The importance of n-6/n-3 fatty acids ratio in the major depressive disorder

Cytokine and Microbiome Changes in Adolescents with Anorexia Nervosa at Admission, Discharge, and One-Year Follow-Up

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a severe eating disorder that predominantly affects females and typically manifests during adolescence. There is increasing evidence that serum cytokine levels are altered in individuals with AN. Previous research has largely focused on adult patients, assuming a low-grade pro-inflammatory state. The serum levels of the cytokine tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and IL-15, which are pro-inflammatory, were examined in 63 female adolescents with AN and 41 age-matched healthy controls (HC). We included three time points (admission, discharge, and 1-year follow-up) and investigated the clinical data to assess whether the gut microbiota was associated with cytokine alterations. Relative to the HC group, serum levels of IL-1β and IL-6 were significantly lower during the acute phase (admission) of AN. IL-1β expression was normalised to control levels after weight recovery. TNF-α levels were not significantly different between the AN and HC groups. IL-15 levels were significantly elevated in patients with AN at all time points. We found associations between cytokines and bodyweight, illness duration, depressive symptoms, and the microbiome. In contrast to most findings for adults, we observed lower levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-6 in adolescent patients, whereas the level of IL-15 was consistently increased. Thus, the presence of inflammatory dysregulation suggests a varied rather than uniform pro-inflammatory state.

Health Benefits of Oily Fish: Illustrated with Blue Shark (Prionace glauca), Shortfin Mako Shark (Isurus oxyrinchus), and Swordfish (Xiphias gladius)

Oily fish is a rich source of energy, proteins, essential amino acids, lipids, vitamins, and minerals. Among the macronutrients with the highest contribution are lipids, mainly long-chain omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 LC-PUFA), especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Both EPA and DHA play a beneficial role in promoting health and preventing many diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, such as stroke and acute myocardial infarction. They also contribute to the prevention of neurological, metabolic, and immune-system-related diseases, as well as supporting body-weight control. Oily fish consumption is also important at different stages of human life, from conception to old age. For example, DHA plays an important role in brain and retina development during fetal development and in the first two years of life, as it positively influences neurodevelopment, such as visual acuity, and cognitive functions. In contrast with the possible health benefits of the intake of oily fish, the presence of certain chemical pollutants, for example, heavy metals, can be a risk for the health of consumers, mainly in sensitive population groups such as pregnant women and children under 2 years of age. The presence of these pollutants is influenced to a greater extent by fish species, their role in the trophic chain, and their size. However, various studies state that the benefits outweigh the risk of consuming certain species. This review will be focused on the health benefits of the intake of three oily fish species, namely blue shark (Prionace glauca), shortfin mako shark (Isurus oxyrinchus), and swordfish (Xiphias gladius).

The relationship between dietary lipophilic index and load with depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms

BACKGROUND

Dietary fatty acids can affect brain health by modifying neuronal membrane fluidity. Dietary lipophilic index (LI) and load (LL) may be related to cell membrane fluidity. This study aimed to determine the relationship between dietary LI and LL with symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, taken from the YaHS (Yazd Health Study) population-based cohort, the data of 2,982 individuals was extracted. Several questionnaires- a 178-item Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ), Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale 21 (DASS 21), and International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ)- were used to obtain information on dietary intake, mental status, and physical activity, respectively. LI and LL were calculated using dietary intake and the melting point of each fatty acid.

RESULTS

The analysis was performed on 2982 individuals. The odds ratio of depression in the second tertile of dietary LI compared to the first tertile was 0.815 (95% CI 0.66-1.00, P = 0.051, Ptrend = 0.017) and after adjusting confounders was 0.793 (95% CI 0.63-0.99, P = 0.043, Ptrend = 0.011). Also, LL was related inversely with anxiety (0.771, 95% CI 0.63-0.93, P = 0.003) that after multiple regression, OR of anxiety was 0.762 (95% CI 0.53-1.07, P = 0.045). The odds of stress in the third tertile of LL was 1.064 but not statistically significant (95% CI 0.88-1.28, P = 0.729).

CONCLUSION

This study showed an inverse association between dietary LI and depression symptoms. Anxiety and stress did not show a significant relationship with LI or LL.

Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Effects on reproductive and productive performance and meat quality in rabbit breeding

Rabbit breeding has many critical aspects related to reproduction, production, and animal welfare, which reduce its profitability as well as consumer attractiveness. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) seems to be a good nutritional strategy to improve several aspects of rabbit breeding, enhance animal welfare and produce a new functional food considered healthy for human consumption. For this reason, the main available scientific research regarding the physiological effects of n-3 PUFA rich products supplemented to the rabbit diet will be reviewed. In particular, consequences on the reproductive performances of both doe and buck, the productive parameters, and the meat quality will be analysed.

Dietary n-3/n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid ratio modulates growth performance in spotted seabass (Lateolabrax maculatus) through regulating lipid metabolism, hepatic antioxidant capacity and intestinal health

An 8-week feeding experiment was carried out to explore the effects of dietary n-3/n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) ratio on growth performance, lipid metabolism, hepatic antioxidant status, and gut flora of spotted seabass (Lateolabrax maculatus). Six experimental diets were formulated to contain different levels of two purified oil sources including docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids enriched oil (n-3) and linoleic acid-enriched oil (n-6) leading to n-3/n-6 PUFA ratios of 0.04, 0.35, 0.66, 1.35, 2.45 and 16.17. Each diet was fed to triplicate groups of juvenile L. maculatus (11.06 ± 0.20 g, 30 fish/tank). Final body weight (FBW), weight gain (WG), specific growth rates (SGR), protein efficiency ratio (PER) and feed utilization efficiency increased as n-3/n-6 PUFA ratio increased up to a certain level, and then decreased thereafter. Fish fed the diet with n-3/n-6 PUFA ratio of 0.66 exhibited the highest FBW, WG, SGR and PER and the lowest feed conversion ratio. Lower n-3/n-6 PUFA ratios induced up-regulated expression of lipid synthesis-related genes (fas, acc2 and srebp-1c) and down-regulated expression of lipolysis related genes (atgl, pparα, cpt-1 and aox). Higher expression of lipolysis-related genes (atgl, pparα and cpt-1) was recorded at moderate n-3/n-6 PUFA ratios (0.66 to 1.35). Moreover, inappropriate n-3/n-6 PUFA ratios triggered up-regulation of pro-inflammatory genes (il-6 and tnf-α) and down-regulation of anti-inflammatory genes (il-4 and il-10) in the intestine. The diet with n-3/n-6 PUFA ratio of 0.66 inhibited intestine inflammation, improved intestinal flora richness, increased the abundance of beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacillus, Alloprevotella and Ruminococcus, and reduced the abundance of harmful bacteria including Escherichia-Shigella and Enterococcus. In summary, it could be suggested that a dietary n-3/n-6 PUFA ratio of 0.66 can improve growth performance and feed utilization in L. maculatus, as is deemed to be mediated through regulation of lipid metabolism and intestinal flora.

Physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory characteristics of "Sui Wu'u" traditional pork products from Bajawa, West Flores, Indonesia

Background and Aim

Sui Wu'u is a traditional meat preservation product from Bajawa, a region in East Nusa Tenggara. It is made by mixing pork with salt and corn flour, which is then stored in a bamboo container (tuku) for months. After 6 months of storage, this study examined the physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory properties of Sui Wu'u.

Materials and Methods

Sui Wu'u products were prepared using the traditional recipe from the Bajawa community. Fresh pork (pork belly and backfat), corn flour, and salt were purchased from local/traditional markets at proportions of 65%, 30%, and 5%, respectively. The physicochemical, amino acid, fatty acid profile, microbiological, and sensory properties of Sui Wu'u were evaluated after being stored for 6 months in a bamboo container (tuku).

