Innate immunity and the sensing of infection, damage and danger in the female genital tract

Characterization and expression profiles of toll-like receptor genes (TLR2 and TLR5) in immune tissues of hybrid yellow catfish under bacterial infection

The yellow catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco) is one of the most economically important freshwater species in Asia. However, pathogenic bacterial infections often cause high rates of mortality and economic losses in practical aquaculture. Previous studies in mammals have shown that Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and Toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5) are involved in the recognition of cell wall components such as lipopolysaccharides and flagella of various bacteria, thereby acting as key regulators in the innate immunity response. However, TLR2 and TLR5 in yellow catfish have not been characterized. In the present study, TLR2 and TLR5 were examined through comparative genomic approaches. The gene structure, collinearity, protein spatial structure, and phylogenetic relationships were compared with those in multiple representative vertebrates. Meanwhile, quantitative real-time PCR was conducted to explore transcriptional changes in TLR2 and TLR5 in immune tissues after infection with exogenous A. hydrophila and E. tarda. The results demonstrated the presence of TLR2 and TLR5 in yellow catfish. However, a systematic analysis showed that TLR2 was not associated with the arrangement of diverse neighboring genes. The expression of hybrid yellow catfish TLR2 transcripts in multiple tissues (including liver, spleen, kidney, and intestine) was significantly up-regulated after infection with A. hydrophila and E. tarda, suggesting that hybrid yellow catfish TLR2 and TLR5 may participate in the immune process. Taken together, the results indicate that TLR2 and TLR5 are conserved in terms of evolution and possess significant antibacterial activity as well as regulatory properties in immune-related tissues and thus play key roles in host defense against pathogen invasion.

Validation of vaginal microbiome proxies for in vitro experiments that biomimic Lactobacillus-dominant vaginal cultures

The vaginal microbiome includes diverse microbiota dominated by Lactobacillus [L.] spp. that protect against infections, modulate inflammation, and regulate vaginal homeostasis. Because it is challenging to incorporate vaginal microbiota into in vitro models, including organ-on-a-chip systems, we assessed microbial metabolites as reliable proxies in addition to traditional vaginal epithelial cultures (VECs). Human immortalized VECs cultured on transwells with an air-liquid interface generated stratified cell layers colonized by transplanted healthy microbiomes (L. jensenii- or L. crispatus-dominant) or a community representing bacterial vaginosis (BV). After 48-h, a qPCR array confirmed the expected donor community profiles. Pooled apical and basal supernatants were subjected to metabolomic analysis (untargeted mass spectrometry) followed by ingenuity pathways analysis (IPA). To determine the bacterial metabolites' ability to recreate the vaginal microenvironment in vitro, pooled bacteria-free metabolites were added to traditional VEC cultures. Cell morphology, viability, and cytokine production were assessed. IPA analysis of metabolites from colonized samples contained fatty acids, nucleic acids, and sugar acids that were associated with signaling networks that contribute to secondary metabolism, anti-fungal, and anti-inflammatory functions indicative of a healthy vaginal microbiome compared to sterile VEC transwell metabolites. Pooled metabolites did not affect cell morphology or induce cell death (∼5.5%) of VEC cultures (n = 3) after 72-h. However, metabolites created an anti-inflammatory milieu by increasing IL-10 production (p = .06, T-test) and significantly suppressing pro-inflammatory IL-6 (p = .0001), IL-8 (p = .009), and TNFα (p = .0007) compared to naïve VEC cultures. BV VEC conditioned-medium did not affect cell morphology nor viability; however, it induced a pro-inflammatory environment by elevating levels of IL-6 (p = .023), IL-8 (p = .031), and TNFα (p = .021) when compared to L.-dominate microbiome-conditioned medium. VEC transwells provide a suitable ex vivo system to support the production of bacterial metabolites consistent with the vaginal milieu allowing subsequent in vitro studies with enhanced accuracy and utility.

Role of innate immunity and systemic inflammation in cystic fibrosis disease progression

Pathophysiological manifestations of cystic fibrosis (CF) result from a functional defect in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) paving way for mucus obstruction and pathogen colonization. The role of CFTR in modulating immune cell function and vascular integrity, irrespective of mucus thickening, in determining the host cell response to pathogens/allergens and causing systemic inflammation is least appreciated. Since CFTR plays a key role in the conductance of anions like Cl^-, loss of CFTR function could affect various basic cellular processes, such as cellular homeostasis, lysosome acidification, and redox balance. CFTR aids in endotoxin tolerance by regulating Toll-like receptor-mediated signaling resulting in uncontrolled activation of innate immune cells. Although leukocytes of CF patients are hyperactivated, they exhibit compromised phagosome activity thus favouring the orchestration of sepsis from defective pathogen clearance. This review will emphasize the importance of innate immunity and systemic inflammatory response in the development of CF and other CFTR-associated pathologies.

Role of Noradrenaline and Adrenoreceptors in Regulating Prostaglandin E2 Synthesis Cascade in Inflamed Endometrium of Pigs

In the inflamed uterus, the production and secretion of prostaglandins (PGs) and noradrenergic innervation pattern are changed. Receptor-based control of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production and secretion by noradrenaline during uterine inflammation is unknown. The aim of this study was to determine the role of α1-, α2- and β-adrenoreceptors (ARs) in noradrenaline-influenced PG-endoperoxidase synthase-2 (PTGS-2) and microsomal PTGE synthase-1 (mPTGES-1) protein levels in the inflamed pig endometrium, and in the secretion of PGE2 from this tissue. E. coli suspension (E. coli group) or saline (CON group) was injected into the uterine horns. Eight days later, severe acute endometritis developed in the E. coli group. Endometrial explants were incubated with noradrenaline and/or α1-, α2- and β-AR antagonists. In the CON group, noradrenaline did not significantly change PTGS-2 and mPTGES-1 protein expression and increased PGE2 secretion compared to the control values (untreated tissue). In the E. coli group, both enzyme expression and PGE2 release were stimulated by noradrenaline, and these values were higher versus the CON group. The antagonists of α1- and α2-AR isoforms and β-AR subtypes do not significantly alter the noradrenaline effect on PTGS-2 and mPTGES-1 protein levels in the CON group, compared to noradrenaline action alone. In this group, α1A-, α2B- and β2-AR antagonists partly eliminated noradrenaline-stimulated PGE2 release. Compared to the noradrenaline effect alone, α1A-, α1B-, α2A-, α2B-, β1-, β2- and β3-AR antagonists together with noradrenaline reduced PTGS-2 protein expression in the E. coli group. Such effects were also exerted in this group by α1A-, α1D-, α2A-, β2- and β3-AR antagonists with noradrenaline on mPTGES-1 protein levels. In the E. coli group, the antagonists of all isoforms of α1-ARs and subtypes of β-ARs as well as α2A-ARs together with noradrenaline decreased PGE2 secretion versus noradrenaline action alone. Summarizing, in the inflamed pig endometrium, α1(A, B)-, α2(A, B)- and β(1, 2, 3)-ARs mediate the noradrenaline stimulatory effect on PTGE-2 protein expression, while noradrenaline via α1(A, D)-, α2A- and β(2, 3)-ARs increases mPTGES-1 protein expression and α1(A, B, D)-, α2A- and β(1, 2, 3)-ARs are involved in PGE2 release. Data suggest that noradrenaline may indirectly affect the processes regulated by PGE2 by influencing its production. Pharmacological modulation of particular AR isoforms/subtypes can be used to change PGE2 synthesis/secretion to alleviate inflammation and improve uterine function.

Effect of blocking of alpha1-adrenoreceptor isoforms on the noradrenaline-induced changes in contractility of inflamed pig uterus

BACKGROUND

Disturbances in uterine contractility often lead to the origin, development and maintenance of endometritis and metritis, which are a very common and serious pathologies in domestic animals. Here we aimed to investigate the role of α1A-, α1B- and α1D-adrenoreceptors (ARs) in noradrenaline (NA)-induced contractility of inflammatory-changed porcine uterus.

METHODS

On Day 3 of the estrous cycle, either Escherichia coli (E. coli) suspension (E. coli group) or saline (SAL group) was injected into uterine horns, or only laparotomy was performed (CON group). Eight days later, infected gilts developed severe acute endometritis.

