studies), chia (n = 3 studies), Job's Tears (n = 2 studies), and barley, Khorasan and millet (n = 1 study). Thirteen studies that used oats, brown rice, and chia provided data for a quantitative synthesis. Four studies using oats showed a small to moderate beneficial effect on health outcomes including LDL-c (n = 717, MD: 0.30 mmol/l, 95% CI: 0.42 to -0.17, Z = 4.61, p < 0.05, I2 = 0%), and TC (n = 717, MD: 0.44 mmol/l, 95% CI: 0.63 to -0.24, Z = 4.40, p < 0.05, I2 = 0%). Pooled analyses of studies using chia and millet did not show significant effects on selected outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

For adults affected by DM type 2, the use of oats may improve lipidic profile. Further experimental designs are needed in interventional research to better understand the effects of ancient grains on diabetes health outcomes.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION

CRD42023422386.

Determination of free and bound antioxidants in Kamut® wheat by HPLC with triple detector (DAD-CAD-MS)

Kamut® wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. turanicum), an ancient, underutilized cereal, offers potential health benefits due to its phenolic compounds. This study aimed to investigate the antioxidant potential of Kamut® wheat's free and bound phenolic extracts using an HPLC system equipped with three detectors. The bound extracts, released after alkaline hydrolysis, exhibited higher total phenolic and flavonoid content compared to the free extracts (p < 0.05). The total antioxidant capacity of bound extracts was six-fold greater than in free extracts (p < 0.05). The main antioxidants in free extracts were tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, and apigenin. In bound extracts, ferulic acid, its dimers and trimer were present. Kamut® wheat exhibited a source of dietary antioxidants and should be considered a potential ingredient for the development of functional foods. Also, the HPLC-triple detector system is effective for in-depth profiling of antioxidant compounds, paving the way for future research on similar grains.

Advancements, limitations and challenges in hyperspectral imaging for comprehensive assessment of wheat quality: An up-to-date review

The potential of hyperspectral imaging technology (HIT) for the determination of physicochemical and nutritional components, evaluation of fungal/mycotoxins contamination, wheat varieties classification, identification of non-mildew-damaged wheat kernels, as well as detection of flour adulteration is comprehensively illustrated and reviewed. The latest findings (2018-2023) of HIT in wheat quality evaluation through internal and external attributes are compared and summarized in detail. The limitations and challenges of HIT to improve assessment accuracy are clearly described. Additionally, various practical recommendations and strategies for the potential application of HIT are highlighted. The future trends and prospects of HIT in evaluating wheat quality are also mentioned. In conclusion, HIT stands as a cutting-edge technology with immense potential for revolutionizing wheat quality evaluation. As advancements in HIT continue, it will play a pivotal role in shaping the future of wheat quality assessment and contributing to a more sustainable and efficient food supply chain.

Characterization among and within Sicilian Tetraploid Wheat Landraces by Gluten Protein Analysis for Traceability Purposes

The criteria of "Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability" as well as a high "overall quality index" are used to register the Italian modern varieties to the national register. Differently, local conservation varieties can be certified under different EU Directives that facilitate, as an overall objective, the preservation of biodiversity and the containment of genetic erosion. In recent years, products derived from ancient grains are perceived to be healthier and more sustainable by consumers, especially in Italy, with consequent higher market prices. The ancient tetraploid wheat varieties registered in the national register of conservation varieties amount to 28, 24 of which are Sicilian. They are supposed to have wide genetic variability compared to modern ones, making them vulnerable to fraud because they are difficult to trace. It is therefore important to have tools able to discriminate between autochthonous Sicilian varieties. This can be completed by gluten proteins composition, which also provides information on the technological properties of derived products. Fifty-one accessions belonging to twenty-two ancient varieties of Sicilian tetraploid (mostly durum) wheat were analyzed. Although wide intra-accession and intra-varietal variability measurements were assessed, the gliadin pattern of bulks of seeds belonging to each variety was discriminatory. Moreover, differences in technological attitudes were found between landraces. This paves the way to use gluten protein patterns for traceability, allowing local farmers and producers to valorize their products and assure consumers regarding the transparency of the entire supply chain.

Tritordeum: Promising Cultivars to Improve Health

Tritordeum is an amphiploides species resulting from the hybridization between durum wheat (T. durum) and wild barley (H. chilense). This new cereal is considered a natural crop as it is obtained by traditional breeding techniques. Given its appreciable organoleptic characteristics, agronomic features, presence of interesting components, and good technological properties, Tritordeum is of promising interest for the development of health-oriented foods. In this study, we evaluated two registered Tritordeum cultivars, Bulel and Aucan. T. durum (Provenzal) was employed as the positive control. The extracted proteins were digested by gastric/pancreatic proteases, and their biological effects on Caco-2 differentiated on transwell inserts were determined. Changes in cell viability, monolayer permeability, organization of F-actin microfilaments, and ER stress triggered by protein-digested samples (DPs) were inspected. Our results showed that exposure to Provenzal-DPs promptly disrupted the tight junction barrier. Conversely, Aucan-DPs did not enhance monolayer permeability, whereas Bulel-DPs exerted only slight effects. Provental-DPs-induced toxicity was also confirmed by changes in cell viability and by the deep reorganization of the enterocyte cytoskeleton. In contrast, Aucan-DPs and Bulel-DPs did not affect monolayer viability and cytoskeleton structure. Overall, our findings suggest that both Tritordeum cultivars could be potential candidates for mitigating the toxicity of wheat flour.

Ancient Grain Flours with Different Degrees of Sifting: Advances in Knowledge of Nutritional, Technological, and Microbiological Aspects

Ancient grains have gained considerable attention in recent years, as some research suggests they may be healthier than modern wheat. The present study aims to evaluate the chemical, rheological, and microbiological features of three Southern Italian cultivated ancient wheat varieties: Risciola, Carosella, and Saragolla. ATR-FTIR analyses were performed on the finely ground grain samples of the three varieties. The selected grains were ground with a stone mill, and different sifting degrees (whole-100%, type 1-80%, and type 0-72%) were evaluated. The flours showed a good nutritional profile, a higher amylose/amylopectin ratio, and a lower glycemic index than the literature. The gluten index of the samples was in the range 2.6-28.9%, and the flours can be classified as weak, having a value <30%. The farinographic test showed a short development time, low dough stability, a high softening degree, and water absorption, which increased with the degree of sifting. Microbiological analyses performed on flours from ancient grains at different degrees of sifting show their safety, according to their microbiological parameters, which fall within the legal microbiological requirements established by the European Commission Regulation (EC).