Results

The results indicated that these Sui Wu'u were mainly characterized by high-fat levels, followed by protein. The pH value, salt content, moisture content, and water activity were 4.72%, 1.72%, 6.11%, and 0.62%, respectively. Minerals (K, P, Se, and Zn) and vitamin B6, as well as amino acids, such as leucine, phenylalanine, lysine (essential amino acids), glycine, proline, glutamic acid, and alanine (non-essential amino acids), are present in Sui Wu'u. The fatty acid profile was dominated by monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) (21.69%), saturated fatty acids (SFA) (17.78%), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) (5.36%). Monounsaturated fatty acids, oleic acid (C18:1n9) was the most abundant fatty acid in Sui Wu'u, followed by palmitic acid SFA (C16:0); MUFA stearic acid (C18:0); and PUFA linoleic (C18:2n-6). The microbiological characteristics of Sui Wu'u showed no detectable microorganisms (<10 CFU/g) for Salmonella, total E. coli and total Staphylococcus, and average values of 4.4 × 105 CFU/g for total microbes, which were still below the maximum limit of microbial contamination according to the regulations of the Food and Drug Supervisory Agency of the Republic of Indonesia. The sensory assessment indicated that panelists highly preferred (rated as very like) Sui Wu'u for all sensory attributes.

Conclusion

The physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory characteristics of Sui Wu'u after 6 months of storage indicated that it still provides essential nutrients for the body and is quite safe for consumption. The stability of Sui Wu'u's shelf life can be attributed to the appropriate combination of pork, salt, corn flour, bamboo packaging (tuku), and storage temperature. The high-fat content in Sui Wu'u can be reduced by increasing the proportion of lean meat. Ensuring strict sanitation during the manufacturing process, using high-quality pork, salt, corn flour, and proper packaging with bamboo can further improve the safety of Sui Wu'u for consumption.

Associations between Somatic Cell Count and Milk Fatty Acid and Amino Acid Profile in Alpine and Saanen Goat Breeds

The main goal of this study was to evaluate the relation of different SCC levels in goat milk with goat milk yield, milk composition, FA, and AA profiles. Whereas the investigated herd was composed of Alpine and Saanen goats, the influence of breed on milk parameters and milk yield was also assessed. The research was carried out in 2022 at a Lithuanian dairy goat farm with 135 goats (Saanen = 66 and Alpine = 69) without evidence of clinical mastitis. The current research revealed a relationship between SCC with goat milk yield and composition. Goats with a high SCC had significantly lower milk yield (p < 0.001), lower content of lactose (p < 0.01), fat (p < 0.001) and higher protein content (p < 0.05) in their milk. The increase in most AA was significantly associated with increased SCC. The higher quantity of Asp, Glu, Ala, Met, His, Lys, Arg, EAA, NEAA, and TAA (compared with the low SCC group) (p < 0.05–0.01), Leu, Tyr, and BCAA (compared with the low and medium SCC group) were found in the milk of the high SCC group (p < 0.05–0.01). The distribution of the main FA groups was also related to SCC and showed a significant decrease in SCFA (p < 0.01–0.001) and an increase in LCFA, PUFA, and BCFA in the high SCC group (p < 0.05). All individual AA and their groups (EAA, NEAA, TAA, BCAA) were significantly lower in the milk of the Saanen goat breed (p < 0.001). The most individual FA ranged between goat breeds, while the total amount of SFA, UFA, and MUFA wasn’t affected by breed (p > 0.05). The research revealed a statistically significant relationship between SCC, AA, and FA, suggesting that these traits may be used as a biomarker in the goat selection process.

Blood indices of omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids are altered in hyperglycemia

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) may favorably influence the risk and clinical course of diabetes mellitus (DM). In particular, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (AA) alleviate oxidative injury and insulin resistance characteristic of DM. Uncertainty still remains, however, as to the composition and proportions of blood PUFAs in relation to fasting blood glucose levels. This study, thus, aims to examine the patterns of blood PUFA indices in normoglycemic (NG) and hyperglycemic (HG) Saudi subjects. Age, gender, FA profiles, and laboratory records of 143 subjects collected from September 2014 to March 2018 were retrospectively analyzed. Means, prevalence rates, associations, risk measures, and the diagnostic accuracy of PUFAs were determined. HG subjects had significantly lower AA (0.70%, 95% CI: 0.59-0.80% vs 0.46%, 95% CI: 0.38-0.53%) and higher EPA/AA ratio (0.36, 95% CI: 0.30-0.42 vs 0.69, 95% CI: 0.61-0.77). Gender-wise comparisons revealed that ώ-6/ώ-3 ratio was the only PUFA index significantly elevated in HG males (0.36, 95% CI: 0.26-0.45 vs 5.68, 95% CI: 4.98-6.38) while both DHA (2.91%, 95% CI: 2.54-3.29% vs 3.37%, 95% CI: 3.13-3.60%) and ώ-3 index (3.1%, 95% CI: 2.70-3.49% vs 3.63%, 95% CI: 3.38-3.88%) were significantly elevated in HG females. Furthermore, reduced AA and elevated EPA/AA ratio were more prevalent in HG subjects (26.53 vs 28.72 and 30.61 vs 38.29, respectively) and exhibited the highest diagnostic accuracy for HG among all PUFA indices. Altogether, our study revealed that distinct, gender-specific blood PUFA indices are differentially regulated in HG subjects which may be valuable for DM management.

Quantitative analysis of fatty acids and vitamin E and total lipid profiling of dietary supplements from the German market

Certain polyunsaturated fatty acids with n-3 double bonds are essential nutrients for the human body and are part of the bilayer of cell membranes or precursors of tissue hormones. The most abundant dietary n-3 fatty acids in human nutrition are α-linolenic, eicosapentaenoic, and docosahexaenoic acid and can be taken up through dietary sources such as vegetable oils or fish or, alternatively, dietary supplements with high levels of n-3 fatty acids. In previous studies, considerable variation of lipid patterns and quantities of n-3 fatty acids were observed. In this study, 33 dietary supplements from the German market, based on fish-, krill-, microalgae, and plant oil, have been analyzed. Lipid profiling (LC–MS) revealed triacylglycerols as the dominant lipid species in most samples. However, krill oil was rich in phospholipids and samples containing fatty acid concentrates featured abundant fatty acid ethyl esters and diacylglycerols. Furthermore, total lipid profiles showed considerable variance depending on the lipid sources (e.g., fish or plant oil), which was also apparent in fatty acid analysis. The contents of n-3 fatty acids ranged between 150 and 570 mg/g capsule content (GC–MS) and vitamin E (α-tocopherol and tocopheryl acetate) were found in quantities ranging from 1.2 to 86.1 mg/g capsule content (HPLC–UV/Vis). While our analyses indicated a good agreement between labeled and present quantities of total n-3 fatty acids and vitamin E for the majority of samples, significant differences in agreement between individual fatty acids were observed, as well as frequent mismatches between declared and present vitamin E derivatives.

Anti-Inflammatory, Antioxidant, and Neuroprotective Effects of Polyphenols-Polyphenols as an Element of Diet Therapy in Depressive Disorders

Depressive disorders can affect up to 350 million people worldwide, and in developed countries, the percentage of patients with depressive disorders may be as high as 10%. During depression, activation of pro-inflammatory pathways, mitochondrial dysfunction, increased markers of oxidative stress, and a reduction in the antioxidant effectiveness of the body are observed. It is estimated that approximately 30% of depressed patients do not respond to traditional pharmacological treatments. However, more and more attention is being paid to the influence of active ingredients in food on the course and risk of neurological disorders, including depression. The possibility of using foods containing polyphenols as an element of diet therapy in depression was analyzed in the review. The possibility of whether the consumption of products such as polyphenols could alleviate the course of depression or prevent the progression of it was also considered. Results from preclinical studies demonstrate the potential of phenolic compounds have the potential to reduce depressive behaviors by regulating factors related to oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and modulation of the intestinal microbiota.

Abnormal erythrocyte fatty acid composition in first-diagnosed, drug-naïve patients with depression

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The correlation between fatty acids (FAs) and depression is not yet conclusive. This study examined the relationship of FAs composition with the presence and clinical characteristics of first-diagnosed, drug-naïve patients with depression.

METHODS

A total of 139 first-diagnosed, drug-naïve patients with depression and 55 healthy controls (HCs) were included in the cross-sectional study. The levels of erythrocyte membrane FAs were compared and then the correlation between clinical symptoms and fatty acid levels in depression was investigated.