RESULTS

Compared to the period before NA application, NA reduced the contractile amplitude and frequency in myometrium (MYO) and endometrium (ENDO)/MYO strips from the CON, SAL and E. coli groups. In the last group, the amplitude in MYO and the frequency in ENDO/MYO were lowered versus other groups. After using α1A-ARs antagonist with NA, a greater decrease or occurrence of a drop in the amplitude and frequency in all groups (ENDO/MYO) were found compared to this neurotransmitter action alone. Such results were noted for NA action on the frequency after α1B-ARs blocking in the CON (both kinds of strips) and SAL (ENDO/MYO) groups. In response to α1D-ARs antagonist with NA, a greater decrease or occurrence of a drop in the amplitude was noted in the CON (both kinds of strips) and SAL and E. coli (MYO) groups. Use of these factors caused the similar changes in the frequency in CON and E. coli (MYO) and SAL (ENDO/MYO) groups. In response to NA, α1A,B,D-ARs antagonist led to a greater reduction or appearance of a drop in the amplitude in the CON and SAL (ENDO/MYO) and E. coli (both kinds of strips) as well as in the frequency in the CON and SAL (ENDO/MYO) and E. coli (MYO) groups.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, activation of α1A- and α1D-ARs by NA promotes the contractile amplitude and frequency in the inflamed pig uterus; pharmacological modulation of these receptors can be utilized to enhance systolic activity of myometrium.

Ovulation Induced by Intrauterine Seminal Plasma Increases Total Protein, PGE2, IL-8, and IL-1β in Uterine Fluid of Llamas (Lama glama)

The establishment of a state of immunotolerance in the female reproductive tract is important for embryo development, implantation and placentation. Llamas are induced ovulators and more than 98% of pregnancies occur in the left uterine horn. The objective of this study was to determine the uterine immune response of llamas in different stages of the reproductive cycle. Adult llamas (n = 20) were examined daily by transrectal ultrasonography to determine follicular growth and then randomly assigned to four groups: Follicular phase (n = 5); Luteal phase induced by an intramuscular administration of 50 ug of GnRH analogue (n = 5); Luteal phase induced by intrauterine infusion of seminal plasma (n = 5); and Luteal phase induced by mating (n = 5). Uterine fluid was collected separately from both uterine horns by non-surgical flushing to determine the presence of cells, total proteins and concentration of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IFN γ, TNF-α and PGE2. Inflammatory cells were not observed in the uterine fluid and total protein pattern and inflammatory mediators did not differ between the left and the right horn amongst groups. Llamas treated with an intrauterine infusion of seminal plasma showed the highest concentration of total proteins, inflammatory cytokines PGE2, IL-8 and IL-1β in the uterine fluid. In conclusion, seminal plasma is made up of significant numbers of signaling molecules that are able to modify the uterine immune response in llamas.

Unravelling the genetics of non-random fertilization associated with gametic incompatibility

In the dairy industry, mate allocation is dependent on the producer's breeding goals and the parents' breeding values. The probability of pregnancy differs among sire-dam combinations, and the compatibility of a pair may vary due to the combination of gametic haplotypes. Under the hypothesis that incomplete incompatibility would reduce the odds of fertilization, and complete incompatibility would lead to a non-fertilizing or lethal combination, deviation from Mendelian inheritance expectations would be observed for incompatible pairs. By adding an interaction to a transmission ratio distortion (TRD) model, which detects departure from the Mendelian expectations, genomic regions linked to gametic incompatibility can be identified. This study aimed to determine the genetic background of gametic incompatibility in Holstein cattle. A total of 283,817 genotyped Holstein trios were used in a TRD analysis, resulting in 422 significant regions, which contained 2075 positional genes further investigated for network, overrepresentation, and guilt-by-association analyses. The identified biological pathways were associated with immunology and cellular communication and a total of 16 functional candidate genes were identified. Further investigation of gametic incompatibility will provide opportunities to improve mate allocation for the dairy cattle industry.

Involvement of the calcitonin gene-related peptide system in the modulation of inflamed uterus contractile function in pigs

This study analyzed severe acute endometritis action on myometrial density and distribution of protein gene product (PGP)9.5- and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)-like immunoreactive nerve fibers and calcitonin receptor-like receptor (CLR) expression, and on CGRP receptor (CGRPR) participation in uterine contractility in pigs. E. coli suspension (E. coli group) or saline (SAL group) were injected into the uteri, or only laparotomy was performed (CON group). In the E. coli group myometrium, a lack of significant changes in PGP9.5 and CGRP innervation patterns and increased CLR protein level were revealed. In all groups, compared to the pretreatment period, human αCGRP increased amplitude in the myometrium, while reducing it in endometrium/myometrium. In the E. coli group endometrium/myometrium, human αCGRP lowered amplitude vs other groups. Human αCGRP reduced frequency in CON and SAL groups and enhanced it in the E. coli group endometrium/myometrium. The frequency in E. coli group increased vs other groups. CGRPR antagonist, human αCGRP8-37, reversed (CON, SAL groups) and eliminated (E. coli group) the rise in human αCGRP-induced myometrial amplitude. In endometrium/myometrium, human αCGRP8-37 abolished (CON group) and reversed (SAL group) a decrease in frequency, and reduced the rise in frequency (E. coli group) caused by human αCGRP. Collectively, in the myometrium, endometritis did not change PGP9.5 and CGRP innervation patterns and enhanced CLR protein level. CGRPR also mediated in CGRP action on inflamed uterus contractility.

“The Good, the Bad and the Ugly”: Interplay of Innate Immunity and Inflammation

Innate immunity recognizes microorganisms through certain invariant receptors named pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) by sensing conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Their recognition activates several signaling pathways that lead the transcription of inflammatory mediators, contributing to trigger a very rapid inflammatory cascade aiming to contain the local infection as well as activating and instructing the adaptive immunity in a specific and synchronized immune response according to the microorganism. Inflammation is a coordinated process involving the secretion of cytokines and chemokines by macrophages and neutrophils leading to the migration of other leukocytes along the endothelium into the injured tissue. Sustained inflammatory responses can cause deleterious effects by promoting the development of autoimmune disorders, allergies, cancer, and other immune pathologies, while weak signals could exacerbate the severity of the disease. Therefore, PRR-mediated signal transduction must be tightly regulated to maintain host immune homeostasis. Innate immunity deficiencies and strategies deployed by microbes to avoid inflammatory responses lead to an altered immune response that allows the pathogen to proliferate causing death or uncontrolled inflammation. This review analyzes the complexity of the immune response at the beginning of the disease focusing on COVID-19 disease and the importance of unraveling its mechanisms to be considered when treating diseases and designing vaccines.

Investigation of the Role of Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Peptide (PACAP) and Its Type 1 (PAC1) Receptor in Uterine Contractility during Endometritis in Pigs

Uterine inflammation is a common pathology in animals, leading to disturbances in reproductive processes and reduced production profitability. Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP) effects at the uterine level during inflammation are not known. In the current study, we analyzed the relative PACAP type 1 receptor (PAC1R) mRNA transcript and protein abundances in the myometrium (MYO), as well s PACAP and PAC1R involvement in the contractile function of inflamed pig uterus. To that end, E. coli suspension (E. coli group) or saline (SAL group) was injected into the uterine horns or laparotomy was performed (CON group). Eight days after the bacteria injections, severe acute endometritis and a reduced relative abundance of PAC1R protein in the MYO were observed. Compared to the period before PACAP in vitro administration, PACAP (10^-7 M) in the CON and SAL groups decreased in amplitude in the MYO and endometrium (ENDO)/MYO, whereas in the E. coli group, increased amplitude in the MYO and reduced amplitude in the ENDO/MYO were observed. In the E. coli group, PACAP enhanced the amplitude in the MYO (10^-7 M) and decreased the amplitude in the ENDO/MYO (10^-8 M) compared with other groups. PACAP (10^-7 M) increased the frequency of both kinds of strips in the CON and SAL groups compared with the pretreatment period. PACAP (both doses) did not significantly change the frequency in the E. coli group, whereas in response to PACAP (10^-7 M), the frequency was reduced compared to other groups. In the MYO, PAC1R antagonist decreased the amplitude reduction (CON and SAL groups) and reversed a rise in PACAP (10^-7 M)-evoked amplitude (E. coli group). PAC1R blocking reversed (MYO) and abolished (ENDO/MYO) the stimulatory effect of PACAP (10^-7 M) on the frequency (CON and SAL groups). PAC1R antagonist and PACAP (10^-7 M) evoked the appearance of frequency depression in both kinds of strips (E. coli group). In summary, in pigs, severe acute endometritis reduces the relative abundance of PAC1R protein in the MYO, and PAC1R mediates the influence of PACAP on inflamed uterus contractility.