Synergistic effect of biochar-based compounds from vegetable wastes and gibberellic acid on wheat growth under salinity stress

Soil salinization is a prevalent form of land degradation particularly in water-deficient regions threatening agricultural sustainability. Present desalinization methods demand excessive water use. Biochar has been recognized as a potential remedy for saline soils and Gibberellic acids (GA3) are known to mediate various biochemical processes aiding in stress mitigation. This study was undertaken at The Islamia University of Bahawalpur during winter 2022-23 to explore the combined effect of biochar and GA3 on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in saline conditions. Employing a fully randomized design wheat seeds in 24 pots were subjected to two salinity levels with three replications across eight treatments: T1 to T8 ranging from controls with different soil electrical conductivities (ECs) to treatments involving combinations of GA3, biochar and varying soil ECs. These treatments included T1 (control with soil EC of 2.43dS/m), T2 (salinity stress with soil EC of 5.11dS/m), T3 (10 ppm GA3 with soil EC of 2.43dS/m), T4 (10 ppm GA3 with soil EC of 5.11dS/m), T5 (0.75% Biochar with soil EC of 2.43dS/m), T6 (0.75% Biochar with soil EC of 5.11dS/m), T7 (10 ppm GA3 combined with 0.75% biochar at soil EC of 2.43dS/m) and T8 (10 ppm GA3 plus 0.75% biochar at soil EC of 5.11dS/m). The results indicated that the combined applications of GA3 and biochar significantly enhanced plant growth in saline conditions viz. germination rate by 73%, shoot length of 15.54 cm, root length of 4.96 cm, plant height of 16.89 cm, shoot fresh weight 43.18 g, shoot dry weight 11.57 g, root fresh weight 24.26 g, root dry weight 9.31 g, plant water content 60.77%, photosynthetic rate 18.58(CO2 m-2 s-1) carotenoid 3.03 g, chlorophyll a 1.01 g, chlorophyll b 0.69 g, total chlorophyll contents by 1.9 g as compared to the control. The findings suggest that the combined application of these agents offers a sustainable and effective strategy for cultivating wheat in saline soils. The synergy between biochar and GA3 presents a promising avenue for sustainable wheat cultivation in saline conditions. This combined approach not only improves plant growth but also offers an innovative, water-efficient solution for enhancing agricultural productivity in saline-affected regions.

Contribution of Insoluble Bound Antioxidants from Germinated Seeds of Wheat and Spelt to the Nutritional Value of White Bread

This research aimed to study the dynamic changes in phenolic antioxidants between the germ and the rest of the germinated seed of wheat and spelt and to evaluate the whole grain flour from germinated seeds as a functional supplement. Longer germination resulted in higher TPC, DPPH, and ABTS values when considering the entire germinated seed, while the optimal germination time was not consistent when considering the germ and the remaining germinated seed separately. While in the germinated seed (without germ) the majority of TPC was determined to be bound phenolics (up to 92%), the extractable form dominated in the germ (up to 69%). The most abundant phenolic antioxidants in germinated wheat and spelt seeds, trans-ferulic acid, cis-ferulic acid, and p-coumaric acid, increased significantly with germination. Only breads with 5% germinated spelt or wheat flour were suitable for the production of a food product, showing higher extractable TPC, antioxidant activity, individual phenolic acids, and improved specific volume, and were preferred because of their appearance, aroma, and color. The PCA biplot showed that the addition of 15% and 30% germinated flours had the greatest positive impact on phenolic properties, while breads with the addition of 5% germinated flour had the greatest positive impact on specific volume and color.

Processing and Bread-Making Quality Profile of Spanish Spelt Wheat

Spelt wheat (Triticum aestivum L. ssp. spelta Thell.) is an ancient wheat that has been widely cultivated for hundreds of years. Recently, this species has been neglected in most of Europe; however, the desire for more natural and traditional foods has driven a revival of the crop. In the current study, eighty-eight traditional spelt genotypes from Spain, together with nine common wheat cultivars and one modern spelt (cv. Anna Maria) were grown during a period of two years in Andalucia (southern Spain). In each, several traits were measured in to evaluate their milling, processing, and end-use quality (bread-making). The comparison between species suggested that, in general, spelt and common wheat showed differences for most of the measured traits; on average, spelt genotypes had softer grains, higher protein content (14.3 vs. 11.9%) and gluten extensibility (alveograph P/L 0.5 vs. 1.8), and lower gluten strength (alveograph W 187 vs. 438 × 10-4 J). In the baking test, both species showed similar values. Nevertheless, the analysis of this set of spelt genotypes showed a wide range for all measured traits, with higher values than common wheat in some spelt genotypes for some traits. This opens up the possibility of using these materials in future breeding programs, to develop either new spelt or common wheat cultivars.

Ancient Wheats-A Nutritional and Sensory Analysis Review

The purpose of this review is to provide a critical evaluation of the nutritional and sensory properties of ancient wheats (spelt, emmer, einkorn, and kamut) and the methods used to analyze them. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the main analytical methods applied to study the nutritional properties of ancient wheats. According to our findings, protein content was the most commonly studied macronutrient across all types of ancient wheat species. The article notes that einkorn bran showed the highest protein and ash content, which reveals the potential of ancient wheats to be more widely used in food products. Regarding the majority of amino acids in spelt wheat cultivars, the general trend in the data was rather consistent. This review also compares sensory evaluation methods for different wheat products made from ancient wheats, such as bread, pasta, cooked grains, porridge, snacks, and muffins. The various reported methods and panel sizes used prove that ancient wheat products have many potential sensory advantages. Overall, using ancient wheats in wheat products can enhance the nutritional benefits, increase diversity in the food systems, and may be more appealing to consumers looking for something different, thereby contributing to the development of more sustainable and locally based food systems.

The Role of Ancient Grains in Alleviating Hunger and Malnutrition

Meeting the United Nation's sustainable development goals for zero hunger becomes increasingly challenging with respect to climate change and political and economic challenges. An effective strategy to alleviate hunger and its severe implications is to produce affordable, nutrient-dense, and sustainable food products. Ancient grains were long-forgotten due to the dominance of modern grains, but recently, they have been rediscovered as highly nutritious, healthy and resilient grains for solving the nutrition demand and food supply chain problems. This review article aims to critically examine the progress in this emerging field and discusses the potential roles of ancient grains in the fight against hunger. We provide a comparative analysis of different ancient grains with their modern varieties in terms of their physicochemical properties, nutritional profiles, health benefits and sustainability. A future perspective is then introduced to highlight the existing challenges of using ancient grains to help eradicate world hunger. This review is expected to guide decision-makers across different disciplines, such as food, nutrition and agronomy, and policymakers in taking sustainable actions against malnutrition and hunger.

