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Green TRF, Rowe RK. Quantifying microglial morphology: an insight into function. Clin Exp Immunol 2024; 216:221-229. [PMID: 38456795 PMCID: PMC11097915 DOI: 10.1093/cei/uxae023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Microglia are specialized immune cells unique to the central nervous system (CNS). Microglia have a highly plastic morphology that changes rapidly in response to injury or infection. Qualitative and quantitative measurements of ever-changing microglial morphology are considered a cornerstone of many microglia-centric research studies. The distinctive morphological variations seen in microglia are a useful marker of inflammation and severity of tissue damage. Although a wide array of damage-associated microglial morphologies has been documented, the exact functions of these distinct morphologies are not fully understood. In this review, we discuss how microglia morphology is not synonymous with microglia function, however, morphological outcomes can be used to make inferences about microglial function. For a comprehensive examination of the reactive status of a microglial cell, both histological and genetic approaches should be combined. However, the importance of quality immunohistochemistry-based analyses should not be overlooked as they can succinctly answer many research questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tabitha R F Green
- Department of Integrative Physiology, The University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Rachel K Rowe
- Department of Integrative Physiology, The University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
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Xing Y, Zhang D, Fang L, Wang J, Liu C, Wu D, Liu X, Wang X, Min W. Complement in Human Brain Health: Potential of Dietary Food in Relation to Neurodegenerative Diseases. Foods 2023; 12:3580. [PMID: 37835232 PMCID: PMC10572247 DOI: 10.3390/foods12193580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The complement pathway is a major component of the innate immune system, which is critical for recognizing and clearing pathogens that rapidly react to defend the body against external pathogens. Many components of this pathway are expressed throughout the brain and play a beneficial role in synaptic pruning in the developing central nervous system (CNS). However, excessive complement-mediated synaptic pruning in the aging or injured brain may play a contributing role in a wide range of neurodegenerative diseases. Complement Component 1q (C1q), an initiating recognition molecule of the classical complement pathway, can interact with a variety of ligands and perform a range of functions in physiological and pathophysiological conditions of the CNS. This review considers the function and immunomodulatory mechanisms of C1q; the emerging role of C1q on synaptic pruning in developing, aging, or pathological CNS; the relevance of C1q; the complement pathway to neurodegenerative diseases; and, finally, it summarizes the foods with beneficial effects in neurodegenerative diseases via C1q and complement pathway and highlights the need for further research to clarify these roles. This paper aims to provide references for the subsequent study of food functions related to C1q, complement, neurodegenerative diseases, and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yihang Xing
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China; (Y.X.); (D.Z.); (L.F.); (J.W.); (C.L.); (D.W.); (X.L.)
| | - Dingwen Zhang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China; (Y.X.); (D.Z.); (L.F.); (J.W.); (C.L.); (D.W.); (X.L.)
| | - Li Fang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China; (Y.X.); (D.Z.); (L.F.); (J.W.); (C.L.); (D.W.); (X.L.)
| | - Ji Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China; (Y.X.); (D.Z.); (L.F.); (J.W.); (C.L.); (D.W.); (X.L.)
| | - Chunlei Liu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China; (Y.X.); (D.Z.); (L.F.); (J.W.); (C.L.); (D.W.); (X.L.)
| | - Dan Wu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China; (Y.X.); (D.Z.); (L.F.); (J.W.); (C.L.); (D.W.); (X.L.)
| | - Xiaoting Liu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China; (Y.X.); (D.Z.); (L.F.); (J.W.); (C.L.); (D.W.); (X.L.)
| | - Xiyan Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China; (Y.X.); (D.Z.); (L.F.); (J.W.); (C.L.); (D.W.); (X.L.)