RESULTS

Compared to HCs, patients with depression had higher C18:1n9t (z = -2.033, p = 0.042), C20:4n6 (z = -2.104, p = 0.035), C20:3n6 (z = -2.104, p = 0.035) and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (z = -2.127, p = 0.033), whereas the levels of C18:1n9c (z = -3.348, p = 0.001) were significantly lower. Higher C20:3n6, C20:4n6, C18:1n9t and n-6 PUFAs levels were associated with higher severity of depressive and anxiety symptoms in patients with depression, and the correlation remained after adjusting for the related confounding factors (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with first-diagnosed, drug-naïve depression show abnormal erythrocyte fatty acid composition. Trans fatty acids (TFAs) and n-6 PUFAs levels are closely related to clinical characteristics of depression. This study indicated that increased n-6 PUFAs and TFAs are characteristic changes of first-diagnosed, drug-naïve depression.

Linseed Oil Attenuates Liver Inflammation, Fatty Acid Accumulation, and Lipid Distribution in Periportal and Perivenous Hepatocytes Induced by a High-Carbohydrate Diet in Mice

We evaluated whether linseed oil (LO) modulates the effects of a high-carbohydrate diet (HCD) on liver inflammation, fatty acid (FA) accumulation, and lipid distribution in periportal and perivenous hepatocytes. The control group (control high-carbohydrate diet [HCD-C]) received an HCD with lard and soybean oil as the lipid source. The L10 and L100 groups received the HCD with 10% and 100% of LO as the lipid source, respectively. The animals were killed by decapitation before (day 0) and after receiving the diets. Liver FA composition, inflammation, and fibrogenesis gene expression were evaluated. Also, the percentage of lipid-occupied area in periportal end perivenous hepatocytes were measured. The L100 group exhibited a higher (P < .05) liver amount of omega-3 polyunsaturated FA (n-3 PUFA) and lower (P < .05) amounts of saturated FA (SFA), monounsaturated FA (MUFA), and omega-6 polyunsaturated FA (n-6 PUFA) compared with L10 or HCD-C mice. On day 56, interleukin 10 and type IV collagen gene expression were significantly upregulated and downregulated, respectively in L100. Also, the L100 group showed lower (P < .05) FA accumulation (i.e., total FA, SFA, MUFA, and n-6 PUFA). Also, L10 and L100 presented lower (P < .05) percentage of high lipid-containing portion in periportal and perivenous hepatocytes. We concluded that LO attenuation of liver inflammation promoted by an HCD is associated with increased liver n-3 PUFA levels, so modulating FA composition, deposition, and distribution in periportal and perivenous hepatocytes.

MCP1 Could Mediate FGF23 and Omega 6/Omega 3 Correlation Inversion in CKD

Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) concentrations rise after the early stages of chronic kidney disease (CKD). FGF23 is involved in inflammatory reactions closely associated with an incremented risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). There is growing evidence that omega-6 (n-6) and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) can modulate inflammation through several mediators producing an opposite effect on cardiovascular (CV) risks. In this study, we explore whether there is any correlation between PUFA, FGF23, and inflammation in CKD patients. We evaluated, cross-sectionally, 56 patients at different stages of CKD. Monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP1), and intact and c-terminal FGF23 (iFGF23, cFGF23) were quantified by the ELISA, and the fatty acids (FA) profile was analyzed by gas chromatography. Concurrently with an eGFR decrease (p < 0.01) and an MCP1 increase (p = 0.031), we observed an inversion of the correlation between FGF23 and the n-6/n-3 ratio. This last correlation was inversed in CKD stage 3 (r2 (−) 0.502 p = 0.029) and direct in stage 5 (r2 0.657 p = 0.020). The increase in MCP1 seems to trigger events in the inversion of the correlation between FGF23 and the n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio. This result strongly encourages future studies on basal pathways, on possible pharmacological interventions, and on managing kidney transplant patients treated with immunosuppressive therapy.

Fatty Acid and Micronutrient Profile of Longissimus Lumborum from Red Angus and Red Angus x Akaushi Cattle Finished on Grass or Grain

Cattle diet and breed modify the nutritional profile of beef. The objective of this study was to compare the fatty acid (FA) and micronutrient profiles of Red Angus (RA) and RA x Akaushi (AK) crossbreed steers fed either a grass or grain diet. This two-year study randomly assigned steers to the diets using a 2 × 2 factorial experiment. FAs and micronutrients were analyzed. Diet effect was the strongest with grass-finished beef being higher in n-3 polyunsaturated FAs (p < 0.001), conjugated linoleic acid (p < 0.05), vaccenic acid (p < 0.05), iron (p < 0.001), and vitamin E (p < 0.001) compared to grain-finished beef. Breed effects were observed for lauric and myristic acids (p < 0.05), selenium (p < 0.05), and zinc (p < 0.01) with AK containing more of these compounds than RA. Diet × breed effects were non-existent. These results indicate that diet has a stronger influence than breed on modifying the nutritional profile of beef. Because of a more favorable FA and antioxidant profile, consumption of grass-finished beef could benefit human health.

Ad libitum consumption of milk supplemented with omega 3, 6, and 9 oils from infancy to middle age alters behavioral and oxidative outcomes in male mice

We tested the hypothesis that administration of omega (ω)-9, ω-3, and ω-6 to mice can prevent oxidative alterations responsible for behavioral and cognitive alterations related with aging. Twenty-eight-day-old mice received skim milk (SM group), SM enriched with omega oil mixture (EM group), or water (control group) for 10 and 14 months, equivalent to middle age. Mice were evaluated for behavioral alterations related to depression and memory and oxidative status [brain levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), reduced glutathione (GSH), and myeloperoxidase (MPO)]. The 10-month EM group increased immobility time during the forced swimming test compared with control, indicating increased stress response. The 14-month SM- and EM-treated groups increased sucrose consumption compared with control, showing an expanded motivational state. The 14-month SM group decreased the number of rearings compared with the 14-month control and EM groups. The number of entries and time spent in the central square of the open field was higher in the 10-month EM group than in the control, revealing an anxiolytic-like behavior. TBARS decreased in the hippocampus and striatum of the 10-month EM group compared with the control. A similar decrease was observed in the striatum of the 10-month SM group. GSH levels were higher in all 14-month treated groups compared with 10-month groups. MPO activity was higher in the 14-month EM group compared with the 14-month control and SM groups, revealing a possible pro-inflammatory status. In conclusion, omega oils induced conflicting alterations in middle-aged mice, contributing to enhanced behavior and anxiolytic and expanded motivational state, but also to increased stress response and pro-inflammatory alterations.

Proximal and fatty acid analysis in Ostrea chilensis, Crassostrea gigas and Mytilus chilensis (Bivalvia: Mollusca) from southern Chile

Oysters and blue mussels are important hydrobiological resources for aquaculture. In Chile, they are farming on the Chiloé island, where around 18% of the world’s mussels are produced, however, their nutritional dynamics are largely unknown. For this reason, the objective of this study was to determine the proximal biochemical composition and the fatty acid profile in the Chilean oyster (Ostrea chilensis), the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) and the Chilean mussel (Mytilus chilensis), to perform an intra and interspecific comparison. Shellfish sampled in winter were characterized by a high protein content, followed by medium values for lipid content and a low carbohydrate content compared to similar species in Europe. Also, oysters and mussels were found to be rich in omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 LC-PUFA), so they can be considered excellent functional food option for a healthy human diet. Their high contribution of n-3 LC-PUFA ranged between 5.2–12.9 μg FA mg^-1 dry weight with high n-3/n-6 ratios, which depends on both the species and the on-growing location. Both taxa can be considered a plausible option to promote a healthy diet of marine origin in future generations. Also, these results could benefit the projection and development of aquaculture of these mollusks.