Regulatory Influence of Galanin and GALR1/GALR2 Receptors on Inflamed Uterus Contractility in Pigs

Uterine inflammation is a very common and serious pathology in domestic animals, the development and progression of which often result from disturbed myometrial contractility. We investigated the effect of inflammation on the protein expression of galanin (GAL) receptor subtypes (GALR)1 and GALR2 in myometrium and their role in the contractile amplitude and frequency of an inflamed gilt uterus. The gilts of the E. coli and SAL groups received E. coli suspension or saline in their uteri, respectively, and only laparotomy was performed (CON group). Eight days later, the E. coli group developed severe acute endometritis and lowered GALR1 protein expression in the myometrium. Compared to the pretreatment period, GAL (10⁻⁷ M) reduced the amplitude and frequency in myometrium and endometrium/myometrium of the CON and SAL groups, the amplitude in both stripes and frequency in endometrium/myometrium of the E. coli group. In this group, myometrial frequency after using GAL increased, and it was higher than in other groups. GALR2 antagonist diminished the decrease in amplitude in myometrium and the frequency in endometrium/myometrium (SAL, E. coli groups) induced by GAL (10⁻⁷ M). GALR1/GALR2 antagonist and GAL (10⁻⁷ M) reversed the decrease in amplitude and diminished the decrease in frequency in both examined stripes (CON, SAL groups), and diminished the drop in amplitude and abolished the rise in the frequency in the myometrium (E. coli group). In summary, the inflammation reduced GALR1 protein expression in pig myometrium, and GALR1 and GALR2 participated in the contractile regulation of an inflamed uterus.

Role of beta-adrenergic receptor subtypes in pig uterus contractility with inflammation

Uterine inflammation is a very common and serious condition in domestic animals. To development and progression of this pathology often lead disturbances in myometrial contractility. Participation of β1-, β2- and β3-adrenergic receptors (ARs) in noradrenaline (NA)-influenced contractility of the pig inflamed uterus was studied. The gilts of SAL- and E.coli-treated groups were administered saline or E.coli suspension into the uterine horns, respectively. Laparotomy was only done in the CON group. Compared to the period before NA administration, this neurotransmitter reduced the tension, amplitude and frequency in uterine strips of the CON and SAL groups. In the E.coli group, NA decreased the amplitude and frequency, and these parameters were lower than in other groups. In the CON, SAL and E.coli groups, β1- and β3-ARs antagonists in more cases did not significantly change and partly eliminated NA inhibitory effect on amplitude and frequency, as compared to NA action alone. In turn, β2-ARs antagonist completely abolished NA relaxatory effect on these parameters in three groups. Summarizing, NA decreases the contractile amplitude and frequency of pig inflamed uterus via all β-ARs subtypes, however, β2-ARs have the greatest importance. Given this, pharmacological modulation of particular β-ARs subtypes can be used to increase inflamed uterus contractility.

Association between Anti-Müllerian Hormone Concentration and Inflammation Markers in Serum during the Peripartum Period in Dairy Cows

The relationships between changes in anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) concentration and various traits, including milk somatic cell counts (SCC), were evaluated. Blood samples were collected from 43 Holstein cows 14 days before (D-14) and 10 (D10) and 28 days after (D28) parturition, and vaginal discharge score (VDS) and polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMNL) percentages were assessed in endometrial samples at D28. Cows were separated into four quartiles (Q1-Q4) based on changes in AMH concentration during the peripartum period (AMH ratio: D28/D-14). Correlations between AMH ratio and each parameter were evaluated and classified into high-AMH (Q4, 1.83 ± 0.12, n = 11) and low-AMH (Q1, 0.83 ± 0.05, n = 11) groups. The AMH ratio was positively correlated with magnesium and non-esterified fatty acids levels, and the albumin/globulin ratio at D10 and D28, but negatively correlated with serum amyloid A (SAA) at D10. SAA and γ-globulin levels were significantly higher in the low-AMH group at D28. There was no significant difference in VDS, PMNL percentage, and milk SCC between the two groups. The decreasing AMH ratio from the prepartum to the postpartum period corresponds to high inflammation biomarker levels. Whether it subsequently affects the reproductive prognosis of postpartum cows needs further investigations.

Possible role of microbiome in the pathogenesis of endometriosis

INTRODUCTION

There is an urgent necessity to explore the complex pathophysiological nature of endometriosis, which may enable the rationale for new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies to be discovered. This systematic review aimed to clarify the bidirectional relationship between endometriosis and the microbiome and evaluate if the microbiome may be involved in endometriosis's pathogenesis, establishing a potential connection between the different studies.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

Studies were identified through a systematic literature search of papers that evaluated the microbiomes of human or other animal species with endometriosis and of those without in the electronic database PubMed/Medline, and Embase without a date restriction. We included all cohort studies focusing on the interaction between endometriosis and the microbiomes of humans or other mammals, evaluating if the microbiome may be involved in endometriosis's pathogenesis.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

Endometriosis appears to be associated with elevated levels of different microorganisms across various microbiome sites. An ineffective immune response seems to play a key role in endometriosis pathogenesis, and there is some scientific proof to state that the immune response may be modulated by the microbiome. Interestingly, nine studies of our review detected species belonging to the phyla Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Negativicutes characterized by Gram-negative staining, that were significantly increased in endometriosis cohorts.

CONCLUSIONS

Laboratory and clinical investigations indicate that hosts' microbiome profiles with and without endometriosis can be significantly different. To further our understanding of the relationships between endometriosis and the host microbiome, more studies are necessary.

TLR4-Associated IRF-7 and NFκB Signaling Act as a Molecular Link Between Androgen and Metformin Activities and Cytokine Synthesis in the PCOS Endometrium

CONTEXT

Low-grade chronic inflammation is commonly seen in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) patients with elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines in the endometrium.

OBJECTIVE

This work aimed to increase the limited understanding of the mechanisms underlying cytokine synthesis and increased endometrial inflammation in PCOS patients.

METHODS

Endometrial biopsy samples were collected from non-PCOS (n = 17) and PCOS (n = 22) patients either during the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle or with hyperplasia. Endometrial explants were prepared from PCOS patients and underwent pharmacological manipulation in vitro. The expression and localization of toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2)/4, key elements of innate immune signal transduction and nuclear factor κB (NFκB) signaling pathways, and multiple cytokines were comprehensively evaluated by Western blotting, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence in endometrial tissues.

RESULTS

We demonstrated the distribution of protein expression and localization associated with the significantly increased androgen receptor, TLR2, and TLR4-mediated activation of interferon regulatory factor-7 (IRF-7) and NFκB signaling, cytokine production, and endometrial inflammation in PCOS patients compared to non-PCOS patients with and without endometrial hyperplasia. In vitro experiments showed that 5-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) enhanced androgen receptor, TLR4, IRF-7, and p-NFκB p65 protein expression along with increased interferon α (IFNα) and IFNɣ abundance. The effects of DHT on IRF-7, p-NFκB p65, and IFN abundance were abolished by flutamide, an antiandrogen. Although 17β-estradiol (E2) decreased p-IRF-7 expression with little effect on TLR-mediated IRF7 and NFκB signaling or on cytokine protein levels, exposure to metformin alone or in combination with E2 suppressed interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 4 (IRAK4), p-IRF-7, IRF-7, IκB kinase α (IKKα), p-NFκB p65, IFNɣ, and tumor necrosis factor α protein expression.

CONCLUSION

Cytokine synthesis and increased endometrial inflammation in PCOS patients are coupled to androgen-induced TLR4/IRF-7/NFκB signaling, which is inhibited by metformin treatment.

Reproductive Tract Infections in Dairy Cows: Can Probiotics Curb Down the Incidence Rate?

Postpartum uterine diseases are common in dairy cows and are a great concern for the dairy industry as they are associated with various consequences, including lower fertility, lower milk yield, and an overall negative impact on the host health. An infected uterus is a source of bacterial compounds and cytokines that spill into the systemic circulation, spreading inflammation to other organs. In this review article, we discuss a short overview of the anatomy of the reproductive tract of dairy cows and several infectious diseases of the uterus including metritis, endometritis, and pyometra. Additionally, we discuss the microbiome of the reproductive tract in health and during uterine diseases. As well, diagnostic criteria for metritis and endometritis and contributing factors for increased susceptibility to metritis infection are important topics of this review. To better understand how the uterus and reproductive tract respond to bacterial pathogens, a section of this review is dedicated to immunity of the reproductive tract. Both the innate and adaptive immunity systems are also discussed. We conclude the review with a factual discussion about the current treatments of uterine diseases and the new developments in the area of application of probiotics for uterine health. Mechanisms of actions of probiotics are discussed in detail and also some applications to prevent uterine infections in dairy cows are discussed.