| | - Weihong Min
- College of Food and Health, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 311300, China
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The differences in serum C1q levels between first-episode patients with bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder. J Psychosom Res 2022; 162:111042. [PMID: 36156342 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2022.111042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 09/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aimed at exploring the changes of serum complement C1q levels in patients with Bipolar Disorder (BD) using a cross-sectional design, and the differences between Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and BD. Moreover, the correlation between complement C1q and bech-rafaelsdn mania rating scales (BRMS) in patients with MDD and BD was assessed. METHODS Serum complement C1q levels were measured by ADVIA 2400 biochemical analyser in 104 patients with MDD, 71 patients with BD type I and 42 patients with BD type II diagnosed by Diagnostic and Statistical of Mental Disorder 5 (DSM-5). Then simple and multivariate linear regression analysis was conducted between the level of serum C1q and BRMS among patients with BD. RESULTS The serum complement C1q levels were higher in BD type I than BD type II (P < 0.001); Serum complement C1q levels were higher in MDD than BD type II (P < 0.001). We discovered that there was a positive correlation relationship between serum complement C1q levels and BRMS in BD type I (r = 0.756, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION We confirmed that serum complement C1q levels were higher in patients with BD type II than in MDD patients. These current results support the view that the complement C1q may play an important role in the pathophysiology of BD. Serum complement C1q was strongly associated with BD and is worth investigating in future studies.
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Araújo B, Caridade-Silva R, Soares-Guedes C, Martins-Macedo J, Gomes ED, Monteiro S, Teixeira FG. Neuroinflammation and Parkinson's Disease-From Neurodegeneration to Therapeutic Opportunities. Cells 2022; 11:cells11182908. [PMID: 36139483 PMCID: PMC9497016 DOI: 10.3390/cells11182908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder worldwide. Clinically, it is characterized by a progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons (DAn), resulting in severe motor complications. Preclinical and clinical studies have indicated that neuroinflammation can play a role in PD pathophysiology, being associated with its onset and progression. Nevertheless, several key points concerning the neuroinflammatory process in PD remain to be answered. Bearing this in mind, in the present review, we cover the impact of neuroinflammation on PD by exploring the role of inflammatory cells (i.e., microglia and astrocytes) and the interconnections between the brain and the peripheral system. Furthermore, we discuss both the innate and adaptive immune responses regarding PD pathology and explore the gut–brain axis communication and its influence on the progression of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruna Araújo
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B’s-PT Government Associate Laboratory, 4710-057/4805-017 Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
- Medical and Industrial Biotechnology Laboratory (LABMI), Porto Research, Technology, and Innovation Center (PORTIC), Porto Polytechnic Institute, 4200-375 Porto, Portugal
- I3S—Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Rita Caridade-Silva
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B’s-PT Government Associate Laboratory, 4710-057/4805-017 Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
- Medical and Industrial Biotechnology Laboratory (LABMI), Porto Research, Technology, and Innovation Center (PORTIC), Porto Polytechnic Institute, 4200-375 Porto, Portugal
- I3S—Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Carla Soares-Guedes
- Medical and Industrial Biotechnology Laboratory (LABMI), Porto Research, Technology, and Innovation Center (PORTIC), Porto Polytechnic Institute, 4200-375 Porto, Portugal
- I3S—Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Joana Martins-Macedo
- Medical and Industrial Biotechnology Laboratory (LABMI), Porto Research, Technology, and Innovation Center (PORTIC), Porto Polytechnic Institute, 4200-375 Porto, Portugal
- I3S—Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Eduardo D. Gomes
- Medical and Industrial Biotechnology Laboratory (LABMI), Porto Research, Technology, and Innovation Center (PORTIC), Porto Polytechnic Institute, 4200-375 Porto, Portugal
- I3S—Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Susana Monteiro
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B’s-PT Government Associate Laboratory, 4710-057/4805-017 Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Fábio G. Teixeira
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B’s-PT Government Associate Laboratory, 4710-057/4805-017 Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
- Medical and Industrial Biotechnology Laboratory (LABMI), Porto Research, Technology, and Innovation Center (PORTIC), Porto Polytechnic Institute, 4200-375 Porto, Portugal