Attention to the Details: How Variations in U.S. Grass-Fed Cattle-Feed Supplementation and Finishing Date Influence Human Health

As the global population increases, so does meat consumption. This trend is accompanied by concerns regarding the meat industry, and consumers are demanding transparency on the environmental and health effects of the products they are purchasing. Many leading health organizations recommend reducing red meat consumption. Nevertheless, no differentiation is made among red meats and beef. The beef production system is generally ignored despite nutritional differences between grain- and grass-fed beef. Compared to grain-fed beef, grass-fed beef contains a healthier fatty acid profile, including more omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid, and increased concentrations of phytochemicals desired by health-conscious customers. However, there is a lack of consistency among grass-fed beef in the United States regarding clear product labeling and cattle dietary components. Grass-fed beef labeling confusion has emerged, including misunderstandings between grass-fed and grass-finished beef. Along with this, previous studies observed significant nutritional variation among grass-finished beef from different producers across the country. Cattle diet has the strongest influence on the nutritional composition of beef. Therefore, understanding differences in feeding practices is key to understanding differing nutritional quality of grass-fed beef. Feeding cattle diverse pastures composed of multiple plant species including grasses and legumes managed in a rotational grazing fashion results in higher omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and phytochemical levels in beef compared to feedlots and monocultures. Seasonal differences including changes in temperature, rainfall, grazing practices, and plant growth cycles affect the nutritional composition of feeds and ultimately meat. Additional feeds utilized in grass-fed beef production systems such as conserved forages may reduce or increase health-promoting nutrients in grass-fed beef, while supplements such as grape byproducts and flaxseed may improve its nutritional profile. Further research should measure the effects of individual feedstuff and the finishing period on the nutritional profile on grass-fed beef. A better understanding of these details will be a step toward the standardization of pasture-raised ruminant products, strengthening the relationship between grass-fed beef consumption and human health.

Effect of High Ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFAs on Depression: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies

Objective

The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to examine the association between high ratio of n-6/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and depression.

Methods

The authors conducted a meta-analysis of research articles on the association of high ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFAs with the risk of depression published in the online article database on PubMed, Embase, Cochrane library as of December 2021. Pooled odds ratios (OR) were calculated using random effects models. Publication bias was assessed visually by funnel plots and statistically by the Egger’s and Begg’s tests.

Results

Finally, 12 studies included in this systematic review and meta-analysis with a total of 66,317 participants (including 4,173 individuals with depression condition). The pooled results showed that high ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFAs might be positively associated with depression [OR = 1.21, 95% confidence intervals (CIs): 1.04∼1.41]. The I² test indicated that there was a substantial statistical heterogeneity across the included studies (I² = 54.38%, P = 0.01). Subgroup analysis showed that high ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFAs in blood had no significant association with depression (OR = 1.15, 95%CI: 0.88∼1.50), while high ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFAs in dietary supplements was positively associated with depression (OR = 1.32, 95%CI: 1.16∼1.51).

Conclusion

This meta-analysis confirmed the association between high ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFAs and the risk of depression. High ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFAs in dietary supplementation was positively associated with depression, but had no significant association in the blood. This study suggested that lowering the dietary intake of the ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFAs would be beneficial in the prevention of depression.

Perilla Fruit Oil-Fortified Soybean Milk Intake Alters Levels of Serum Triglycerides and Antioxidant Status, and Influences Phagocytotic Activity among Healthy Subjects: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial

This study aimed to develop perilla fruit oil (PFO)-fortified soybean milk (PFO-SM), identify its sensory acceptability, and evaluate its health outcomes. Our PFO-SM product was pasteurized, analyzed for its nutritional value, and had its acceptability assessed by an experienced and trained descriptive panel (n = 100) based on a relevant set of sensory attributes. A randomized clinical trial was conducted involving healthy subjects who were assigned to consume deionized water (DI), SM, PFO-SM, or black sesame-soybean milk (BS-SM) (n = 48 each, 180 mL/serving) daily for 30 d. Accordingly, health indices and analyzed blood biomarkers were recorded. Consequently, 1% PFO-SM (1.26 mg ALA rich) was generally associated with very high scores for overall acceptance, color, flavor, odor, taste, texture, and sweetness. We observed that PFO-SM lowered levels of serum triglycerides and erythrocyte reactive oxygen species, but increased phagocytosis and serum antioxidant activity (p < 0.05) when compared to SM and BS-SM. These findings indicate that PFO supplementation in soybean milk could enhance radical-scavenging and phagocytotic abilities in the blood of healthy persons. In this regard, it was determined to be more efficient than black sesame supplementation. We are now better positioned to recommend the consumption of PFO-SM drink for the reduction of many chronic diseases. Randomized clinical trial registration (Reference number 41389) by IRSCTN Registry.

Comparative Analysis of Selected Chemical Parameters of Coffea arabica, from Cascara to Silverskin

Nowadays, there is an increased interest in coffee derivatives (green beans, roasted beans, and coffee by-products (Cascara and Silverskin)) due to their particular chemical composition. This study aimed to compare the content of dry matter, total fat, fatty acids, and fiber (ADF, NDF) of coffee by-products (Cascara and Silverskin) and coffee beans (green and roasted under different conditions). Coffee beans and their by-products were obtained from 100% C. arabica coffee cherries from Panama by dry process. The lowest concentrations of fat corresponded to Cascara 4.24 g·kg⁻¹ and Silverskin 23.70 g·kg⁻¹, respectively. The major fatty acids detected in all samples were palmitic, stearic, oleic, and linoleic acids, the latter two being essential fatty acids. LDA showed that 89.01% of the variability between beans and by-products was explained by lignoceric, myristic, behenic, tricosanoic, arachidic, and heneicosanoic acids. Silverskin appeared to be a good source of lignoceric, myristic, and behenic acids and had a higher concentration of dietary fiber (314.95 g·kg⁻¹) than Cascara (160.03 g·kg⁻¹). Coffee by-products (Silverskin and Cascara) are low-fat products enriched in dietary fiber. Their incorporation, after adjustment, into the global diet may contribute to nutrition security, the sustainability of the coffee sector, and human health.

Effects of Geographic Region and Cultivar on Fatty Acid Profile and Thermal Stability of Zanthoxylum bungeanum Seed Oil

Fatty acid profile and thermal stability of 7 varieties zanthoxylum bungeanum (GZF, GDJ, CJJ, SHY, SMN, SJY, GTS) seed oils (ZBO) were studied. Fatty acid profile, thermal stability were determined using gas chromatography equipped with flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and thermogravimetry analysis (TGA), respectively. Chemical properties, total phenolics and antioxidant activities of ZBO were determined as well. Palmitoleic acid and oleic acid (OA) were the dominant fatty acids, the ratio of ω-6/ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) of ZBO ranged from 0.66 ± 0.01 to 1.17 ± 0.01, seven varieties ZBO showed a higher thermal stability, with the 50% mass loss temperature ranged from 397.35 ± 4.02°C to 412.50 ± 2.35°C, GZF seed oil showed a balance fatty acid profile, the ratio of ω-6/ω-3 PUFA was 0.90 ± 0.01, GDJ seed oil showed a higher thermal stability, which the 50% mass loss temperature was 412.50 ± 2.35°C. These results suggested that fatty acid profile and thermal stability of ZBO were affected by cultivars and geographic region, and it may serve as a functional dietary oil.

Differences of Anxiety and Depression in Dry Eye Disease Patients According to Age Groups

This study aimed to investigate the association between dry eye disease (DED) and DED-related anxiety and depression tendencies, as well as the risk factors for anxiety and depression in patients with DED of different age groups. This was a cross-sectional study involving 160 patients with DED and 80 healthy individuals aged 20-65 years. All participants completed the investigation of the demographic characteristics, the Hospital Anxiety Depression Scale (HADS), the Ocular Surface Disease Index (OSDI) questionnaire, the Standard Patient Evaluation of Eye Dryness (SPEED) questionnaire, and underwent objective clinical eye examinations. In patients aged 20-40 years, anxiety and depression scores were correlated with OSDI, sleep disorders, and Best Corrected Visual Acuity (BCVA). In patients with DED aged 41-65 years, anxiety scores were correlated with sleep disorders, the level of DED impact on life and work, and the severity of DED. Depression scores were correlated with sleep disorders and the severity of DED. The results indicated that the tendency for anxiety and depression was closely associated with DED and sleep disorders. Moreover, the factors affecting anxiety and depression in patients varied with age.

Lower serum levels of IL-1β and IL-6 cytokines in adolescents with anorexia nervosa and their association with gut microbiota in a longitudinal study

INTRODUCTION

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is an often chronic and debilitating psychiatric disease whose etiology is not completely understood. Recently, a potential role of inflammation has emerged in other psychiatric diseases, such as depression, PTSD and schizophrenia. The first results in adults with AN seemed to confirm a low-grade proinflammatory state until recent studies presented more differential findings. Studying adolescents with a shorter illness duration and fewer confounding factors might help elucidate the role of inflammation in the underlying pathophysiology of AN; however, the few available studies in adolescents remain ambiguous, and no longitudinal data are available in this age range.