Physicochemical Characteristics and Microstructure of Ancient and Common Wheat Grains Cultivated in Romania

Different wheat species, common wheat (Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum), spelt (Triticum aestivum subsp. spelta) and einkorn (Triticum monococcum subsp. monococcum), were analyzed for physicochemical (moisture, ash, protein, wet gluten, lipid, starch, carbohydrates, test weight and thousand-kernel mass) and mineral elements (Ca, Mg, K, Na, Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu) concentrations in grains. Additionally, wheat grain microstructure was determined using a scanning electron microscope. SEM micrographs of wheat grains show that einkorn has smaller type A starch granule diameters and more compact protein bonds compared to common wheat and spelt grains, making it easier to digest. The ancient wheat grains presented higher values for ash, protein, wet gluten and lipid content compared to the common wheat grains, whereas the carbohydrates and starch content were significantly (p < 0.05) lower. The mean values showed that spelt (Triticum aestivum subsp. spelta) grains presented the highest values for Ca, Mg and K, while einkorn (Triticum monococcum subsp. monococcum) grains had the highest values for the microelements Zn, Mn and Cu. The highest values of Fe were recorded for common wheat varieties whereas no significant differences among the species were obtained for Na content. The principal component analysis (p > 0.05) between wheat flours characteristics showed a close association between wheat grain species and between the chemical characteristics of gluten and protein content (r = 0.994), lipid and ash content (r = 0.952) and starch and carbohydrate content (r = 0.927), for which high positive significant correlations (p < 0.05) were obtained. Taking into account that Romania is the fourth largest wheat producer at the European level, this study is of great global importance. According to the results obtained, the ancient species have higher nutritional value from the point of view of chemical compounds and macro elements of minerals. This may be of great importance for consumers who demand bakery products with high nutritional quality.

Evaluation of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of whole flours obtained from different species of Triticum genus

Whole wheat is an exceptional source of phenolic compounds representing a promising phytochemical class to prevent diet-related chronic diseases thanks to its antioxidant activities. The present work reports the phenolic profile, the antioxidant capacity, the antimicrobial activity and the effect on Lactobacillus brevis growth of eight whole flours obtained from four ancient and modern wheat genotypes of Italian Triticum genus. Total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) were quantified, and antioxidant activities were assessed using oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) in vitro tests. HPLC-DAD/FLD was used to detect the presence of phenolic compounds. Moreover, antimicrobial activity of whole flour extracts against some potentially pathogenic Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria and the effect of extracts on Lactobacillus brevis growth were assessed. Results showed quantitative differences (p < 0.05) in antioxidant activities, total phenolic content and concentrations of five phenolic acids (resorcinol, tyrosol, caffeic acid, syringic acid and ferulic acid) among the wheat genotypes. Pathogenic bacteria were significantly negatively affected by wheat extracts while the growth of L. brevis was stimulated. The principal component analysis (PCA) confirmed that the phenolic profile and the antioxidant activities were influenced by the genotypic characteristics of studied varieties, suggesting that the ancient Saragolla stand out for the most interesting phenolic profile. Overall, this research emphasizes how ancient and modern Italian Triticum spp. grains must be investigated to select the grains richer in bioactive compounds.

Graphical abstract

Sourdough Fermentation Improves the Antioxidant, Antihypertensive, and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Triticum dicoccum

The fermentation process has been widely used to improve plant-based foods’ nutritional and nutraceutical properties. This study aimed to investigate and compare the impact of sourdough fermentation on the bioactive content and profile, antioxidant and antihypertensive activities, as well as the anti-inflammatory properties of fermented (FS) and non-fermented (NFS) flour from Tuscan Triticum dicoccum wheat (spelt) on tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)-inflamed human intestinal epithelial cells (HT-29). FS showed significantly higher total phenolic and flavonoid content, in vitro and ex vivo antioxidant activities, and ACE-inhibitory activities than NFS. Gallic acid was identified by HPLC-DAD as the most representative polyphenol, followed by rutin, trans-ferulic acid, iso-quercitrin, and quercetin, in the fermented spelt sample. Instead, rutin and gallic acid were identified as the predominant compounds in the non-fermented ones. Moreover, FS exhibited a better protective effect on inflamed HT-29 cells by significantly counteracting the TNFα-induced alterations, lowering the expression of IL-8, COX-2, and ICAM-1 inflammatory mediator while enhancing antioxidant enzyme HO-1 gene expression. In conclusion, sourdough fermentation positively affected the nutraceutical and functional properties of spelt, which may represent a valuable ingredient for the formulation of functional foods and a key product for managing hypertension and inflammatory intestinal diseases.

Valorization of an Old Variety of Triticum aestivum: A Study of Its Suitability for Breadmaking Focusing on Sensory and Nutritional Quality

"Avanzi 3-Grano 23" (G23) is an old variety of Triticum aestivum from the mountain areas of Lunigiana (north Tuscany, Italy), where traditional farming communities have contributed to its success and on-farm conservation. G23 flour, traditionally used for typical food products, is characterized by particular nutritional and sensory traits but has technological properties which limit its suitability for breadmaking. The aim of this work was to evaluate how to promote the use of G23 through the optimization of bread formulation by leveraging both flour blending and the leavening system. During the preliminary test, three different mixes of G23 flour and a strong flour (C) were tested in terms of their leavening power as a function of leavening agent (baker's yeast or sourdough). The selected M2 flour, composed of G23:C (1:1 w/w), was used for further breadmaking trials and 100% C flour was utilized as a control. The sourdough bread obtained with the M2 flour (SB-M2) showed an improved sensory profile compared with the related control (SB-C). Furthermore, SB-M2 exhibited the best aromatic (high content in aldehydes, pyrazines and carboxylic acids) and phytochemical profile (total polyphenols and flavonoids content and antioxidant activity). In contrast, the use of baker's yeast, although optimal from the point of view of breadmaking, did not result in the same levels of aromatic complexity because it tends to standardize the product without valorizing the sensory and nutritional qualities of the flour. In conclusion, in the experimental conditions adopted, this old wheat variety appears to be suitable for the production of sourdough bakery products.

Metabolic Profile of Einkorn, Spelt, Emmer Ancient Wheat Species Sourdough Fermented with Strain of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum ATCC 8014

The continuous development of bakery products as well as the increased demands from consumers transform ancient grains into alternatives with high nutritional potential for modern wheat species. The present study, therefore, follows the changes that occur in the sourdough obtained from these vegetable matrices fermented by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum ATCC 8014 during a 24 h. period. The samples were analyzed in terms of cell growth dynamics, carbohydrate content, crude cellulose, minerals, organic acids, volatile compounds, and rheological properties. The results revealed significant microbial growth in all samples, with an average value of 9 log cfu/g but also a high accumulation of organic acids with the increase in the fermentation period. Lactic acid content ranged from 2.89 to 6.65 mg/g, while acetic acid recorded values between 0.51 and 1.1 mg/g. Regarding the content of simple sugars, maltose was converted into glucose, and fructose was used as an electron acceptor or carbon source. Cellulose content decreased as a result of the solubilization of soluble fibers into insoluble fibers under enzymatic action, with percentages of 3.8 to 9.5%. All sourdough samples had a high content of minerals; the highest of which-Ca (246 mg/kg), Zn (36 mg/kg), Mn (46 mg/kg), and Fe (19 mg/kg)-were recorded in the einkorn sourdough.