Pyometra and estrous cycle modulate the uterine expression of the kisspeptin system and angiogenic and immune factors in cats

Failures in hypothalamic kisspeptin/Kiss1r signaling are associated with infertility, and in vitro studies have shown that kisspeptin can modulate angiogenesis and immune activity. Because there is no in vivo research on the functional relationship between these factors in the reproductive system, especially in domestic cats, we evaluated the expression profile of kisspeptin/Kiss1r and angiogenic and immunological mediators in the genital tract of cyclic cats and of those with pyometra. The uterus of cats in diestrus exhibited greater gene and protein expression of Kiss1, as well as Vegf, Pigf, Mif, and Il6. In contrast, Kiss1r presented greater expression in proestrus/estrus, similarly to that observed for the immunostaining of INFγ, MIF, TNFα, and IL10. These factors were positively correlated with Kiss1 and/or Kiss1r, and a positive correlation between Kiss1 and Kiss1r was also observed in the uterus of cats during the estrous cycle. Cats with pyometra showed greater immunostaining of Kiss1 and Kiss1r on the endometrial surface and reduced immunostaining of Kiss1 in deep glands, whereas there was a significant reduction in Vegf, Pigf, Mif, and Il6 mRNA, and an increase in Tnf mRNA. The findings reveal that there is a gene correlation between kisspeptin/Kiss1r and angiogenic and immune mediators in the uterus of the domestic cat, which is modulated by the estrous cycle, and that pyometra affects the expression of these mediators. This study suggests, for the first time, a functional relationship between the Kiss/Kiss1r system and angiogenic and immune mediators in the female genital tract.

Hypothetical roadmap towards endometriosis: prenatal endocrine-disrupting chemical pollutant exposure, anogenital distance, gut-genital microbiota and subclinical infections

BACKGROUND

Endometriosis is a gynaecological hormone-dependent disorder that is defined by histological lesions generated by the growth of endometrial-like tissue out of the uterus cavity, most commonly engrafted within the peritoneal cavity, although these lesions can also be located in distant organs. Endometriosis affects ~10% of women of reproductive age, frequently producing severe and, sometimes, incapacitating symptoms, including chronic pelvic pain, dysmenorrhea and dyspareunia, among others. Furthermore, endometriosis causes infertility in ~30% of affected women. Despite intense research on the mechanisms involved in the initial development and later progression of endometriosis, many questions remain unanswered and its aetiology remains unknown. Recent studies have demonstrated the critical role played by the relationship between the microbiome and mucosal immunology in preventing sexually transmitted diseases (HIV), infertility and several gynaecologic diseases.

OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE

In this review, we sought to respond to the main research question related to the aetiology of endometriosis. We provide a model pointing out several risk factors that could explain the development of endometriosis. The hypothesis arises from bringing together current findings from large distinct areas, linking high prenatal exposure to environmental endocrine-disrupting chemicals with a short anogenital distance, female genital tract contamination with the faecal microbiota and the active role of genital subclinical microbial infections in the development and clinical progression of endometriosis.

SEARCH METHODS

We performed a search of the scientific literature published until 2019 in the PubMed database. The search strategy included the following keywords in various combinations: endometriosis, anogenital distance, chemical pollutants, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, prenatal exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals, the microbiome of the female reproductive tract, microbiota and genital tract, bacterial vaginosis, endometritis, oestrogens and microbiota and microbiota-immune system interactions.

OUTCOMES

On searching the corresponding bibliography, we found frequent associations between environmental endocrine-disrupting chemicals and endometriosis risk. Likewise, recent evidence and hypotheses have suggested the active role of genital subclinical microbial infections in the development and clinical progression of endometriosis. Hence, we can envisage a direct relationship between higher prenatal exposure to oestrogens or estrogenic endocrine-disrupting compounds (phthalates, bisphenols, organochlorine pesticides and others) and a shorter anogenital distance, which could favour frequent postnatal episodes of faecal microbiota contamination of the vulva and vagina, producing cervicovaginal microbiota dysbiosis. This relationship would disrupt local antimicrobial defences, subverting the homeostasis state and inducing a subclinical inflammatory response that could evolve into a sustained immune dysregulation, closing the vicious cycle responsible for the development of endometriosis.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS

Determining the aetiology of endometriosis is a challenging issue. Posing a new hypothesis on this subject provides the initial tool necessary to design future experimental, clinical and epidemiological research that could allow for a better understanding of the origin of this disease. Furthermore, advances in the understanding of its aetiology would allow the identification of new therapeutics and preventive actions.

The Inhibition of Cathepsin G on Endometrial Explants With Endometrosis in the Mare

Although proteases found in neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) have antimicrobial properties, they also stimulate collagen type 1 (COL1) production by the mare endometrium, contributing for the development of endometrosis. Cathepsin G (CAT), a protease present in NETs, is inhibited by specific inhibitors, such as cathepsin G inhibitor I (INH; β-keto-phosphonic acid). Matrix metallopeptidases (MMPs) are proteases involved in the equilibrium of the extracellular matrix. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of CAT and INH (a selective CAT inhibitor) on the expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 and on gelatinolytic activity. In addition, the putative inhibitory effect of INH on CAT-induced COL1 production in mare endometrium was assessed. Endometrial explants retrieved from mares in follicular phase or midluteal phase were treated for 24 or 48 h with CAT, inhibitor alone, or both treatments. In explants, transcripts (quantitative polymerase chain reaction) of COL1A2, MMP2, and MMP9, as well as the relative abundance of COL1 protein (Western blot), and activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9 (zymography) were evaluated. The protease CAT induced COL1 expression in explants, at both estrous cycle phases and treatment times. The inhibitory effect of INH was observed on COL1A2 transcripts in follicular phase at 24-h treatment, and in midluteal phase at 48 h (P < 0.05), and on the relative abundance of COL protein in follicular phase and midluteal phase explants, at 48 h (P < 0.001). Our study suggests that MMP-2 might also be involved in an earlier response to CAT, and MMP-9 in a later response, mainly in the follicular phase. While the use of INH reduced CAT-induced COL1 endometrial expression, MMPs might be involved in the fibrogenic response to CAT. Therefore, in mare endometrium, the use of INH may be a future potential therapeutic means to reduce CAT-induced COL1 formation and to hamper endometrosis establishment.

Leukocyte populations in peripheral blood of dromedary camels with clinical endometritis

Endometritis represents the main cause of reproductive failure in dromedary camels. In dromedary camels, associations between endometritis-causing pathogen-species, disease severity, and systemic changes in the immune system have not been evaluated. In the current study, there was use of flow cytometry and immunofluorescence of membrane proteins for the evaluation of leukocyte subsets and the cellular phenotype in blood of camels with clinical endometritis and evaluations of associations with disease severity and endometritis-causing pathogens. Animals with endometritis had markedly larger numbers of total leukocytes and neutrophils. Although total lymphocyte and monocyte counts did not differ between camels with and without clinical endometritis, there were lesser numbers of total and effector CD4-positive T cells in camels with endometritis. Among monocytes, number of camel inflammatory monocytes (Mo-II) was markedly greater, whereas Mo-III numbers were less in the blood of camels with clinical endometritis. Number of inflammatory monocytes was also indicative of endometritis severity grade. Among camels with clinical endometritis, E. coli- and S. aureus-infected animals had similar endometritis grades and comparable phenotype and composition patterns of leukocytes. Neutrophils and monocytes of camels with clinical endometritis had fewer cell adhesion molecules (i.e., CD11a and CD18). Collectively, the results from the current study allowed for identification of associations between endometritis severity grade and larger numbers of inflammatory monocytes. The results also indicate there is no association between endometritis pathogen-species and changes in phenotype or composition of blood leukocytes.

Inhibition of TLR2/TLR4 alleviates the Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection damage in human endometrial epithelial cells via Nrf2 and NF-Kβsignaling

BACKGROUND

Neisseria gonorrhoeae (N.g) is Gram-negative bacteria and can lead to endometritis in female. Toll-like receptors regulate immune response in various diseases. However, the roles of TLR2 and TLR4 in. Neisseria gonorrhoeae-induced infection damage in human endometrial epithelia were investigated.