METHODS

We examined the proinflammatory cytokines Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α), Interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-15, and the cytokine-receptor IL-6 Receptor alpha (IL-6 Rα) in the serum of twenty-two hospitalized female adolescent patients with AN longitudinally at admission and discharge and compared their results to nineteen healthy controls (HC). We also collected clinical data and stool samples that were analyzed with 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing to explore potential influencing factors of cytokine changes.

RESULTS

TNF-α serum levels were significantly elevated in patients with AN at admission, while IL-1β and IL-6 levels were lower at admission and discharge than in HC. After treatment, we also found significantly elevated levels of IL-6 Rα compared to HC, while IL-15 did not show significant changes. Exploratory analyses revealed positive associations of cytokine and genus-level changes between admission and discharge for IL-1β (Bacteroides) and IL-15 (Romboutsia), and negative associations for IL-15 (Anaerostipes) and TNF-α (uncultured Lachnospiraceae).

CONCLUSION

We confirmed a previous finding of elevated levels of TNF-α also in adolescents with AN; however, the reduced IL-1β and IL-6 levels differed from the mostly increased levels found in adults. A mixed pro- and anti-inflammatory state appears to be present in adolescents, potentially due to their shorter illness duration. The gut microbiota, with its regulatory function on cytokine production, might play a role in mediating these inflammatory processes in AN and could offer targets for new therapeutic approaches.

Omega-3 fatty acids for depression in adults

BACKGROUND

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is highly debilitating, difficult to treat, has a high rate of recurrence, and negatively impacts the individual and society as a whole. One potential treatment for MDD is n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3PUFAs), also known as omega-3 oils, naturally found in fatty fish, some other seafood, and some nuts and seeds. Various lines of evidence suggest a role for n-3PUFAs in MDD, but the evidence is far from conclusive. Reviews and meta-analyses clearly demonstrate heterogeneity between studies. Investigations of heterogeneity suggest different effects of n-3PUFAs, depending on the severity of depressive symptoms, where no effects of n-3PUFAs are found in studies of individuals with mild depressive symptomology, but possible benefit may be suggested in studies of individuals with more severe depressive symptomology. Hence it is important to establish their effectiveness in treating MDD. This review updates and incorporates an earlier review with the same research objective (Appleton 2015).

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (also known as omega-3 fatty acids) versus a comparator (e.g. placebo, antidepressant treatment, standard care, no treatment, wait-list control) for major depressive disorder (MDD) in adults.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled trials (CENTRAL), Ovid MEDLINE, Embase and PsycINFO together with trial registries and grey literature sources (to 9 January 2021). We checked reference lists and contacted authors of included studies for additional information when necessary.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included studies in the review if they: used a randomised controlled trial design; provided n-3PUFAs as an intervention; used a comparator; measured depressive symptomology as an outcome; and were conducted in adults with MDD. Primary outcomes were depressive symptomology (continuous data collected using a validated rating scale) and adverse events. Secondary outcomes were depressive symptomology (dichotomous data on remission and response), quality of life, and non-completion of studies.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used standard methodological procedures as expected by Cochrane. We assessed the certainty of the evidence using GRADE criteria.

MAIN RESULTS

The review includes 35 relevant studies: 34 studies involving a total of 1924 participants investigated the impact of n-3PUFA supplementation compared to placebo, and one study involving 40 participants investigated the impact of n-3PUFA supplementation compared to antidepressant treatment. For the placebo comparison, n-3PUFA supplementation resulted in a small to modest benefit for depressive symptomology, compared to placebo: standardised mean difference (SMD) (random-effects model) -0.40 (95% confidence interval (CI) -0.64 to -0.16; 33 studies, 1848 participants; very low-certainty evidence), but this effect is unlikely to be clinically meaningful. An SMD of 0.40 represents a difference between groups in scores on the HDRS (17-item) of approximately 2.5 points (95% CI 1.0 to 4.0), where the minimal clinically important change score on this scale is 3.0 points. The confidence intervals include both a possible clinically important effect and a possible negligible effect, and there is considerable heterogeneity between studies. Sensitivity analyses, funnel plot inspection and comparison of our results with those of large well-conducted trials also suggest that this effect estimate may be biased towards a positive finding for n-3PUFAs. Although the numbers of individuals experiencing adverse events were similar in intervention and placebo groups (odds ratio (OR) 1.27, 95% CI 0.99 to 1.64; 24 studies, 1503 participants; very low-certainty evidence), the confidence intervals include a small decrease to a modest increase in adverse events with n-3PUFAs. There was no evidence for a difference between n-3PUFA and placebo groups in remission rates (OR 1.13, 95% CI 0.74 to 1.72; 8 studies, 609 participants, low-certainty evidence), response rates (OR 1.20, 95% CI 0.80 to 1.79; 17 studies, 794 participants; low-certainty evidence), quality of life (SMD -0.38 (95% CI -0.82 to 0.06), 12 studies, 476 participants, very low-certainty evidence), or trial non-completion (OR 0.92, 95% CI 0.70 to 1.22; 29 studies, 1777 participants, very low-certainty evidence). The evidence on which these results are based was also very limited, highly heterogeneous, and potentially biased. Only one study, involving 40 participants, was available for the antidepressant comparison. This study found no differences between treatment with n-3PUFAs and treatment with antidepressants in depressive symptomology (mean difference (MD) -0.70, 95% CI -5.88 to 4.48), rates of response to treatment (OR 1.23, 95% CI 0.35 to 4.31), or trial non-completion (OR 1.00, 95% CI 0.21 to 4.71). Confidence intervals are however very wide in all analyses, and do not rule out important beneficial or detrimental effects of n-3PUFAs compared to antidepressants. Adverse events were not reported in a manner suitable for analysis, and rates of depression remission and quality of life were not reported.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

At present, we do not have sufficient high-certainty evidence to determine the effects of n-3PUFAs as a treatment for MDD. Our primary analyses may suggest a small-to-modest, non-clinically beneficial effect of n-3PUFAs on depressive symptomology compared to placebo; however the estimate is imprecise, and we judged the certainty of the evidence on which this result is based to be low to very low. Our data may also suggest similar rates of adverse events and trial non-completion in n-3PUFA and placebo groups, but again our estimates are very imprecise. Effects of n-3PUFAs compared to antidepressants are very imprecise and uncertain. More complete evidence is required for both the potential positive and negative effects of n-3PUFAs for MDD.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of lipid metabolomic signatures of Major Depressive Disorder

The aim of this meta-analysis was to provide a comprehensive synthesis of the evidence examining biomarker signatures in MDD patients including lipids, lipid regulatory proteins (LRP), and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) as compared to healthy individuals. We performed meta-analyses and meta-regression of the studies comparing lipid, LRP, and PUFA levels between MDD patients and healthy individuals by searching Embase, Ovid Medline, Scopus, PsycINFO, PubMed, and Cochrane databases. Search was performed in these databases up to September 2019 and 29 studies were included. Levels of lipid parameter triglyceride (TG) (SMD 0.55, 95% CI 0.30-0.80, p < 0.0001) were higher while total cholesterol (TC) (SMD = -0.46, 95%CI -0.93 to -0.001, p = 0.04) and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) (SMD = -0.46, 95%CI -0.71 to -0.20, p = 0.02) were lower in MDD patients than controls. Subgroup analysis for age showed that the levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) were lower in ≥40-year age group (SMD = -0.38, 95%CI -0.70 to -0.06, p = 0.01) and levels of TC was lower in MDD patients in studies from Asian countries (SMD = -0.74, 95%CI -1.37 to -0.10, p = 0.02). TG levels were found to be high all subgroups in MDD patients than controls. A negative association between TC levels and use of lipid lowering medications and a positive association between smoking and LDL levels was found using meta-regression analysis. This study will be useful for physicians when considering the assessment of lipidand LRP profiles in MDD patients to reduce the cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

Effects of Dietary n-3 and n-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Inflammation and Cancerogenesis

The dietary recommendation encourages reducing saturated fatty acids (SFA) in diet and replacing them with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) n-3 (omega-3) and n-6 (omega-6) to decrease the risk of metabolic disturbances. Consequently, excessive n-6 PUFAs content and high n-6/n-3 ratio are found in Western-type diet. The importance of a dietary n-6/n-3 ratio to prevent chronic diseases is linked with anti-inflammatory functions of linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3) and longer-chain n-3 PUFAs. Thus, this review provides an overview of the role of oxylipins derived from n-3 PUFAs and oxylipins formed from n-6 PUFAs on inflammation. Evidence of PUFAs' role in carcinogenesis was also discussed. In vitro studies, animal cancer models and epidemiological studies demonstrate that these two PUFA groups have different effects on the cell growth, proliferation and progression of neoplastic lesions.