- I3S—Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence:
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Park J, Kang Y, Han KM, Tae WS, Kang UB, Chu H, Ham BJ. Association Between the C4 Binding Protein Level and White Matter Integrity in Major Depressive Disorder. Psychiatry Investig 2022; 19:703-711. [PMID: 36202105 PMCID: PMC9536885 DOI: 10.30773/pi.2022.0100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Considerable evidence suggests that neuroinflammation plays an important role in the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder (MDD). However, the relationship between serum C4 binding protein (C4BP) and white matter (WM) tract integrity in MDD has not been investigated. METHODS We obtained diffusion tensor images of 44 patients with MDD and 44 healthy controls and performed TRActs Constrained by UnderLying Anatomy (TRACULA) analysis to assess WM tract integrity. Serum C4-binding protein alpha chain (C4BPA) and C4- binding protein beta chain (C4BPB) levels were measured and in-between group comparisons were obtained. The correlation between serum C4BP levels and WM tract integrity was examined. RESULTS In comparison to healthy controls, both serum C4BPA and C4BPB were higher in MDD. Also, fractional anisotropy (FA) was increased in the left cingulum-angular bundle (CAB) in MDD, but not healthy controls (HCs). A significant correlation was found between serum C4BP and FA levels in the right cingulum-cingulate gyrus bundle (CCG) in MDD. CONCLUSION This study is the first to investigate the correlation between serum C4BP levels and WM tract integrity in MDD. We identified an increase in WM integrity in the left CAB region in MDD. Furthermore, serum C4BP levels were higher in MDD, and this finding correlated with increased WM integrity in the right CCG region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihoon Park
- Department of Psychiatry, Korea University Anam Hospital, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Youbin Kang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyu-Man Han
- Department of Psychiatry, Korea University Anam Hospital, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Woo-Suk Tae
- Brain Convergence Research Center, Korea University Anam Hospital, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Un-Beom Kang
- Bertis R&D Division, Bertis Inc., Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyosub Chu
- Bertis R&D Division, Bertis Inc., Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Byung-Joo Ham
- Department of Psychiatry, Korea University Anam Hospital, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Laminin as a Biomarker of Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption under Neuroinflammation: A Systematic Review. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23126788. [PMID: 35743229 PMCID: PMC9224176 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Laminin, a non-collagenous glycoprotein present in the brain extracellular matrix, helps to maintain blood–brain barrier (BBB) integrity and regulation. Neuroinflammation can compromise laminin structure and function, increasing BBB permeability. The aim of this paper is to determine if neuroinflammation-induced laminin functional changes may serve as a potential biomarker of alterations in the BBB. The 38 publications included evaluated neuroinflammation, BBB disruption, and laminin, and were assessed for quality and risk of bias (protocol registered in PROSPERO; CRD42020212547). We found that laminin may be a good indicator of BBB overall structural integrity, although changes in expression are dependent on the pathologic or experimental model used. In ischemic stroke, permanent vascular damage correlates with increased laminin expression (β and γ subunits), while transient damage correlates with reduced laminin expression (α subunits). Laminin was reduced in traumatic brain injury and cerebral hemorrhage studies but increased in multiple sclerosis and status epilepticus studies. Despite these observations, there is limited knowledge about the role played by different subunits or isoforms (such as 411 or 511) of laminin in maintaining structural architecture of the BBB under neuroinflammation. Further studies may clarify this aspect and the possibility of using laminin as a biomarker in different pathologies, which have alterations in BBB function in common.