METHODS

hEECs were infected with N.g (MOI 10 and 100) and cell viability and apoptosis were measured by CCK8 and flow cytometry assays in both infected groups with the uninfected normal hEECs as negative control. TLR2/TLR4 proteins were measured by ELISA method. Pro-inflammatory markers NLRP3, PGES (PGE2) and TNF-α were assessed by RT-qPCR (mRNA expression) and Elisa (protein concentrations). Transfection assays were performed to up- or down- regulate expression of TLR2 and TLR4 so as to study the functions of TLR2/TLR4 in. N.g-infected hEECs, followed by apoptosis and inflammation assessment. Similarly, we explored the interactions between TLR2/TLR4 and Nrf2/NF-κB/p65 by knocking down TLR2/TLR4 to detect the signaling and further regulating the signaling to evaluate TLR2/ TLR4, apoptosis and inflammation in cells.

RESULTS

N.g suppressed cell viabilities and induced cell apoptosis and inflammation. TLR2/TLR4 downregulation inhibited the infection damage. Nrf2 was activated while NF-κB/p65 was depleted as TLR2/ TLR4 was knocked down. Activation of Nrf2 and inhibition of NF-κB resulted in decrease of TLR2/TLR4, which could retard apoptosis and inflammation induced by N.g infection.

CONCLUSION

TLR2/TLR4 depletion could alleviate the N.g-infected hEECs via Nrf2/NF-kB signaling, suggesting that TLR2/TLR4 inhibitors might serve as a treatment to reduce N.g infection in human endometrial epithelia.

The role of somatostatin and its receptors (sstr2, sstr5) in the contractility of gilt inflamed uterus

We studied the inflammation effect on somatostatin receptors subtypes 2 (sstr2) and 5 (sstr5) expression in myometrium and somatostatin influence alone or with sstr2 and sstr5 antagonists on the contractility of gilt inflamed uterus. On day 3 of the estrous cycle, either E.coli suspension (E.coli group) or saline (SAL group) were injected into uterine horns. In the control pigs (CON group), only laparotomy was performed. Eight days later, in the E.coli group developed severe acute endometritis. In this group, myometrial sstr2 mRNA expression lowered and protein expression increased compared to other groups. Compared to period before somatostatin administration, somatostatin did not change tension in myometrium and endometrium/myometrium of three groups, reduced amplitude and frequency in the CON and SAL groups, and increased amplitude and decreased frequency in the E.coli group. In this group, amplitude was increased by somatostatin compared to other groups. In the CON and SAL groups, sstr2 eliminated inhibitory somatostatin effect on amplitude, while sstr5 antagonist reversed inhibitory somatostatin effect on amplitude. In the E.coli group, sstr2 antagonist reversed stimulatory somatostatin effect on amplitude, while in sstr5 antagonist presence stimulatory somatostatin effect was more deepened compared to somatostatin action alone. After using sstr2 antagonist more deepened inhibitory somatostatin effect on frequency in the CON and E.coli groups was found. Sstr5 antagonist partly eliminated inhibitory somatostatin effect on frequency in the SAL group. Summarizing, the uterine inflammation increases the myometrial sstr2 protein expression; somatostatin raises amplitude of the inflamed uterus acting by sstr2, while drops this parameter by sstr5.

Bull seminal plasma stimulates in vitro production of TGF-β, IL-6 and IL-8 from bovine endometrial epithelial cells, depending on dose and bull fertility

Seminal plasma (SP) regulates immune responses in the female reproductive tract through specific cytokines. It is not known whether SP from high fertility bulls (H) differs from SP from low fertility bulls (L). In this study, the cytokine response of bovine endometrial epithelial cells (bEEC) in culture was investigated after challenge with SP from two bulls of below average (L) or three bulls of above average fertility (H). The bEECs were challenged with 1% or 4% SP from l- or H-fertility bulls (L1, L4, H1, H4, respectively) or 1% or 4% PBS as control (C1, C4) for 72 h. The culture media were analysed for concentrations (pg/million cells) of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β1, TGF-β2 and TGF-β3) by Luminex, and Interleukin 6 and 8 (IL-6, IL-8) by ELISA. Challenge significantly affected production of TGF-ß1, TGF-ß2 and IL-8 compared to controls and was affected by bull fertility (p < 0.0001), SP concentration (p < 0.0001) and their interaction (p < 0.0001). A higher production of TGF-β1, TGF-β2 and IL-8 (p < 0.0001), and also IL-6 (p < 0.01), resulted from challenge with high doses of SP, being higher for L than H (p < 0.05). For TGF-β3, fertility of bull (p < 0.05). For TGF-B3, fertility of bull (p < 0.05) and the interaction between fertility and concentration of SP were significant (p < 0.01). In conclusion, 4% SP from L bulls stimulated more TGF-β1, TGF-β2, TGF-β3, IL-6 and IL-8 production than SP from H bulls, indicating that stimulation of the endometrium is relevant for fertility. Seminal plasma from high fertility bulls seems to affect cytokine production in utero positively in inseminated cows.

Inflammation changes the expression of neuropeptide Y receptors in the pig myometrium and their role in the uterine contractility

In the experiment the influence of inflammation on neuropeptide Y (NPY) receptor subtype 1 (Y1Rs) and 2 (Y2Rs) expression pattern in the gilt myometrium and NPY effect alone or with Y1Rs and Y2Rs antagonists on contractility of an inflamed uterus were recognized. On Day 3 of the estrous cycle, either E.coli suspension (E.coli group) or saline (SAL group) were administered into uterine horns. In the control gilts (CON group), only laparotomy was carried out. Eight days later, E.coli treatment evoked severe acute endometritis, significantly reduced Y1Rs mRNA and protein expression and increased Y2Rs protein expression in myometrium in relation to the CON and SAL groups. Compared to period before NPY application, NPY (10⁻⁷ M) significantly reduced amplitude in myometrium and endometrium/myometrium and frequency in myometrium of the CON and SAL groups and amplitude in endometrium/myometrium and frequency in strips of the E.coli group. In this group, after using NPY (10⁻⁷ M), the amplitude rose significantly in both kinds of strips, while frequency fell in endometrium/myometrium in relation to the SAL group. In the CON and SAL groups, NPY (10⁻⁷ M) with Y1Rs antagonist significantly increased the amplitude in endometrium/myometrium, while with Y2Rs antagonist caused a rise in myometrium. In the E.coli group after using Y1Rs or Y2Rs antagonist and NPY (10⁻⁷ M) amplitude did not significantly change in endometrium/myometrium, and this parameter was significantly lower after using the NPY and Y1Rs antagonist than in other groups. Y1Rs antagonist and NPY (10⁻⁸, 10⁻⁷ M) significantly increased frequency in endometrium/myometrium of the CON and SAL groups. In the E.coli group, Y1Rs or Y2Rs antagonists and NPY (10⁻⁷ M) significantly increased frequency in myometrium and it was significantly higher than in the CON group. Inflammation changes Y1Rs and Y2Rs expression in myometrium of the inflamed pig uterus and NPY reduces this organ contractility by Y1Rs and Y2Rs.

Effects of intra-uterine infusion of proteolytic enzymes on selected cytokine concentrations, uterine inflammation, and fertility in postpartum water buffalo cows with subclinical endometritis

The study was conducted to evaluate effects of intrauterine administration of proteolytic enzymes on endometrial inflammation and reproductive performance in postpartum water buffalo cows with subclinical endometritis (SCE). Cows (n = 38) with SCE (≥ 18 % PMN i.e.; polymorphonuclear cells) on day 21 postpartum (21 dpp), were allocated into treatment (TR; n = 19; intrauterine infusion of trypsin, chymotrypsin and papain in 20 ml normal saline on 21 dpp) and control (PC; n = 19; intrauterine administration 20 ml saline) groups. Cows without SCE (< 18 % PMN) were not treated and served as the negative control (NC; n = 30). Ultrasonography and sampling (endometrial cytology, uterine flushing, blood) were conducted on day 21 (before treatment) and 28 postpartum (28 dpp). The PMN % and uterine horn diameter were less on 28 dpp (compared with 21 dpp) in NC and TR group only. Cows with SCE had greater uterine concentrations of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-8 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α; but lesser IL-10 than NC group on 21 and 28 dpp. There were greater serum IL-1β and TNF-α concentrations on 28 dpp in cows with SCE than NC group. Uterine concentrations of IL-1β were less, whereas IL-6 was greater following enzymatic treatment. Proteolytic enzyme treatment did not result in improvement in pregnancy rate compared with the PC group; however, days to conception were less in TR compared with the other two groups. In conclusion, results indicated a reduction in endometrial inflammation and days nonpregnant after proteolytic enzyme treatment in buffalo cows with SCE.