Amylase Trypsin Inhibitors (ATIs) in a Selection of Ancient and Modern Wheat: Effect of Genotype and Growing Environment on Inhibitory Activities

Wheat amylase-trypsin inhibitors (ATIs) are a family of plant defense proteins with an important role in human health for their involvement in allergies, celiac disease and non-celiac wheat sensitivity. Information about the differences in ATI activities among wheat genotypes and the influence of the growing environment is scarce. Therefore, ten selected wheat accessions with different ploidy level and year of release, previously characterized for their ATI gene sequences, were grown during three consecutive crop years at two growing areas and used for in vitro ATI activities. The contributions of the genotype and the crop year were significant for both activities. The hexaploid wheat genotypes showed the highest inhibitory activities. Einkorn had a peculiar behavior showing the lowest alpha-amylase inhibitory activity, but the highest trypsin inhibitory activity. It was not possible to observe any trend in ATI activities as a function of the release year of the wheat samples. The two inhibitory activities were differently affected by the growing conditions and were negatively correlated with the protein content. This information can be important in understanding the extent of variation of ATI inhibitory properties in relation to the wheat genotype and the growing environment and the impact of ATIs, if any, on human health and nutrition.

Proteomic Analysis of Roots Response to Potassium Deficiency and the Effect of TaHAK1-4A on K+ Uptake in Wheat

Potassium (K+) is essential for plant growth and stress responses. A deficiency in soil K+ contents can result in decreased wheat quality and productivity. Thus, clarifying the molecular mechanism underlying wheat responses to low-K+ (LK) stress is critical. In this study, a tandem mass tag (TMT)-based quantitative proteomic analysis was performed to investigate the differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) in roots of the LK-tolerant wheat cultivar “KN9204” at the seedling stage after exposure to LK stress. A total of 104 DAPs were identified in the LK-treated roots. The DAPs related to carbohydrate and energy metabolism, transport, stress responses and defense, and post-translational modifications under LK conditions were highlighted. We identified a high-affinity potassium transporter (TaHAK1-4A) that was significantly up-regulated after the LK treatment. Additionally, TaHAK1-4A was mainly expressed in roots, and the encoded protein was localized in the plasma membrane. The complementation assay in yeast suggested that TaHAK1-4A mediates K+ uptake under extreme LK conditions. The overexpression of TaHAK1-4A increased the fresh weight and root length of Arabidopsis under LK conditions and improved the growth of Arabidopsis athak5 mutant seedlings, which grow poorly under LK conditions. Moreover, silencing of TaHAK1-4A in wheat roots treated with LK stress decreased the root length, dry weight, K+ concentration, and K+ influx. Accordingly, TaHAK1-4A is important for the uptake of K+ by roots exposed to LK stress. Our results reveal the protein metabolic changes in wheat induced by LK stress. Furthermore, we identified a candidate gene potentially relevant for developing wheat lines with increased K+ use efficiency.

Biodiversity management approaches in small and innovative businesses: insights from a systems thinking perspective

Purpose

Amid the current global crisis, biodiversity remains a topic that is often relegated to a few disciplines. Many issues related to the relationship between organizations and the ecosystem remain unexplored. This study aims to fill this gap by examining the characteristics of the interrelationship between these two complex and dynamic systems.

Design/methodology/approach

This research is conducted using a constructivist approach, with an interpretivist perspective and a case study methodology. Through this research perspective and an exploratory multiple case study (holistic), the authors assess the implications related to the concept of biodiversity and the impacts that organizational choices could have on the consideration and management of this complex concept.

Findings

The desire of these entrepreneurs to change their ways of doing things and try to produce in a way that respects the ecosystem and enhances natural genetic diversity, while simultaneously drawing value from it in a healthy and sustainable manner, is evident. The orientation toward a sustainable and ecologically innovative business brings the concept of profit into the background on several occasions, leading these bakery entrepreneurs to be visionary green entrepreneurs (or ecopreneurs). The desire to be sustainable and to change the ways of “business as usual” makes these companies and their entrepreneurs an example of “sustainability-as-flourishing.”

Originality/value

By adopting the systems thinking approach and multiple case studies, this study examines the interrelation between some innovative small companies (bakeries) and biodiversity, their motivations to actively engage in biodiversity protection and their roles in protecting agrobiodiversity as well as the natural wealth of the ecosystem.

Cooking Quality and Chemical and Technological Characteristics of Wholegrain Einkorn Pasta Obtained from Micronized Flour

The increased demand for healthier foods, the recognition of dry pasta as an ideal carrier of functional ingredients, and the current interest for ancient wheats such as einkorn motivated the present research. Two varieties of Triticum monococcum, namely cv Norberto and the free-threshing cv Hammurabi, were milled by ultra-fine milling process (micronization) to produce wholegrain spaghetti. Einkorn pasta was assessed in terms of technological and biochemical properties and cooking and sensorial quality and compared to durum wheat semolina pasta. Wholewheat einkorn pasta showed a threefold increase in total dietary fibre content as well as in total antioxidant capacity in comparison to the control. The level of resistant starch in cv Norberto resulted significantly higher respect to semolina and einkorn cv Hammurabi pasta. Despite the very weak einkorn gluten network, the sensory and instrumental assessment of pasta quality highlighted that einkorn spaghetti presented good sensorial properties related to their technological quality, in particular, for the overall judgment and firmness. Cultivar Hammurabi emerged as the preeminent compromise on the basis of technological performances together with chemical and sensorial aspects.

Effect of ancient wheat pasta on gut microbiota composition and bacteria-derived metabolites: A randomized controlled trial

Background and aim

In recent years, many studies have suggested that ancient wheat products might have beneficial effects on cardiometabolic risk profile, but little is known about their effect on gut microbiota (GM). The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether a replacement diet with pasta made from ancient wheat (AD) could influence the GM composition and its metabolites' production compared to a replacement diet with pasta made from modern wheat (CD).