Inclusion of cocoa by-product in the diet of dairy sheep: Effect on the fatty acid profile of ruminal content and on the composition of milk and cheese

In this study, we hypothesized that dietary cocoa bean shell (CBS) as a partial replacer of human edible cereal grains in the diet of lactating ewes may affect performance and milk and cheese composition. Twenty Comisana lactating ewes allotted into control (CTRL; n = 10) or cocoa (CBS; n = 10) group received alfalfa hay ad libitum and 800 g of conventional (CTRL) or experimental (CBS) concentrate containing 11.7% CBS to partially replace corn and barley of the CTRL concentrate. Milk yield and composition did not differ between groups, and only urea concentration was lower in CBS milk. Dietary CBS increased cheese fat and reduced protein percentage in CBS group. Fatty acid composition of rumen content partially reflected that of the ingested diet, with total saturated fatty acids (SFA), total monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), 16:0, 18:0 and 18:1c9 greater in the CBS group. Moreover, all the identified trans- and cis-18:1 isomers were greater in CBS rumen content. Milk and cheese showed a similar fatty acid composition. Total MUFAs were greater in milk and cheese of CBS, mainly due to the proportion of 18:1c9, and conversely, total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), PUFAn-6 and PUFAn-6-to-PUFAn-3 ratio was greater in CTRL group. Concluding, the inclusion of CBS in the diet of lactating ewes within the limit imposed by the current legislation did not cause detrimental effects on animal performance and milk composition. Interestingly, dietary CBS reduced milk urea concentration probably due to the phenols contained in CBS concentrate. However, our results support that biohydrogenation was weakly impaired by dietary CBS. Finally, CBS negatively affected cheese nutritional characteristics due to lower protein and greater fat content, but improved fat health indexes in milk and cheese.

Dietary Intake of n-3 PUFA-Enriched Hen Eggs Changes Inflammatory Markers' Concentration and Treg/Th17 Cells Distribution in Blood of Young Healthy Adults-A Randomised Study

In the present study, we aimed to determine the effects of n-3 polyunsaturated acid (PUFA) supplementation (~1053 mg/per day), i.e., α-linolenic (~230 mg), eicosapentaenoic (~15 mg), and docosahexaenoic acid (~105 mg), through hen eggs, on pro- and anti-inflammatory parameters in healthy individuals (23.8 ± 2.57 years old). Here, we demonstrate differential effects of regular hen eggs (N = 21; W/M = 10/11) and n-3 PUFA-enriched hen eggs (N = 19; W/M = 10/9) consumption on the serum levels of lipid mediators, representation of peripheral T helper cell subsets (recently activated T-helper cells, nTreg, Th17 and non-Th17-IL-17A secreting T-helper lymphocytes) and their functional capacity for cytokine secretion. Both diets significantly altered systemic levels of pro-inflammatory and inflammation resolving lipid mediators; however, only the n-3 PUFAs group showed a significant shift towards anti-inflammatory prostanoids and increased levels of pro-resolving oxylipins. Both study groups showed reduced frequencies of peripheral nTreg lymphocytes and decreased rates of peripheral Th17 cells. Their functional capacity for cytokine secretion was significantly altered only in the n-3 PUFAs group in terms of increased transforming growth factor β-1 and reduced interleukin 6 secretion. Diet supplemented with n-3 PUFAs alters immune response towards inflammation resolving conditions through effects on lipid mediators and cytokine secretion by T lymphocytes in human model without underlying comorbidities.

Edible Insects versus Meat-Nutritional Comparison: Knowledge of Their Composition Is the Key to Good Health

Recently, attention has been drawn to the fact that increasing the consumption of edible insects may positively impact the state of the natural environment and reduce the problem of malnutrition in large parts of society. Indeed, insects are seen as an alternative to traditional meat products, primarily meat. This article aimed to compare the nutritional value of edible insects and meat. Based on tables of composition and nutritional value and on the licensed computer program Diet 6D, data on the nutritional value of 10 commonly consumed meat types were compiled. Based on a literature review, data on the nutritional value of seven commercially available edible insect species were collected and collated. There was a comparison of 100 g of edible insects with 100 g of meat (fresh weight). In addition, the atherogenic index thrombogenic index, the hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic ratio, and the nutritional quality index were calculated. It was found that both meat and insects are rich in nutrients, including those considered essential for the proper development and functioning of the human body. At the same time, it has been shown that the content of individual nutrients in both insects and meat varies significantly.

The Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Thromboxane, Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor, Homocysteine, and Vitamin D in Depressive Children and Adolescents: Randomized Controlled Trial

In the DEPOXIN project, we have found that a high ratio of omega-6/omega-3 fatty acids (FA) is associated with worsening of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents with depressive disorder (DD) and that the 12-week omega-3 FA supplementation modulates DD symptoms. Here we present our results of the secondary outcomes: the levels of thromboxane (TXB), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), homocysteine (HCy) and vitamin D. Fifty-eight patients were randomized into two arms. One group received a fish oil emulsion enriched with omega-3 FA, and the other received a sunflower oil emulsion containing omega-6 FA, for 12 weeks. Depressive symptoms were evaluated, using the Child's Depressive Inventory (CDI). The patients with DD had elevated TXB levels and decreased vitamin D levels, as compared to healthy controls. Both CDI and omega-6/omega-3 ratio correlated positively with TXB and negatively with BDNF at baseline. Compared to the omega-6 FA group, the supplementation with omega-3 FA for 12 weeks significantly reduced plasma TXB (p = 0.024) and increased BDNF (p = 0.011) levels. No changes in HCy and vitamin D were observed. Our results demonstrate the possible role of TXB and BDNF in the pathophysiology of DD and the benefits of omega-3 FA supplementation. The study was registered with the ISRCTN registry (ISRCTN81655012).

Lipid profile and fatty acid composition of marine fish species from Northeast coast of Brazil

Total lipid content, fatty acid composition and nutritional profile of lipid fraction of fourteen fish species from the Brazilian Northeastern coast were evaluated. Lipid content was determined by Bligh and Dyer methodology, whereas the fatty acid composition was determined by gas chromatography with flame ionization detector. The indices of atherogenicity, thrombogenicity and hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic ratio were used to evaluate the nutritional quality of lipid fraction. The total lipid content ranged from 0.25 to 3.09%, with higher values in L. synagris. A significant difference (p < 0.05) were noted in fatty acids composition between the fourteen fish species. PUFA were the major fatty acids in twelve of fourteen species and C. leiarchus showed the highest content. The n-3 content ranged from 69.83 to 270.62 mg g^-1 of total lipids, being EPA and DHA the major fatty acids in most of the species studied. The species L. synagris, M. bonaci and S. brasiliensis exceeded the WHO daily intake recommendation of 250 mg per day from those fatty acids. The quality indexes of the lipid fraction as well as the n-6/n-3 and PUFA/SFA ratios indicated that all fish species can be healthy nutritional options, and can bring many benefits to human health. The principal component analysis resulted in a two-principal-component model that described 79.78% of data variance. Also, it highlighted that despite the differences between the breeding strategies of fish families, the species could be grouped according to their similarity in fatty acids composition.

Supplementation-induced increase in circulating omega-3 serum levels is not associated with a reduction in depressive symptoms: Results from the MooDFOOD depression prevention trial

BACKGROUND

There is ambiguity on how omega-3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are associated with depression, and what the temporality of the association might be. The present study aimed to examine whether (intervention-induced changes in) n-3 PUFA levels were associated with (changes in) depressive symptoms.