Zika Virus Causes Acute Infection and Inflammation in the Ovary of Mice Without Apparent Defects in Fertility

BACKGROUND

Zika virus (ZIKV) has become a global concern because infection of pregnant mothers was linked to congenital birth defects. Zika virus is unique from other flaviviruses, because it is transmitted vertically and sexually in addition to by mosquito vectors. Prior studies in mice, nonhuman primates, and humans have shown that ZIKV targets the testis in males, resulting in persistent infection and oligospermia. However, its effects on the corresponding female gonads have not been evaluated.

METHODS

In this study, we assessed the effects of ZIKV on the ovary in nonpregnant mice.

RESULTS

During the acute phase, ZIKV productively infected the ovary causing accumulation of CD4+ and virus-specific CD8+ T cells. T cells protected against ZIKV infection in the ovary, as higher viral burden was measured in CD8-/- and TCRβδ-/- mice. Increased cell death and tissue inflammation in the ovary was observed during the acute phase of infection, but this normalized over time.

CONCLUSIONS

In contrast to that observed with males, minimal persistence and no long-term consequences of ZIKV infection on ovarian follicular reserve or fertility were demonstrated in this model. Thus, although ZIKV replicates in cells of the ovary and causes acute oophoritis, there is rapid resolution and no long-term effects on fertility, at least in mice.

IL-22 suppresses HSV-2 replication in human cervical epithelial cells

Interleukin (IL)-22, a member of the IL-10 family, plays a role in antiviral immune responses to a number of viral infections. However, it is unclear whether IL-22 is involved in the mucosal immunity against herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) infection in the female reproductive tract (FRT). In this study, we studied whether IL-22 could inhibit HSV-2 infection of human cervical epithelial cells (End1/E6E7 cells). We showed that End1/E6E7 cells express the functional IL-22 receptor complex (IL-22R1 and IL-10R2). When treated with IL-22, End1/E6E7 cells expressed the higher levels of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs: ISG15, ISG56, OAS-1, OAS-2, and Mx2) than untreated cells. In addition, IL-22-treated cells produced higher levels of the tight junction proteins (ZO-1 and Occludin) than untreated cells. Mechanistically, IL-22 could activate the JAK/STAT signaling pathway by inducing the phosphorylation of STAT1 and STAT3. These observations indicate the potential of IL-22 as an anti-HSV-2 agent in the FRT mucosal innate immunity against HSV-2 infection.

Inflammation: friend or foe of bovine reproduction?

Inflammation is not only the first line of defense of the organism but is also required in many reproductive processes such as ovulation, corpus luteum development, luteolysis, uterine clearance after insemination and post partum. Nevertheless, if excessive or persistent, inflammation can switch from a positive mechanism to a deleterious process, impairing oocyte quality and embryo development. Not only uterine but also non genital inflammatory sites can depreciate reproductive performances, with a carry over effect of 2 to 4 months. Since the metabolic challenges of the peripartum transition period make difficult for the cow to control inflammation, dairy cows are frequently in a pro-inflammatory stage, suggesting that inflammation, rather than infection, is a limiting factor of fertility in modern dairy cows. Within the first week after calving, cows have to mount an intense inflammatory response to the bacterial invasion of the uterine cavity with the challenge of being able to switch it off in no more than 5-6 weeks. The absence of neutrophils on endometrial smear is associated with the highest success rate at insemination. Since a fine tuning – rather than an absence - of inflammation is required along the reproductive cycle, anti-inflammatory drugs do not allow any improvement of pregnancy rate, except in the specific case of embryo transfer. Appropriate management of the transition period (especially nutritional) and in a long term perspective, genetic selection contribute to improve the aptitude of cows to controls the intensity of inflammatory process.

Mammalian target of rapamycin signaling and ubiquitin-proteasome-related gene expression in skeletal muscle of dairy cows with high or normal body condition score around calving

The objective of the current study was to investigate the effects of overconditioning around calving on gene expression of key components of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway and ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) in skeletal muscle as well as the AA profiles in both serum and muscle of periparturient cows. Fifteen weeks antepartum, 38 multiparous Holstein cows were allocated to either a high body condition group (HBCS; n = 19) or a normal body condition group (NBCS; n = 19) and were fed different diets until dry-off (d -49 relative to calving) to amplify the difference. The groups were also stratified for comparable milk yields (NBCS: 10,361 ± 302 kg; HBCS: 10,315 ± 437 kg). At dry-off, the NBCS cows (parity: 2.42 ± 1.84; body weight: 665 ± 64 kg) had a body condition score (BCS) <3.5 and backfat thickness (BFT) <1.2 cm, whereas the HBCS cows (parity: 3.37 ± 1.67; body weight: 720 ± 57 kg) had a BCS >3.75 and BFT >1.4 cm. During the dry period and the subsequent lactation, both groups were fed identical diets but maintained the BCS and BFT differences. Blood samples and skeletal muscle biopsies (semitendinosus) were repeatedly (d -49, +3, +21, and +84 relative to calving) collected for assessing the concentrations of free AA and the mRNA abundance of various components of mTOR and UPS. The differences in BCS and BFT were maintained throughout the study. The circulating concentrations of most AA with the exception of Gly, Gln, Met, and Phe increased in early lactation in both groups. The serum concentrations of Ala (d +21 and +84) and Orn (d +84) were lower in HBCS cows than in NBCS cows, but those of Gly, His, Leu, Val, Lys, Met, and Orn on d -49 and Ile on d +21 were greater in HBCS cows than in NBCS cows. The serum concentrations of 3-methylhistidine, creatinine, and 3-methylhistidine:creatinine ratio increased after calving (d +3) but did not differ between the groups. The muscle concentrations of all AA (except for Cys) remained unchanged over time and did not differ between groups. The muscle concentrations of Cys were greater on d -49 but tended to be lower on d +21 in HBCS cows than in NBCS cows. On d +21, mTOR and eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E binding protein 1 mRNA abundance was greater in HBCS cows than in NBCS cows, whereas ribosomal protein S6 kinase 1 was not different between the groups. The mRNA abundance of ubiquitin-activating enzyme 1 (d +21), ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme 1 (d +21), atrogin-1 (d +21), and ring finger protein-1 (d +3) enzymes was greater in HBCS cows than in NBCS cows, whereas ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme 2 was not different between the groups. The increased mRNA abundance of key components of mTOR signaling and of muscle-specific ligases of HBCS cows may indicate a simultaneous activation of anabolic and catabolic processes and thus increased muscle protein turnover, likely as a part of the adaptive response to prevent excessive loss of skeletal muscle mass during early lactation.

Toll-like receptors and high mobility group box 1 in granulosa cells during bovine follicle maturation

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are present in the ovaries and reproductive tract of various mammals. The biological function of TLR during ovulation is one of the main contents in the research of reproductive immunology. In this study, we found that messenger RNA levels of TLR1-TLR10 in granulosa cells were different, and TLRs and high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) in granulosa cells of large follicles were significantly higher than those of small and middle follicles. Coimmunoprecipitation results showed that HMGB1 interacts with TLR2 in granulosa cells, especially large follicles. The result of immunohistochemistry showed that TLRs and HMGB1 were present in granulosa cell layer of ovarian follicles. We also found 25 mIU/ml follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) significantly upregulated the expression of TLRs and HMGB1. These results suggest that TLR2/4 and HMGB1 in granulosa cells may be involved in the ovarian innate immune and ovarian follicular maturation, regulated by FSH. However, further research of the function and mechanisms of TLRs and HMGB1 in granulosa cells are needed.

Associations between metal concentrations in whole blood and placenta previa and placenta accreta: the Japan Environment and Children's Study (JECS)

Background

Placenta previa and placenta accreta associate with high morbidity and mortality for both mothers and fetus. Metal exposure may have relationships with placenta previa and placenta accreta. This study analyzed the associations between maternal metal (cadmium [Cd], lead [Pb], mercury [Hg], selenium [Se], and manganese [Mn]) concentrations and placenta previa and placenta accreta.