Methods

A randomized, double-blinded crossover trial with two intervention phases was conducted on 20 clinically healthy adults (9 females; 11 males; mean age 43.1 ± 12.5 years). Study participants were assigned to consume pasta made using semi-whole flour from organic wheat that was either from ancient or modern control wheat for 8 weeks in a random order. An 8-week washout period was implemented between the interventions. Stool samples were collected from all subjects at the beginning and at the end of each intervention period. GM composition, and short- (SCFAs) and medium- chain fatty acids (MCFAs) production was evaluated.

Results

Dietary interventions did not produce significant diversity in the GM composition at higher ranks (phylum, class, order and family), but only at genus level. In detail, the AD significantly (adj. p < 0.05) changed the abundance of Erysipelatoclostridium spp., Bacteroides_pectinophilus_group spp., CAG-873 spp., and Holdemanella spp. The CD significantly affected the abundance of Akkermansia spp., CAG-873 spp., Hungatella spp., Lachnospiraceae_UCG-008 spp., NK4A214_group spp., Frisingicoccus spp., Megasphaera spp., Synergistes spp., and Tyzzerella spp. Regarding the production of SCFAs and MCFAs, AD resulted in a significant increase of fecal acetic (+0.7%), isobutyric (+30.1%), 2-methylbutyric (+64.2%), and isovaleric (+22.5%) acids. On the other hand, CD resulted in increased levels of isobutyric (+71.4%), 2-methylbutyric (+116.2%), isovaleric (+99%), and valeric (+21.4%) acids, and a reduction of butyric (-31.6%) and hexanoic (-66.4%) acids.

Conclusion

A short-term replacement diet with both ancient and modern wheat pasta determined significant changes in GM composition at the genus level but notably the AD resulted in a greater beneficial impact on anti-inflammatory SCFAs.

Diploid Wheats: Are They Less Immunogenic for Non-Celiac Wheat Sensitive Consumers?

Non-celiac wheat sensitivity (NCWS) is a clinical entity induced by the ingestion of gluten that leads to intestinal and/or extraintestinal symptoms, and is diagnosed when celiac disease and wheat allergy have been ruled out. In addition to gluten, other grains’ components, including amylase trypsin inhibitors (ATIs) and fermentable short-chain carbohydrates (FODMAPs), may trigger symptoms in NCWS subjects. Several studies suggest that, compared with tetraploid and hexaploid modern wheats, ancient diploid wheats species could possess a lower immunogenicity for subjects suffering from NCWS. This review aims to discuss available evidence related to the immunological features of diploid wheats compared to common wheats, and at outlining new dietary opportunities for NCWS subjects.

Chromosomal mapping of a locus associated with adult-stage resistance to powdery mildew from Agropyron cristatum chromosome 6PL in wheat

The powdery mildew resistance locus was mapped to A. cristatum chromosome 6PL bin (0.27-0.51) and agronomic traits evaluation indicated that this locus has potential breeding application value. Agropyron cristatum (2n = 4x = 28, PPPP) is a wild relative of wheat with an abundance of biotic and abiotic stress resistance genes and is considered one of the best exogenous donor relatives for wheat breeding. A number of wheat-A. cristatum derived lines have been generated, including addition lines, translocation lines and deletion lines. In this study, the 6P disomic addition line 4844-12 (2n = 2x = 44) was confirmed to have genetic effects on powdery mildew resistance. Four 6P deletion lines (del16a, del19b, del21 and del27) and two translocation lines (WAT638a and WAT638b), derived from radiation treatment of 4844-12, were used to further assess the 6P powdery mildew resistance locus by powdery mildew resistance assessment, genomic in situ hybridization (GISH), fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and 6P specific sequence-tagged-site (STS) markers. Collectively, the locus harboring the powdery mildew resistance gene was genetically mapped to a 6PL bin (0.27-0.51). The genetic effects of this chromosome segment on resistance to powdery mildew were further confirmed by del16a and del27 BC₃F₂ lines. Comprehensive evaluation of agronomic traits revealed that the powdery mildew resistance locus of 6PL (0.27-0.51) has potential application value in wheat breeding. A total of 22 resistant genes were annotated and 3 specific gene markers were developed for detecting chromatin of the resistant region based on genome re-sequencing. In summary, this study could broaden the powdery mildew resistance gene pool for wheat genetic improvements.

Phytochemical Components and Human Health Effects of Old versus Modern Italian Wheat Varieties: The Case of Durum Wheat Senatore Cappelli

The Mediterranean diet has significant beneficial health effects and wheat is a major component of the Mediterranean diet, mainly in the form of bread and pasta. Modern wheat generally refers to varieties that were developed after the introduction of dwarfing genes in the 1950s, while old varieties are considered those developed before that time. Research findings on Italian wheat varieties showed that the total polyphenol content in both old and modern durum and soft wheat varieties are similar; but the old varieties have a higher number of polyphenols and of isomer forms. In particular, the durum wheat Senatore Cappelli genotype shows a very high variety of polyphenolic components. Recent studies have demonstrated healthy cardiovascular effects (favorable changes of atherosclerosis markers such as lipid parameters and hemorheological variables) as well as a marked reduction in gastrointestinal and extra-intestinal symptoms in non-celiac gluten sensitivity subjects with the consumption of pasta obtained by old durum wheat Senatore Cappelli variety, even though this type of wheat contains high amounts of gluten. In conclusion, old wheat Italian varieties, and in particular the Senatore Cappelli genotype, are characterized by multiple nutraceutical specificities that could suggest their use for health-promoting purposes. Additional research is needed to confirm these findings, focusing attention also on the effect of different environments and years.

Chemical, Functional, and Technological Features of Grains, Brans, and Semolina from Purple and Red Durum Wheat Landraces

A main reason of the increasing interest in cereal landraces is their potential to offer more diversified and functional staple food. For instance, landraces are an underexploited resource of pigmented varieties, appreciated for the high accumulation of phytochemicals with known health benefits. This study characterized the chemical, functional, and technological features of the bran, semolina, and grains of two durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. subsp. durum, Desf.) landraces, named ‘Purple’ and ‘Red’ for their grain color, collected in Ethiopia and grown and sold in southern Italy as a niche product. Specifically, we analyzed the protein content, dry gluten, ash, total polyphenols, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and specific phenolic acids. We also evaluated the antioxidant activity using DPPH- and ABTS-based methods. The two landraces had positive nutritional features, such as a high protein content, a rich and composite range of secondary metabolites (which include specific phenolic acids and anthocyanins), and antioxidant activities in all the fractions analyzed. The germplasm under investigation therefore has a well-justified potential to yield functional products and to diversify durum wheat-based foods.

Do ancient wheats contain less gluten than modern bread wheat, in favour of better health?