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Kajitani GS, Brace L, Trevino-Villarreal JH, Trocha K, MacArthur MR, Vose S, Vargas D, Bronson R, Mitchell SJ, Menck CFM, Mitchell JR. Neurovascular dysfunction and neuroinflammation in a Cockayne syndrome mouse model. Aging (Albany NY) 2021; 13:22710-22731. [PMID: 34628368 PMCID: PMC8544306 DOI: 10.18632/aging.203617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Cockayne syndrome (CS) is a rare, autosomal genetic disorder characterized by premature aging-like features, such as cachectic dwarfism, retinal atrophy, and progressive neurodegeneration. The molecular defect in CS lies in genes associated with the transcription-coupled branch of the nucleotide excision DNA repair (NER) pathway, though it is not yet clear how DNA repair deficiency leads to the multiorgan dysfunction symptoms of CS. In this work, we used a mouse model of severe CS with complete loss of NER (Csa-/-/Xpa-/-), which recapitulates several CS-related phenotypes, resulting in premature death of these mice at approximately 20 weeks of age. Although this CS model exhibits a severe progeroid phenotype, we found no evidence of in vitro endothelial cell dysfunction, as assessed by measuring population doubling time, migration capacity, and ICAM-1 expression. Furthermore, aortas from CX mice did not exhibit early senescence nor reduced angiogenesis capacity. Despite these observations, CX mice presented blood brain barrier disruption and increased senescence of brain endothelial cells. This was accompanied by an upregulation of inflammatory markers in the brains of CX mice, such as ICAM-1, TNFα, p-p65, and glial cell activation. Inhibition of neovascularization did not exacerbate neither astro- nor microgliosis, suggesting that the pro-inflammatory phenotype is independent of the neurovascular dysfunction present in CX mice. These findings have implications for the etiology of this disease and could contribute to the study of novel therapeutic targets for treating Cockayne syndrome patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo Satoru Kajitani
- Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lear Brace
- Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | | | - Kaspar Trocha
- Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Michael Robert MacArthur
- Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sarah Vose
- Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Dorathy Vargas
- Rodent Histopathology Core, Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Roderick Bronson
- Rodent Histopathology Core, Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Sarah Jayne Mitchell
- Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - James Robert Mitchell
- Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Complement Component C1q as a Potential Diagnostic Tool for Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Subtyping. J Clin Med 2021; 10:jcm10184171. [PMID: 34575280 PMCID: PMC8467657 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10184171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Routine blood analytics are systematically used in the clinic to diagnose disease or confirm individuals' healthy status. For myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), a disease relying exclusively on clinical symptoms for its diagnosis, blood analytics only serve to rule out underlying conditions leading to exerting fatigue. However, studies evaluating complete and large blood datasets by combinatorial approaches to evidence ME/CFS condition or detect/identify case subgroups are still scarce. METHODS This study used unbiased hierarchical cluster analysis of a large cohort of 250 carefully phenotyped female ME/CFS cases toward exploring this possibility. RESULTS The results show three symptom-based clusters, classified as severe, moderate, and mild, presenting significant differences (p < 0.05) in five blood parameters. Unexpectedly the study also revealed high levels of circulating complement factor C1q in 107/250 (43%) of the participants, placing C1q as a key molecule to identify an ME/CFS subtype/subgroup with more apparent pain symptoms. CONCLUSIONS The results obtained have important implications for the research of ME/CFS etiology and, most likely, for the implementation of future diagnosis methods and treatments of ME/CFS in the clinic.
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Microglia in Neurodegenerative Events-An Initiator or a Significant Other? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22115818. [PMID: 34072307 PMCID: PMC8199265 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Revised: 05/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
A change in microglia structure, signaling, or function is commonly associated with neurodegeneration. This is evident in the patient population, animal models, and targeted in vitro assays. While there is a clear association, it is not evident that microglia serve as an initiator of neurodegeneration. Rather, the dynamics imply a close interaction between the various cell types and structures in the brain that orchestrate the injury and repair responses. Communication between microglia and neurons contributes to the physiological phenotype of microglia maintaining cells in a surveillance state and allows the cells to respond to events occurring in their environment. Interactions between microglia and astrocytes is not as well characterized, nor are interactions with other members of the neurovascular unit; however, given the influence of systemic factors on neuroinflammation and disease progression, such interactions likely represent significant contributes to any neurodegenerative process. In addition, they offer multiple target sites/processes by which environmental exposures could contribute to neurodegenerative disease. Thus, microglia at least play a role as a significant other with an equal partnership; however, claiming a role as an initiator of neurodegeneration remains somewhat controversial.