Methods

We recruited 17,414 women with singleton pregnancies. Data from a self-administered questionnaire regarding the first trimester and medical records after delivery were analyzed. Maternal blood samples were collected to measure metal concentrations. The subjects were classified into four quartiles (Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4) according to metal concentrations.

Results

The odds ratio for placenta previa was significantly higher among subjects with Q4 Cd than those with Q1 Cd. The odds ratio for placenta previa was significantly higher for subjects with Q2 Pb than those with Q1 Pb.

Conclusion

Participants with placenta previa had higher Cd concentrations. However, this study was cross-sectional and lacked important information related to Cd concentration, such as detailed smoking habits and sources of Cd intake. In addition, the subjects in this study comprised ordinary pregnant Japanese women, and it was impossible to observe the relationship between a wide range of Cd exposure and placenta previa. Therefore, epidemiological and experimental studies are warranted to verify the relationship between Cd exposure and pregnancy abnormalities.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12199-019-0795-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Sperm success and immunity

The moment of the fertilization of an egg by a spermatozoon-the point of "sperm success"-is a key milestone in the biology of sexually reproducing species and is a fundamental requirement for offspring production. Fertilization also represents the culmination of a suite of sexually selected processes in both sexes and is commonly used as a landmark to measure reproductive success. Sperm success is heavily dependent upon interactions with other key aspects of male and female biology, with the immune system among the most important. The immune system is vital to maintaining health in both sexes; however, immune reactions can also have antagonistic effects on sperm success. The effects of immunity on sperm success are diverse, and may include trade-offs in the male between investment in the production or protection of sperm, as well as more direct, hostile, immune responses to sperm within the female, and potentially the male, reproductive tract. Here, we review current understanding of where the biology of immunity and sperm meet, and identify the gaps in our knowledge.

G2-S16 dendrimer microbicide does not interfere with the vaginal immune system

It is essential that prophylactic drugs do not interfere with the normal function of the immune system. The use of nanoparticles as vaginal microbicides is a promising prevention strategy against sexually transmitted infections. With that aim, our group is working with the G2-S16, a second generation carbosilane dendrimer with sulfonate groups in the periphery, which has been previously shown to be effective against HIV-1 and HSV-2 infection, and it is now on the road to clinical trials. Our objective in this new study is to assess the effects of G2-S16 on the immune barrier of the female reproductive tract. The expression of differentiation, maturation and activation markers was measured in epithelial cells, dendritic cells, M and GM macrophages, and T cells using RT-qPCR and flow cytometry. The results demonstrate that G2-S16 does not alter the natural immunity of the vagina, strongly supporting the biosafety of this dendrimer for clinical use.

Liquid crystal delivery of ciprofloxacin to treat infections of the female reproductive tract

Infections of the female reproductive tract are a major cause of morbidity and mortality in humans, requiring significant investment to sustain treatment and representing a major challenge to health. The increasing prevalence of bacterial resistance, and an almost complete absence of new antibiotic therapies for the past five decades, mean there is a desperate need for novel approaches to the treatment of bacterial infections. Within the present study, we demonstrate the effective ex vivo treatment of bacterial infection of the female reproductive tract using a controlled-release, liquid crystal-based platform. Liquid crystal encapsulation of ciprofloxacin significantly enhanced its bactericidal efficacy and reduced cell toxicity. Liquid crystal structures are low-cost, simple to manufacture and provide a sustained-release profile of encapsulated ciprofloxacin. Treatment of Escherichia coli infected reproductive tract epithelial cells and whole organ cultures with liquid crystal encapsulated ciprofloxacin proved to be an effective strategy for reducing bacterial load and reproductive tract inflammatory responses to infection. These data suggest that such an approach could provide an efficacious treatment modality for enhancing the effectiveness of current antibiotic therapies.

Human β-defensin 1 in follicular fluid and semen: impact on fertility

PURPOSE

β-defensins are antimicrobial peptides expressed at mucosal level of male and female genito-urinary tract, where they exert protective functions against infections, possibly preserving human health and fertility. In our study, we investigated the possible involvement of β-defensins in female and male infertility in Italian infertile couples (i) evaluating the presence of human β-defensin 1 (hBD-1) in follicular fluid (FF) and its correlation with in vitro fertilization (IVF) outcomes; (ii) investigating the relationship between hBD-1 levels in semen and IVF outcomes (comprising correlation with sperm parameters); and (iii) exploring the effect of hBD-1 peptide on spermatozoa motility in vitro.

METHODS

A perspective observational analytic pilot study was conducted. hBD-1 concentration was measured with ELISA assay in FF and semen from 50 couples that underwent assisted procreation technique procedures due to infertility status. Moreover, hBD-1 exogenous peptide was administered to 29 normozoospermic semen and their motility was recorded.

RESULTS

hBD-1 was detected in FF and its levels were significantly higher in women with good fertilization rate (≥ 75%), respect to those with a poor fertilization rate (< 75%). The hBD-1 semen concentrations in oligo-asthenozoospermic subjects were significantly lower than that in normozoospermic men. Instead, hBD-1 level in sperm and FF not correlated with pregnancy rate. Finally, incubation of sperm with exogenous hBD-1 significantly increased progressive motility after 1 h and 24 h.

CONCLUSIONS

Being aware of the relatively small sample size and medium power, our results possibly suggest that hBD-1 could influence oocyte and sperm quality, and could improve, when exogenously added, sperm motility.

TRIMming down to TRIM37: Relevance to Inflammation, Cardiovascular Disorders, and Cancer in MULIBREY Nanism

TRIpartite motif (TRIM) proteins are part of the largest subfamilies of E3 ligases that mediate the transfer of ubiquitin to substrate target proteins. In this review, we focus on TRIM37 in the normal cell and in pathological conditions, with an emphasis on the MULIBREY (MUscle-LIver-BRain-EYe) genetic disorder caused by TRIM37 mutations. TRIM37 is characterized by the presence of a RING domain, B-box motifs, and a coiled-coil region, and its C-terminal part includes the MATH domain specific to TRIM37. MULIBREY nanism is a rare autosomal recessive caused by TRIM37 mutations and characterized by severe pre- and postnatal growth failure. Constrictive pericarditis is the most serious anomaly of the disease and is present in about 20% of patients. The patients have a deregulation of glucose and lipid metabolism, including type 2 diabetes, fatty liver, and hypertension. Puzzlingly, MULIBREY patients, deficient for TRIM37, are plagued with numerous tumors. Among non-MULIBREY patients affected by cancer, a wide variety of cancers are associated with an overexpression of TRIM37. This suggests that normal cells need an optimal equilibrium in TRIM37 expression. Finding a way to keep that balance could lead to potential innovative drugs for MULIBREY nanism, including heart condition and carcinogenesis treatment.

The Role of Interleukin-10 in Mediating the Effect of Immune Challenge on Mouse Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Neurons In Vivo

Immune challenge alters neural functioning via cytokine production. Inflammation has profound impact on the central regulation of fertility, but the mechanisms involved are not clearly defined. The anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-10 is responsible for balancing the immune response in the brain. To examine whether IL-10 has an effect on the function of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons, we first examined the effect of immune responses with distinct cytokine profiles, such as the T cell-dependent (TD) and T cell-independent (TI) B-cell response. We investigated the effect of the TD and TI immune responses on ERK1/2 phosphorylation in GnRH neurons by administering fluorescein isothiocyanate/keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH-FITC) or dextran-FITC to female mice. Although dextran-FITC had no effect, KLH-FITC induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation in GnRH neurons after 6 d. KLH-FITC treatment increased the levels of IL-10 in the hypothalamus (HYP), but this treatment did not cause lymphocyte infiltration or an increase in the levels of proinflammatory cytokines. In IL-10 knock-out (KO) mice, KLH-FITC-induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation in the GnRH neurons was absent. We also showed that in IL-10 KO mice, the estrous cycle was disrupted. Perforated patch-clamp recordings from GnRH-GFP neurons, IL-10 immunohistochemistry, and in vitro experiments on acute brain slices revealed that IL-10 can directly alter GnRH neuron firing and induce ERK1/2 phosphorylation. These observations demonstrate that IL-10 plays a role in influencing signaling of GnRH neurons in the TD immune response. These results also provide the first evidence that IL-10 can directly alter the function of GnRH neurons and may help the maintenance of the integrity of the estrous cycle.