Popular media messaging has led to increased public perception that gluten‐containing foods are bad for health. In parallel, ‘ancient grains’ have been promoted with claims that they contain less gluten. There appears to be no clear definition of ‘ancient grains’ but the term usually includes einkorn, emmer, spelt and Khorasan wheat. Gluten is present in all wheat grains and all can induce coeliac disease (CD) in genetically susceptible individuals. Analyses of ‘ancient’ and ‘modern’ wheats show that the protein content of modern bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) has decreased over time while the starch content increased. In addition, it was shown that, compared to bread wheat, ancient wheats contain more protein and gluten and greater contents of many CD‐active epitopes. Consequently, no single wheat type can be recommended as better for reducing the risks of or mitigating the severity of CD. An estimated 10% of the population of Western countries suffers from gastrointestinal symptoms that lack a clear organic cause and is often referred to as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Many of these patients consider themselves gluten sensitive, but in most cases this is not confirmed when tested in a medical setting. Instead, it may be caused by gas formation due to fermentation of fructans present in wheat or, in some patients, effects of non‐gluten proteins. A significant overlap of symptoms with those of CD, IBS and inflammatory bowel disease makes a medical diagnosis a priority. This critical narrative review examines the suggestion that ‘ancient’ wheat types are preferred for health and better tolerance.

Ancient Caucasian Wheats: A Contribution for Sustainable Diets and Food Diversity

Through the centuries, the domestication and modern breeding of wheat led to a significant loss of genetic variation in the cultivated gene pool with a consequent decrease in food diversity. Current trends towards low-input and sustainable agriculture call for the revitalization and exploitation of ancient wheats, which represent a reservoir of biodiversity useful to ensure sustainable wheat production in the context of climate change and low-input farming systems. Ancient Caucasian wheat species, such as the hulled wheats Triticum timopheevii (tetraploid A^uA^uGG) and Triticum zhukovskyi (hexaploid A^uA^uA^mA^mGG), are still grown to a limited extent in the Caucasus for the production of traditional foods. These Caucasian wheats were grown in Italy and were analyzed for physical, nutritional and technological characteristics and compared to durum wheat. Both Caucasian species revealed a high protein content (on average 18.5%) associated with a low gluten index, mainly in T. zhukovskyi, and test weight values comparable to commercial wheats. The total antioxidant capacity was revealed to be the double of that in durum wheat, suggesting the use of ancient Caucasian wheats for the production of healthy foods. Finally, the technological and rheological results indicated that Caucasian wheats could be potential raw material for the formulation of flat breads, biscuits and pasta.

A Combinatorial Q-locus and Tubulin-Based Polymorphism (TBP) Approach Helps in Discriminating Triticum Species

The simple and straightforward recognition of Triticum species is not an easy task due to their complex genetic origins. To provide a recommendation, we have compared the performance of different PCR-based methods relying on the discrimination ability of the Q- and γ-gliadin (GAG56D) genes, as well as TBP (Tubulin-Based Polymorphism), a method based on the multiple amplification of genes of the β-tubulin family. Among these approaches, the PCR-RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) assay based on a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) present in the Q gene is the only one capable of fully discerning hexaploid spelt and common wheat species, while both γ-gliadin and TBP fail with similar error frequencies. The Q-locus assay results in the attainment of either a single fragment or a doublet, depending on the presence of a suitable restriction site, which is affected by the mutation. This dual pattern of resolution limits both the diagnostic effectiveness, when additional Triticum species are assayed and compared to each other, and its usefulness, when commercially available flours are analyzed. These limitations are overtaken by flanking the Q-locus assay with the TBP analysis. In this way, almost all of the Triticum species can be accurately identified.

General Health Benefits and Pharmacological Activities of Triticum aestivum L

Common wheat (Triticum aestivum), one of the world's most consumed cereal grains, is known for its uses in baking and cooking in addition to its medicinal uses. As this plant's medical benefits are enormous and scattered, this narrative review was aimed at describing the pharmacological activities, phytochemistry, and the nutritional values of Triticum aestivum. It is a good source of dietary fiber, resistant starch, phenolic acids, alkylresorcinols, lignans, and diverse antioxidant compounds such as carotenoids, tocopherols and tocotrienols. These constituents provide Triticum aestivum with a wide range of pharmacological properties, including anticancer, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, hypolipemic, antioxidant, laxative, and moisturizing effects. This review summarized the established benefits of wheat in human health, the mode of action, and different clinical, in vitro and in vivo studies for different varieties and cultivars. This review also gives an insight for future research into the better use of this plant as a functional food. More clinical trials, in vivo and in vitro studies are warranted to broaden the knowledge about the effect of Triticum aestivum on nutrition-related diseases prevention, and physical and mental well-being sustenance.

Explicating the cross-talks between nanoparticles, signaling pathways and nutrient homeostasis during environmental stresses and xenobiotic toxicity for sustainable cultivation of cereals

Precision farming using nanoparticles is a cutting-edge technology for safe cultivation of crop plants in marginal areas afflicted with environmental/climatic stresses like salinity, drought, extremes of temperature, ultraviolet B stress or polluted with xenobiotics like toxic heavy metals and fluoride. Major cereal crops like rice, wheat, maize, barley, sorghum and millets which provide the staple food for the entire global population are mainly glycophytes and are extremely susceptible to abiotic stress-induced oxidative injuries. Nanofertilization/exogenous spraying of beneficial nanoparticles alleviates the oxidative damages in cereals by altering the homeostasis of phytohormones like abscisic acid, gibberellins, cytokinins, auxins, salicylic acid, jasmonic acid and melatonin and by triggering the synthesis of gasotransmitter nitric oxide. Signaling cross-talks of nanoparticles with plant growth regulators enable activation of the defence machinery, comprising of antioxidants, thiol-rich compounds and glyoxalases and restrict xenobiotic mobilization by suppressing the expression of associated transporters. Accelerated nutrient uptake and grain biofortification under the influence of nanoparticles result in optimum crop productivity under sub-optimal conditions. However, over-dosing of even beneficial nanoparticles promotes severe phytotoxicity. Hence, the concentration of nanoparticles and mode of administering need to be thoroughly standardized before large-scale field applications, to ensure sustainable cereal cultivation with minimum ecological imbalance.

Spanish Spelt Wheat: From an Endangered Genetic Resource to a Trendy Crop

Spelt wheat (Triticum aestivum L. ssp. spelta Thell.) is an ancient wheat that was widely cultivated in the past. This species derived from a cross between emmer wheat (T. turgidum spp. dicoccum Schrank em. Thell.) and Aegilops tauschii Coss. Its main origin was in the Fertile Crescent (Near East), with a secondary center of origin in Europe due to a second hybridization event between emmer and hexaploid wheat. This species has been neglected in most of Europe; however, the desire for more natural foods has driven a revival in interest. Iberian spelt is classified as a geographical group differing to the rest of European spelt. In this review, the particularities, genetic diversity and current situation of Spanish spelt, mainly for quality traits, are discussed.