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Initiators of Classical and Lectin Complement Pathways Are Differently Engaged after Traumatic Brain Injury-Time-Dependent Changes in the Cortex, Striatum, Thalamus and Hippocampus in a Mouse Model. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 22:ijms22010045. [PMID: 33375205 PMCID: PMC7793095 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22010045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The complement system is involved in promoting secondary injury after traumatic brain injury (TBI), but the roles of the classical and lectin pathways leading to complement activation need to be clarified. To this end, we aimed to determine the ability of the brain to activate the synthesis of classical and lectin pathway initiators in response to TBI and to examine their expression in primary microglial cell cultures. We have modeled TBI in mice by controlled cortical impact (CCI), a clinically relevant experimental model. Using Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) we analyzed the expression of initiators of classical the complement component 1q, 1r and 1s (C1q, C1r, and C1s) and lectin (mannose binding lectin A, mannose binding lectin C, collectin 11, ficolin A, and ficolin B) complement pathways and other cellular markers in four brain areas (cortex, striatum, thalamus and hippocampus) of mice exposed to CCI from 24 h and up to 5 weeks. In all murine ipsilateral brain structures assessed, we detected long-lasting, time- and area-dependent significant increases in the mRNA levels of all classical (C1q, C1s, C1r) and some lectin (collectin 11, ficolin A, ficolin B) initiator molecules after TBI. In parallel, we observed significantly enhanced expression of cellular markers for neutrophils (Cd177), T cells (Cd8), astrocytes (glial fibrillary acidic protein—GFAP), microglia/macrophages (allograft inflammatory factor 1—IBA-1), and microglia (transmembrane protein 119—TMEM119); moreover, we detected astrocytes (GFAP) and microglia/macrophages (IBA-1) protein level strong upregulation in all analyzed brain areas. Further, the results obtained in primary microglial cell cultures suggested that these cells may be largely responsible for the biosynthesis of classical pathway initiators. However, microglia are unlikely to be responsible for the production of the lectin pathway initiators. Immunofluorescence analysis confirmed that at the site of brain injury, the C1q is localized in microglia/macrophages and neurons but not in astroglial cells. In sum, the brain strongly reacts to TBI by activating the local synthesis of classical and lectin complement pathway activators. Thus, the brain responds to TBI with a strong, widespread and persistent upregulation of complement components, the targeting of which may provide protection in TBI.
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Becquart P, Vilariño-Güell C, Quandt JA. Enhanced expression of complement and microglial-specific genes prior to clinical progression in the MOG-experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis model of multiple sclerosis. Brain Res Bull 2020; 165:63-69. [PMID: 32979467 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2020.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2019] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the biological changes responsible for failures in repair and the development of progressive MS is paramount for therapeutic intervention. In a well characterized experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of MS the clinical phenotype features an acute attack with partial recovery followed by a chronic or progressive disease phase. Neuropathology-focused gene expression profiles were generated from spinal cord, hindbrain and forebrain of mice 25 days after the induction of EAE, the time when recovery plateaus and transitions to a chronic or worsening phase. Differences in gene expression were most pronounced in the spinal cord of EAE mice compared to sham-immunized animals, with a subset of genes also found to be differentially expressed in the hindbrain and the forebrain, albeit with smaller fold-changes in expression. Our data suggests that changes in complement components, chemoattractant cytokines and especially enrichment in microglial cells may be the primary drivers of processes that limit recovery in EAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Becquart
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Carles Vilariño-Güell
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Jacqueline A Quandt
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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Li YY, Guo JH, Liu YQ, Dong JH, Zhu CH. PPARγ Activation-Mediated Egr-1 Inhibition Benefits Against Brain Injury in an Experimental Ischaemic Stroke Model. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2020; 29:105255. [PMID: 32992165 DOI: 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2020.105255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inflammatory response is a critical contributor to cerebral ischaemia injuries and blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction. Early growth response-1 (Egr-1), an oxygen-sensing transcription factor which is rapidly and markedly triggered in ischaemic events, acts as a master switch coordinating the upregulation of multiple target proinflammatory genes. Here, we explored whether peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARγ) activation by telmisartan can modulate Egr-1 expression and the subsequent inflammatory responses in a rat model of cerebral ischaemia. METHODS Cerebral ischaemia was induced in rats by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Brain injury was evaluated by brain water content, infarct volume, and Evans blue dye extravasation. Egr-1 and claudin-5 levels were assessed by western blot and real-time polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS MCAO-provoked Egr-1 expression was time dependent, peaking at 24 h and continuing to 72 h. The elevation in Egr-1 was coupled with a reduction in claudin-5. Telmisartan treatment significantly corrected the alterations of Egr-1 and claudin-5, alleviated the neurological deficits, and reduced brain water content, infarct volume, and Evans blue dye extravasation 24 h after MCAO. However, all the benefits of telmisartan were reversed by antagonising PPARγ with GW9662. CONCLUSION Egr-1, a proinflammatory factor, is positively associated with post-ischaemic inflammation and the associated BBB dysfunction. PPARγ serves as an upstream transcription factor of the Egr-1 cascade. Targeting Egr-1 may emerge as a potential strategy to suppress inflammatory responses following ischaemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue-Yi Li
- School of Basic Medicine, Hebei Medical University, PR China
| | - Jia-Hui Guo
- Department of Neurology, Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, PR China
| | - Ya-Qiang Liu
- Department of Neurology, Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, PR China
| | - Jing-Hui Dong
- Department of Physiology, Hebei Medical University, PR China
| | - Chun-Hua Zhu
- Department of Neurology, Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, PR China.