METHODS

Baseline, 6- and 12-month follow-up data on 682 overweight and subclinically depressed persons from four European countries that participated in the MooDFOOD depression prevention randomized controlled trial were used. Participants were allocated to four intervention groups: (a) placebos, (b) placebos and food-related behavioral activation therapy (F-BA), (c) multinutrient supplements (fish oil and multivitamin), and (d) multinutrient supplements and F-BA. Depressive symptoms were measured using the inventory of depressive symptomatology. PUFA levels (µmol/L) were measured using gas chromatography. Analyses were adjusted for sociodemographics, lifestyle, and somatic health.

RESULTS

Increases in n-3 PUFA, docosahexaenoic acid, and eicosapentaenoic acid levels over time were significantly larger in the supplement groups than in placebo groups. Change in PUFA levels was not significantly associated with the change in depressive symptoms (β = .002, SE = 0.003, p = .39; β = .003, SE = 0.005, p = .64; β = .005, SE = 0.005, p = .29; β = -.0002, SE = 0.0004, p = .69). Baseline PUFA levels did not modify the intervention effects on depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

In overweight and subclinical depressed persons, multinutrient supplements led to significant increases in n-3 PUFA levels over time, which were not associated with changes in depressive symptoms. Multinutrient supplements do not seem to be an effective preventive strategy in lowering depressive symptoms over time in these at-risk groups.

Lipid Profile, Lipoprotein Subfractions, and Fluidity of Membranes in Children and Adolescents with Depressive Disorder: Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in a Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Study

Depressive disorder (DD) is a psychiatric disorder whose molecular basis is not fully understood. It is assumed that reduced consumption of fish and omega-3 fatty acids (FA) is associated with DD. Other lipids such as total cholesterol (TCH), LDL-, and HDL-cholesterols (LDL-CH, HDL-CH) also play a role in depression. The primary endpoint of the study was the effect of omega-3 FA on the severity of depression in children and adolescents. This study aimed to investigate the secondary endpoint, relationship between depressive disorder symptoms and lipid profile, LDL- and HDL-cholesterol subfractions, Paraoxonase 1 (PON1) activities, and erythrocyte membrane fluidity in 58 depressed children and adolescents (calculated by the statistical program on the effect size), as well as the effect of omega-3 FA on the monitored parameters. Depressive symptoms were assessed by the Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI), lipid profile by standard biochemical procedures, and LDL- and HDL-subfractions by the Lipoprint system. Basic biochemical parameters including lipid profile were compared with levels in 20 healthy children and were in the physiological range. Improvement of symptoms in the group supplemented with a fish oil emulsion rich in omega-3 FA in contrast to omega-6 FA (emulsion of sunflower oil) has been observed. We are the first to report that omega-3 FAs, but not omega-6 FA, increase large HDL subfractions (anti-atherogenic) after 12 weeks of supplementation and decrease small HDL subfractions (proatherogenic) in depressed children. We found a negative correlation between CDI score and HDL-CH and the large HDL subfraction, but not LDL-CH subfractions. CDI score was not associated with erythrocyte membrane fluidity. Our results suggest that HDL-CH and its subfractions, but not LDL-CH may play a role in the pathophysiology of depressive disorder. The study was registered under ISRCTN81655012.

Brown Seaweeds for the Management of Metabolic Syndrome and Associated Diseases

Metabolic syndrome is characterized by the coexistence of different metabolic disorders which increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, metabolic syndrome leads to a reduction in patients' quality of life as well as to an increase in morbidity and mortality. In the last few decades, it has been demonstrated that seaweeds exert multiple beneficial effects by virtue of their micro- and macronutrient content, which could help in the management of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. This review aims to provide an updated overview on the potential of brown seaweeds for the prevention and management of metabolic syndrome and its associated diseases, based on the most recent evidence obtained from in vitro and in vivo preclinical and clinical studies. Owing to their great potential for health benefits, brown seaweeds are successfully used in some nutraceuticals and functional foods for treating metabolic syndrome comorbidities. However, some issues still need to be tackled and deepened to improve the knowledge of their ADME/Tox profile in humans, in particular by finding validated indexes of their absorption and obtaining reliable information on their efficacy and long-term safety.

The Association between Omega-3 Fatty Acid Intake and Human Brain Connectivity in Middle-Aged Depressed Women

Omega-3 fatty acid (n-3 FA) intake is known to have a preventive effect on depressive symptoms in a general population. This study assessed the effects of n-3 FA intake on depressive symptoms and brain function in middle-aged women. Depressive symptoms were screened using the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression scale (CES-D) assessment questionnaires, and n-3 FA intakes were assessed using semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. We found that n-3 FA intakes were negatively associated with depressive symptoms in middle-aged women. Psychiatrists diagnosed the presence of depressive disorders using the 5th edition of the Mental Disorder Diagnosis and Statistics Manual (DSM-5). Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) was performed to investigate the association between n-3 FA intake and brain functional connectivity. Functional connectivity of the right middle frontal cortex (default mode network) and the right middle temporal pole (frontoparietal network) was positively associated with depressive symptom scores and negatively associated with n-3 FA intakes. In conclusion, high n-3 FA intake decreases the risk of depressive symptoms and modifies the brain functional connectivity in middle-aged women.

Characterization of Enriched Meat-Based Pâté Manufactured with Oleogels as Fat Substitutes

Nowadays, one of the strongest factors affecting consumers’ choice at the moment of purchasing food products is their nutritional features. The population is increasingly aware of the diet–health relationship and they are opting for a healthy lifestyle. Concerns with the increasing number of heart-related diseases, which are associated to the consumption of fats, are placing the functional food market in a relevant growth position. Considering that, our goal was to develop, under semi-industrial processing conditions, a healthy meat-based spreadable product (pâté) with reduced fat content through replacement of pork fat by healthier structured oil. Beeswax was used to develop an edible oleogel based on linseed oil with a high content of linolenic acid. A decrease of the hardness and adhesivity was verified for pâtés with oleogel incorporation. Linseed oil inclusion was the main factor leading to an increase of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) content in pâté samples. A decrease up to 90% in the n-6/n-3 (omega-6/omega-3) ratio can signify a better nutritional value of the obtained pâté samples, which can result in a possible upsurge in omega-3 bioavailability through digestion of these pâtés. This could be an interesting option for the consumption of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, targeting, for example, the reduction of cardiovascular diseases.

Omega-3 fatty-acids modulate symptoms of depressive disorder, serum levels of omega-3 fatty acids and omega-6/omega-3 ratio in children. A randomized, double-blind and controlled trial

Omega-3 fatty acids (FA) are a promising adjuvant therapy for depressive disorder (DD) in adults. The objective of this single-centre, randomized, double-blind and controlled study was to compare the efficacy of an omega-3 FA fish oil emulsion with a control oil emulsion alongside the standard treatment for depression in children and adolescents suffering from DD or mixed anxiety depressive disorder (MADD) and to analyse serum fatty acid levels and omega-6/omega-3 FA ratio before and after the intervention. 60 children were randomised 1:1 to the intervention (Om3) or active comparator (Om6) groups. Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) ratings were performed at the baseline, every 2 weeks for a 12-week intervention period. Significant reductions in CDI scores were observed after 6 and 12 weeks of intervention in the Om3 group and in the DD subgroup compared to the Om6 and MADD subgroup. Ratio of omega-6/omega-3 decreased in Om3 but not in Om6 from 24.2/1 to 7.6/1 after 6 weeks, EPA, omega-6/omega-3 ratio, but not DHA, correlated with severity symptoms at the baseline. An omega-3 fatty acid rich fish oil emulsion may be an effective adjuvant supplement during the treatment of depressive disorders in children. Trial registration: ISRCTN 81655012.

Nutrient patterns and depressive symptoms among Australian adults

PURPOSE

Much of the current literature on the associations between diet and depression focus on single nutrients rather than nutrient patterns (NPs). We investigated the association between NPs and depressive symptoms (DepS) in an Australian adult population.

METHODS

DepS were examined at two different time points, in 2010 (Stage 3, n = 1743, 49.0% males) and 2015 [North West 2015 (NW15), n = 1,024, 46.6% males] of the North West Adelaide Health Study (NWAHS). Dietary habits were evaluated using a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) at Stage 3. DepS were assessed using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) scale at Stage 3 and NW15. Principal component analysis was used to identify NPs as well as the factor structure of the CES-D. Log- and negative binomial regression analyses were used to assess the association between NPs and DepS scores. Ordinal logistic regression analysis was undertaken between the NPs and identified factors of the CES-D score.