Neonatal immune activation depletes the ovarian follicle reserve and alters ovarian acute inflammatory mediators in neonatal rats

Normal ovarian development is crucial for female reproductive success and longevity. Interruptions to the delicate process of initial folliculogenesis may lead to ovarian dysfunction. We have previously demonstrated that an early life immune challenge in the rat, induced by administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on postnatal day (PND) 3 and 5, depletes ovarian follicle reserve long term. Here, we hypothesized that this neonatal immune challenge leads to an increase in peripheral and ovarian inflammatory signaling, contributing to an acute depletion of ovarian follicles. Morphological analysis of neonatal ovaries indicated that LPS administration significantly depleted PND 5 primordial follicle populations and accelerated follicle maturation. LPS exposure upregulated circulating interleukin 6, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFa), and C-reactive protein on PND 5, and upregulated ovarian mRNA expression of Tnfa, mitogen-activated protein kinase 8 (Mapk8/Jnk1), and growth differentiation factor 9 (Gdf9) (P < 0.05). Mass spectrometry and cell signaling pathway analysis indicated upregulation of cellular pathways associated with acute phase signaling, and cellular survival and assembly. Apoptosis assessed by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling indicated significantly increased positive staining in the ovaries of LPS-treated neonates. These findings suggest that increased proinflammatory signaling within the neonatal ovary may be responsible for the LPS-induced depletion of the primordial follicle pool. These findings also have implications for female reproductive health, as the ovarian reserve is a major determinate of female reproductive longevity.

Kinetics of Intratumoral Immune Cell Activation During Chemoradiation for Cervical Cancer

PURPOSE

Radiation therapy has direct cytotoxic effects on tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, but it also has immune stimulatory effects that increase immune cell infiltration. The dynamics of these competing effects on immune cells at the site of the tumor are poorly characterized during chemoradiation treatment (CRT) because of the difficulty of obtaining consecutive tumor biopsies. We used a minimally invasive cervical cytobrushing method to analyze the kinetics of intratumoral immune cell changes in patients with cervical cancer during CRT.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Cervical brushings were obtained from 20 patients with cervical cancer at baseline and during fractionated radiation therapy and cisplatin (weeks 1, 3, and 5). Matching peripheral blood mononuclear cells were obtained from 9 patients at the same time points. Cells were analyzed using multispectral flow cytometry to identify T cell and myeloid cell subsets and their activation status. Changes in immune cell subsets throughout treatment were calculated using matched-pair analysis with Wilcoxon rank sum test.

RESULTS

We observed a significant decline in CD3+ total T cells, as well as CD8+ and CD4+ T-cell subsets in the first week of treatment from baseline, followed by variable expansion at weeks 3 and 5. This coincided with higher levels of proliferating CD8+ T cells expressing Ki67 at week 3 of treatment. The percentages of activated CD8+ T cells expressing CD69 continuously increased over the course of treatment, whereas the percentage of activated CD11c+CD11b- dendritic cells was highest during the first week. Many of these changes were not observed in the blood.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results identified immune dynamic changes during CRT, indicating that CRT may be immune activating at the site of the tumor. This study also suggests the importance of sequential analyses of the local tumor microenvironment in addition to peripheral blood.

Therapeutic potential of patupilone in epithelial ovarian cancer and future directions

Ovarian cancer is the most lethal gynecologic malignancy worldwide with extremely poor patient prognosis. Elucidation of the detailed mechanisms of action of drugs targeting this cancer type is necessary to optimize treatment efficacy. Epothilones, a new class of microtubule-stabilizing anticancer drugs, show strong cytotoxic properties in vitro and in vivo and are additionally effective in taxane-resistant cells. In this report, we focus on inhibitors of microtubule depolymerization, taxanes, and the novel antimicrotubule agents, epothilones. Current knowledge regarding the effects of epothilone B on ovarian tumor cell metabolism is reviewed, along with recent advances in therapeutic strategies, such as novel agents and biologic drug combinations containing epothilone that target aberrant pathways in ovarian cancer.

Symposium review: Mechanisms linking metabolic stress with innate immunity in the endometrium

Bacterial infections of the uterus after parturition are ubiquitous in dairy cattle and often cause uterine disease, such as metritis or endometritis. However, the metabolic stress associated with milk production increases the risk of developing disease. Resolution of bacterial infections requires rapid and robust innate immune responses, which depend on host cell receptors recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from gram-negative bacteria. Here, we argue that metabolic stress impairs the inflammatory response to pathogens. Glucose and glutamine are the major energy sources for cells, but their abundance is reduced in postpartum dairy cows. Furthermore, inflammatory responses exacerbate metabolic stress, with animals and tissues consuming more glucose when challenged with LPS. However, depriving endometrial tissue of glucose or glutamine impairs the secretion of IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8 in response to pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Glycolysis and the intracellular sensor of energy, AMP-activated protein kinase, are important for the response to LPS because perturbing glycolysis or AMP-activated protein kinase activity reduces the secretion of IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8 in the endometrium. The mevalonate pathway for cellular cholesterol synthesis may also be linked to immunity, as inhibition of the terminal enzyme in the pathway, squalene synthase, reduces inflammatory responses to pathogenic bacteria and LPS. In contrast, only modest effects on inflammation are found when modulating the sensor of cellular nutrient satiety, mammalian target of rapamycin, or the endocrine regulator of metabolism, insulin-like growth factor-1. We suggest that stressing cellular metabolism increases the risk of uterine disease by impairing endometrial defenses.

Estrous cycle-dependent modulation of in vivo microvascular dysfunction after nanomaterial inhalation

Preconceptive health encompasses male and female reproductive capability. In females, this takes into account each of the stages of the estrous cycle. Microvascular reactivity varies throughout the estrous cycle in response to hormonal changes and in preparation for pregnancy. Microvascular alterations in response to engineered nanomaterial (ENM) exposure have been described within 24-h of inhalation; however, the impact upon the uterine vasculature at differing estrous stages and at late-stage pregnancy is unclear. Female Sprague Dawley (SD) rats (virgin and late stage pregnancy [GD 19]) were exposed to nano-TiO aerosols (173.2 ± 6.4 nm, 10.2 ± 0.46 mg/m³, 5 h) 24-h prior to experimentation leading to a single calculated deposition of 42.2 ± 1.9 µg nano- TiO₂ (exposed) or 0µg (control). Animals were anesthetized, estrous status verified, and prepared for in situ assessment of leukocyte trafficking and vascular function by means of intravital microscopy, Uterine basal arteriolar reactivity was stimulated using iontophoretically applied chemicals: acetylcholine (ACh, 0.025 M; 20, 40, 100, 200 nA), sodium nitroprusside (SNP, 0.05 M; 20, 40, 100 nA), phenylephrine (PE, 0.05 M; 20, 40, 100 nA). Finally, adenosine (ADO, 10⁻⁴ M) was superfused over the tissue to identify maximum diameter. In situ vessel reactivity after exposure was significantly blunted based on estrous stage, but not at late-stage pregnancy. Local uterine venular leukocyte trafficking and systemic inflammatory markers were also significantly affected during preparatory (proestrus), fertile (estrus), and infertile (diestrus) periods after ENM inhalation. Overall, these deficits in reactivity and increased inflammatory activity may impair female fertility after ENM exposure.

Transcriptome analysis of ovine granulosa cells reveals differences between small antral follicles collected during the follicular and luteal phases

Ovarian follicular growth occurs in both the follicular and luteal phases of the estrous cycle but in very different endocrine contexts. In both phases, many small antral follicles with similar morphologic and histologic characteristics are present within the ovaries as a reserve for the terminal folliculogenesis. However, there are several gaps in our molecular knowledge of the gene expression profiles of small antral follicles in the follicular and luteal phases. The aim of the present study was to use RNA sequencing to compare and analyze the global transcriptional profile of ovine granulosa cells collected from small antral follicles (1-3 mm) either during the follicular or the luteal phase of the estrous cycle, with the hypothesis that they should be differential. We identified 663 genes whose mRNA was differentially expressed or accumulated in the granulosa cell layer of small antral follicles in the two phases. A comprehensive interpretation of these data was performed through integrative analyses (Gene Ontology, Ingenuity Pathway Analysis) and the exploitation of already available transcriptomic data on follicular growth and atresia. In particular, we observed that the contrasted endocrine context between follicular and luteal phases may have an impact on estradiol, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and on the activin/inhibin signaling pathways. Furthermore, we reveal the possible initiation of early follicular atresia in small antral follicles during the follicular phase in interaction with the presence of immune cells. This study provides new insights into the gene expression profile in ovine granulosa cells, and we suggest that these molecular changes may have an implication at the time of follicle selection.