Ancient Wheat Species: Biochemical Profile and Impact on Sourdough Bread Characteristics—A Review

In recent years, the attention of farmers, bakers and consumers towards ancient wheat species has been increasing. Low demands of pedo-climatic growth factors, the suitability for organic cultivation along with their high nutritional quality and their content in pro-health compounds make them extremely attractive for bakers and modern consumers, equally. On the other hand, in recent years, sourdough has gained attention due to its ability to produce new functionally active molecules with higher bioaccessibility and thus to produce bread with enhanced nutritional quality. This paper highlights the relevant nutritional profile of einkorn, spelt, emmer and Khorasan which could lead to bread with improved textural, sensorial, microbial and nutritional characteristics through sourdough fermentation. The ancient wheat species could be used as promising substitutes for common wheat flour for the design of innovative types of bread, even for special needs.

Postprandial blood glucose and insulin responses to breads formulated with different wheat evolutionary populations (Triticum aestivum L.): A randomized controlled trial on healthy subjects

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of breads made with two different wheat evolutionary populations (EPs), compared with a modern variety, on postprandial blood glucose and insulin responses. A randomized controlled crossover postprandial study involving 12 healthy subjects was conducted. Seven non-commercial breads produced with flours from two different bread wheat (T. aestivum L.) EPs (Bio2, ICARDA) and a modern bread wheat variety (Bologna) were considered controls, with two different bread-making processes (Saccharomyces cerevisiae and sourdough), and were specifically formulated for the study. Postprandial incremental curves, incremental area under the curve (IAUC), maximum postprandial peaks for blood glucose and plasma insulin over 2 h after administration of isoglucidic portions of breads (50 g of available carbohydrates) were evaluated. The comparison of incremental curves, IAUC, and maximum postprandial peaks after consumption of breads formulated with EPs and control breads showed no differences among samples. Neither the flour nor the leavening technic used for the baking were effective in inducing a different postprandial response compared with the Bologna variety. EPs, being characterized by higher degree of crop genetic diversity, may have a relevant agronomic role to guarantee good and stable yields and quality under low input management in a changing climate; however, future studies are needed to better investigate their potential positive effect on human health.

Potential Effects of Biochar Application for Improving Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Growth and Soil Biochemical Properties under Drought Stress Conditions

Different soil amendments are applied to improve soil properties and to achieve higher crop yield under drought conditions. The objective of the study was to investigate the role of biochar for the improvement of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) growth and soil biochemical properties under drought conditions. A pot experiment with a completely randomized design was arranged with four replications in a wire house. Drought was imposed on two critical growth stages (tillering and grain filling) and biochar was applied to the soil 10 days before sowing at two different rates (28 g kg−1 and 38 g kg−1). Soil samples were collected to determine the soil properties including soil respiration and enzymatic parameters after crop harvesting. Results showed that water stress negatively affects all biochemical properties of the soil, while biochar amendments positively improved these properties. Application of biochar at 38 g kg−1 provided significantly higher mineral nutrients, Bray P (18.72%), exchangeable-K (7.44%), soil carbon (11.86%), nitrogen mineralization (16.35%), and soil respiration (6.37%) as a result of increased microbial activities in comparison with the 28 g kg−1 rate.

Beneficial effects of a T. monococcum wheat cultivar on diabetes incidence evaluated in non-obese diabetic mice and after in vitro simulated gastroduodenal digestion

Wheat consumption can represent one of the nutritional factors involved in the onset of diabetes. We specifically investigated the potential diabetogenic effects of Hammurabi, a T. monococcum wheat cultivar, in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice and analysed the levels of resistant starch in pasta manufactured with Hammurabi after in vitro gastroduodenal digestion. NOD mice were fed with Hammurabi, bread wheat or rice flour to evaluate diabetes incidence and insulitis score. An enzymatic method was applied to compare the content of resistant starch in Hammurabi pasta and durum wheat pasta (control). In NOD mice, the Hammurabi-based diet significantly delayed diabetes onset (p = 0.0042) and reduced insulitis score compared to rice or wheat-based diet. Furthermore, the resistant starch value following in vitro digestion of Hammurabi pasta was significantly higher (4.08%) than that of durum wheat pasta (2.28%). Taken together, these results highlighted the potential positive effects of the Hammurabi-based diet on diabetes incidence.

Genetic architecture underlying the expression of eight α-amylase trypsin inhibitors

KEY MESSAGE

Wheat cultivars largely differ in the content and composition of ATI proteins, but heritability was quite low for six out of eight ATIs. The genetic architecture of ATI proteins is built up of few major and numerous small effect QTL. Amylase trypsin inhibitors (ATIs) are important allergens in baker's asthma and suspected triggers of non-celiac wheat sensitivity (NCWS) inducing intestinal and extra-intestinal inflammation. As studies on the expression and genetic architecture of ATI proteins in wheat are lacking, we evaluated 149 European old and modern bread wheat cultivars grown at three different field locations for their content of eight ATI proteins. Large differences in the content and composition of ATIs in the different cultivars were identified ranging from 3.76 pmol for ATI CM2 to 80.4 pmol for ATI 0.19, with up to 2.5-fold variation in CM-type and up to sixfold variation in mono/dimeric ATIs. Generally, heritability estimates were low except for ATI 0.28 and ATI CM2. ATI protein content showed a low correlation with quality traits commonly analyzed in wheat breeding. Similarly, no trends were found regarding ATI content in wheat cultivars originating from numerous countries and decades of breeding history. Genome-wide association mapping revealed a complex genetic architecture built of many small, few medium and two major quantitative trait loci (QTL). The major QTL were located on chromosomes 3B for ATI 0.19-like and 6B for ATI 0.28, explaining 70.6 and 68.7% of the genotypic variance, respectively. Within close physical proximity to the medium and major QTL, we identified eight potential candidate genes on the wheat reference genome encoding structurally related lipid transfer proteins. Consequently, selection and breeding of wheat cultivars with low ATI protein amounts appear difficult requiring other strategies to reduce ATI content in wheat products.