RESULTS

Three NPs (from the FFQ) and two-factors (from the CES-D score) were obtained. After adjusting for known confounding variables, a 'plant-sourced' NP (β-carotene, fibre, vitamin C, potassium and α-carotene) was inversely associated with DepS at Stage 3 [prevalence ratio (PR)_Q4VsQ1, 0.78; 95% CI 0.66-0.92; p = 0.003], whereas an 'animal-sourced' (ω-3 fatty acid, monounsaturated fat, vitamin E and cholesterol) or 'mixed-source' (phosphorous, protein, vitamin B2, iodine and zinc) NP was not associated with DepS. There was an inverse relationship between the 'plant-sourced' NP and the '(absence of) positive-affect' factor from the CES-D in both stages.

CONCLUSION

The 'plant-sourced' NP is consistently and inversely associated with DepS; however, longitudinal studies are recommended to confirm these results.

Nutrient availability affects the polar lipidome of Halimione portulacoides leaves cultured in hydroponics

Halophytes are increasingly regarded as suitable extractive species and co-products for coastal Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) and studying their lipidome is a valid means towards their economic valorization. Halimione portulacoides (L.) Aellen edible leaves are rich in functional lipids with nutraceutical and pharmaceutical relevance and the present study aimed to investigate the extent to which its lipidome remains unchanged under a range of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) concentrations typical of aquaculture effluents. Lipidomics analysis, done by hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry, identified 175 lipid species in the lipid extract of leaves: 140 phospholipids (PLs) and 35 glycolipids (GLs). Plants irrigated with a saline solution with 20-100 mg DIN-N L-1 and 3-15.5 mg DIP-P L-1 under a 1-week hydraulic retention time displayed a relatively stable lipidome. At lower concentrations (6 mg DIN-N L-1 and 0.8 mg DIP-P L-1), plants exhibited less PLs and GLs per unit of leaves dry weight and the GLs fraction of the lipidome changed significantly. This study reveals the importance of analyzing the lipidomic profile of halophytes under different nutritional regimens in order to establish nutrient-limitation thresholds and assure production conditions that deliver a final product with a consistent lipid profile.

Seasonal differences exist in the polyunsaturated fatty acid, mineral and antioxidant content of U.S. grass-finished beef

There is increased consumer interest in grass-finished beef (GFB) with retail sales reaching $272 million in 2016. GFB contains higher omega-3 fatty acid levels compared to grain-finished beef, but variations in fatty acid (FA), mineral, and antioxidant content by producers and season is poorly documented. Hence, GFB samples from cattle finished in both fall and spring were obtained from four producers representing several US sub-regions. FAs were extracted using microwave-assisted extraction, derivatized to methyl-esters, and quantified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Mineral content was quantified using coupled plasma mass-spectrometry and antioxidants were quantified via UV-absorption. Overall, total omega-3 FA content was greater in beef from cattle finished in the spring (13.4 mg/100g beef) than the fall (10.3; P<0.001). Additionally, α-tocopherol was present in greater amounts in spring-finished beef (259 vs. 223 ug/100g beef, P<0.001) as was the micromineral selenium (18.2 vs. 17.3ug/100g beef, P = 0.008). Despite using the same feed in fall and spring, cattle from producer 4 had higher total omega-3, omega-6, and total polyunsaturated fatty acids in spring compared to fall (P<0.010). These results suggest there are seasonal differences in omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, minerals and antioxidants in grass-finished beef independent of finishing diet.

Metabolic indices of polyunsaturated fatty acids: current evidence, research controversies, and clinical utility

The n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are among the most studied nutrients in human metabolism. In the past few decades, prospective studies and controlled trials have supported the view that the effects of these essential fatty acids are clinically relevant. PUFA profiles in different blood compartments are reflections of both diet and metabolism, and their levels may be related to disease risk. Despite widespread interest, there is no consensus regarding which biomarkers best reflect PUFA status in the body. The measurement of PUFA levels is not straight-forward, and a wide variety of indices have been used in clinical studies, producing conflicting results. A major source of heterogeneity among studies is associated with research design, sampling, and laboratory analyses. To date, the n-3 index, n-6/n-3 ratio, and arachidonic acid (AA)/eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) ratio are the most promising biomarkers associated with PUFA metabolism. Although hotly debated, these indices may be considered at least markers, if not risk factors, for several diseases, especially cardiovascular events and brain disorders. Here, we summarize the most updated evidence of n-3 and n-6 PUFA effects on human health, reviewing current controversies on the aforementioned indices and whether they can be considered valuable predictors of clinical outcomes.

Rapeseed oil fortified with micronutrients improves cognitive alterations associated with metabolic syndrome

Metabolic syndrome represents a major risk factor for severe comorbidities such as cardiovascular diseases or diabetes. It is also associated with an increased prevalence of emotional and cognitive alterations that in turn aggravate the disease and related outcomes. Identifying therapeutic strategies able to improve those alterations is therefore a major socioeconomical and public health challenge. We previously reported that both hippocampal inflammatory processes and neuronal plasticity contribute to the development of emotional and cognitive alterations in db/db mice, an experimental model of metabolic syndrome that displays most of the classical features of the syndrome. In that context, nutritional interventions with known impact on those neurobiological processes appear as a promising alternative to limit the development of neurobiological comorbidities of metabolic syndrome. We therefore tested here whether n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) associated with a cocktail of antioxidants can protect against the development of behavioral alterations that accompany the metabolic syndrome. Thus, this study aimed: 1) to evaluate if a diet supplemented with the plant-derived n-3 PUFA α-linolenic acid (ALA) and antioxidants (provided by n-3 PUFAs-rich rapeseed oil fortified with a mix of naturally constituting antioxidant micronutrients, including coenzyme Q10, tocopherol, and the phenolic compound canolol) improved behavioral alterations in db/db mice, and 2) to decipher the biological mechanisms underlying this behavioral effect. Although the supplemented diet did not improve anxiety-like behavior and inflammatory abnormalities, it reversed hippocampus-dependent spatial memory deficits displayed by db/db mice in a water maze task. It concomitantly changed subunit composition of glutamatergic AMPA and NMDA receptors in the hippocampus that has been shown to modulate synaptic function related to spatial memory. These data suggest that changes in local neuronal plasticity may underlie cognitive improvements in db/db mice fed the supplemented diet. The current findings might therefore provide valuable data for introducing new nutritional strategies for the treatment of behavioral complications associated with MetS.

A combined in vivo and in vitro approach to evaluate the influence of linseed oil or sesame oil and their combination on innate immune competence and eicosanoid metabolism processes in common carp (Cyprinus carpio)

This study aimed to evaluate the influence of dietary pure linseed oil or sesame oil or a mixture on innate immune competence and eicosanoid metabolism in common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Carp of 100.4 ± 4.7 g were fed to satiation twice daily for 6 weeks with four diets prepared from three lipid sources (CLO; LO; SO; SLO). On day 42, plasma was sampled for immune parameter analyses, and kidney and liver tissues were dissected for gene expression analysis. On day 45, HKL and PBMCs from remaining fish were isolated and exposed to E. coli LPS at a dose of 10 μg/mL for 24 h. Results show that the SLO diet enhanced feed utilisation (P = 0.01), while no negative effects on growth or survival were observed in plant oil-fed fish compared to those fed a fish-oil based diet. Plant oil diets did not alter lysozyme and peroxidase activities or gene expression levels. Moreover, the diets did not affect the expression levels of some genes involved in eicosanoid metabolism processes (pla, pge2, lox5). Lys expression in HKL in vitro following exposure to LPS was up-regulated in LO-fed fish, while expression levels of pge2 were higher in SLO fish than in other groups (P < 0.05). The highest value for peroxidase activity in HKL exposed to LPS was found in the SLO-fed group (P < 0.05). In conclusion, our results indicate that dietary plant oils did not induce any negative effects on fish growth, survival, and immune competence status. Moreover, a dietary combination of SO and LO improved the feed utilisation efficiency and seemed more effective in inducing a better immunomodulatory response to LPS through a more active eicosanoid metabolism process.