Evaluation of Glycemic Index of Six Different Samples of Commercial and Experimental Pasta Differing in Wheat Varieties and Production Processes

Pasta is a staple food of the Mediterranean Diet, and it is traditionally made of durum wheat semolina. In Sicily, durum wheat production and its transformation into semolina, bread, and pasta are well-developed economic sectors. For pasta, there is a wide supply of commercial brands, whether coming from conventional industrial manufacturing or from medium to small and local handcrafted production. Both conventional durum wheat and local durum wheat landraces, such as Timilia and Russello, are used for pasta production, but local landraces are, for the most, transformed into handcrafted pasta. The market of local landraces durum wheat pasta has risen in recent decades, in Sicily and in Italy as well, boosted by a perceived high nutritional and healthy value of these wheat derivatives. In particular, a popular and scientifically unproven idea suggests that a reduced glycemic response might be elicited by these pasta landraces. Therefore, to test this hypothesis, the main objective of the present study was the evaluation of the glycemic index (GI) of four samples of Timilia and Russello handcrafted pasta and two samples of conventional durum wheat pasta. The study enrolled fourteen healthy weight male and female volunteers aged from 18 to 46; eight test sessions were performed twice a week, every session testing a pasta sample (six sessions) or the glucose solution chosen as reference food (two sessions). The standard methodology for GI measurement was followed during each step of the study. The six tested pasta samples were characterized regarding their composition (protein, fiber, and starch content) and their whole production processes (milling method and milling diagram of flour or semolina, drying temperature, and diagram of pasta shape). The six tested pasta samples showed GI values ranging from low (34.1) to intermediate (63.1). Timilia and Russello pasta are the first GI calculations available. The two samples made of conventional grains showed lower values of GI (34.1 and 37.8). The results do not support the popular idea of a reduced glycemic response elicited by Timilia and Russello wheat landrace pasta; the tested samples showed GI values in the range of 56.2 to 63.1. However, some consideration should be made of factors other than wheat varieties and related to production processes that may have affected the final GIs of the pastas. Even if the study is not designed to discriminate among factors related to wheat varieties or processes used to produce different pasta, it is a preliminary step in the characterization of the healthy potential of the local wheat landraces, popularly called ancient grain. A future implementation of the local wheat landraces supply chain should pay attention to all the factors above, from a better seed identity certification to the production process in order to further improve the healthy value of these staples of the Mediterranean Diet.

Foliar Zinc-Selenium and Nitrogen Fertilization Affects Content of Zn, Fe, Se, P, and Cd in Wheat Grain

The grain yield and concentrations of Fe, Zn, Se, Cd, and P in two winter wheat genotypes and in vitro bioaccessibility of Fe and Zn under the effect of different nitrogen fertilization and Zn-Se foliar application were evaluated. The total grain Fe, Zn, and Se concentrations, as well as Fe and Zn concentrations, after in vitro digestion were under the strongest effect of foliar Zn-Se application. On the other hand, Fe and Zn bioaccessibility (%) were under the most substantial effect of genotype. Regarding the need to increase concentrations of essential micronutrients in wheat grain, foliar Zn-Se application is a reliable and accepted agricultural practice, but to improve mineral bioaccessibility in human nutrition, foliar Zn-Se application should be combined with the most responsive genotypes. For this reason, further research on the genotype specificity of wheat regarding micronutrient bioaccessibility should be carried out.

Breeding selection imposed a differential selective pressure on the wheat root-associated microbiome

Plants-microbiome associations are the result of millions of years of co-evolution. Due to breeding-accelerated plant evolution in non-native and highly managed soil, plant-microbe links could have been lost. We hypothesized that post-domestication breeding of wheat changed the root-associated microbiome. To test this, we analyzed root-associated fungal and bacterial communities shortly after emergence of seedlings representing a transect of wheat evolution including modern wheat, landraces and ancestors. Numbers of observed microbial taxa were highest in landraces bred in low-input agricultural systems, and lowest in ancestors that had evolved in native soils. The microbial communities of modern cultivars were different from those of landraces and ancestors. Old wheat accessions enriched Acidobacteria and Actinobacteria, while modern cultivars enriched OTUs from Candidatus Saccharibacteria, Verrucomicrobia and Firmicutes. The fungal pathogens Fusarium, Neoascochyta and Microdochium enriched in modern cultivars. Both bacterial and fungal communities followed a neutral assembly model when bulk soil was considered as the source community, but accessions of the ancient Triticum turgidum and T. monococcum created a more isolated environment in their roots. In conclusion, wheat root-associated microbiomes have dramatically changed through a transect of breeding history.

Influence of different leavening agents on technological and nutritional characteristics of whole grain breads obtained from ancient and modern flour varieties

The aim of the work was to assess the influence of the leavening agent on several technological, chemical, and nutritional characteristics of breads prepared with whole soft wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flours. As leavening agents in bread-making, baker’s yeast, biga, and sourdough were utilized. Two ancient varieties, Andriolo and Verna, and a modern grain variety, Bologna, were used. Analysis of the obtained breads included the measurement of the phenols content, the antioxidant activity, the in vitro protein and total digestibility, the texture profile, the crumb grain characteristics and the microbial shelf-life test. The results of the principle component analysis of bread features indicated a clustering depending especially on the leavening agent rather than on the employed flour, particularly when sourdough was used. Protein digestibility, crumb grain characteristics, and shelf-life led to the main differences among the samples. Ancient wheat flour displayed similar features when the same leavening agent was applied. Particularly, the use of sourdough levelled the differences due to flour, leading to breads with similar technological and nutritional characteristics. The findings highlighted a marked effect of the leavening agent on bread final characteristics.

Challenges and Opportunities in Wheat Flour, Pasta, Bread, and Bakery Product Production Chains: A Systematic Review of Innovations and Improvement Strategies to Increase Sustainability, Productivity, and Product Quality

Pasta, bread, and bakery products are considered worldwide as essential foods for human nutrition. In particular, ancient wheats and whole wheat flours, despite being able to provide health benefits via bioactive compounds, present significant technological problems related to poorer dough rheological properties and final product characteristics. Moreover, both the food industry and consumers are increasingly sensitive to environmental impacts, highlighting the urgent need for sustainable innovations and improvement strategies, from cradle to grave, for the entire production chains, thus motivating this review. The aim of this review is to provide technological innovations and improvement strategies to increase the sustainability, productivity, and quality of flours, pasta, bread, and bakery products. This review is focused on the main operations of the production chains (i.e., wheat cultivation, wheat milling, dough processing, and, finally, the manufacturing of pasta, bread, and bakery products). To achieve this goal, the use of life-cycle assessment (LCA) analysis proved to be an effective tool that can be used, from early stages, for the development of eco-friendly improvement strategies. The correct management of the wheat cultivation stage was found to be essential since it represents the most impacting phase for the environment. Successively, particular attention needs to be paid to the milling process, the kneading phase, to breadmaking, and, finally, to the manufacturing of pasta. In this review, several specifically developed solutions for these essential phases were suggested. In conclusion, despite further investigations being necessary, this review provided several innovations and improvement strategies, using an approach “from cradle to grave”, able to increase the sustainability, productivity, and final quality of flour, semolina, pasta, bread, and bakery products.