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13
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Oxidative Stress-Mediated Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) Disruption in Neurological Diseases. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2020. [DOI: 10.1155/2020/4356386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB), as a crucial gate of brain-blood molecular exchange, is involved in the pathogenesis of multiple neurological diseases. Oxidative stress is caused by an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the scavenger system. Since oxidative stress plays a significant role in the production and maintenance of the BBB, the cerebrovascular system is especially vulnerable to it. The pathways that initiate BBB dysfunction include, but are not limited to, mitochondrial dysfunction, excitotoxicity, iron metabolism, cytokines, pyroptosis, and necroptosis, all converging on the generation of ROS. Interestingly, ROS also provide common triggers that directly regulate BBB damage, parameters including tight junction (TJ) modifications, transporters, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activation, inflammatory responses, and autophagy. We will discuss the role of oxidative stress-mediated BBB disruption in neurological diseases, such as hemorrhagic stroke, ischemic stroke (IS), Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), traumatic brain injury (TBI), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD). This review will also discuss the latest clinical evidence of potential biomarkers and antioxidant drugs towards oxidative stress in neurological diseases. A deeper understanding of how oxidative stress damages BBB may open up more therapeutic options for the treatment of neurological diseases.
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Deficiency of Complement Component C1Q Prevents Cerebrovascular Damage and White Matter Loss in a Mouse Model of Chronic Obesity. eNeuro 2020; 7:ENEURO.0057-20.2020. [PMID: 32273396 PMCID: PMC7294467 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0057-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Age-related cognitive decline and many dementias involve complex interactions of both genetic and environmental risk factors. Recent evidence has demonstrated a strong association of obesity with the development of dementia. Furthermore, white matter damage is found in obese subjects and mouse models of obesity. Here, we found that components of the complement cascade, including complement component 1qa (C1QA) and C3 are increased in the brain of Western diet (WD)-fed obese mice, particularly in white matter regions. To functionally test the role of the complement cascade in obesity-induced brain pathology, female and male mice deficient in C1QA, an essential molecule in the activation of the classical pathway of the complement cascade, were fed a WD and compared with WD-fed wild type (WT) mice, and to C1qa knock-out (KO) and WT mice fed a control diet (CD). C1qa KO mice fed a WD became obese but did not show pericyte loss or a decrease in laminin density in the cortex and hippocampus that was observed in obese WT controls. Furthermore, obesity-induced microglia phagocytosis and breakdown of myelin in the corpus callosum were also prevented by deficiency of C1QA. Collectively, these data show that C1QA is necessary for damage to the cerebrovasculature and white matter damage in diet-induced obesity.
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15
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Increased serum levels of complement C1q in major depressive disorder. J Psychosom Res 2020; 133:110105. [PMID: 32272297 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2020.110105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2019] [Revised: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The complement system is involved in multiple biological processes including inflammation, synaptic pruning, and apoptosis. However, it is not well understood whether peripheral complement C1q levels are altered in major depressive disorder (MDD) patients. OBJECTIVE This study aimed at assessing serum levels of complement C1q in MDD patients using a cross-sectional, case-control design. Also, the correlations between complement C1q and inflammation and lipid profile in patients with MDD were also assessed. METHODS Serum complement C1q levels were measured by ADVIA 2400 biochemical analyzer in 160 patients with MDD diagnosed using International Classification of Diseases-10 criteria (ICD-10) and were compared with those of 159 healthy controls between January 2017 to May 2019. Then correlation analysis was carried out between the level of serum complement C1q among MDD patients with inflammation and lipid profile. RESULTS Serum complement C1q levels were higher in MDD patients than in controls (P < .0001) and the difference between the two groups was small (r = 0.239 [0.128 to 0.350]). We found that serum complement C1q concentrations was positively correlated with HAMD-24 score (r = 0.234, P = .003) and log hs-CRP (r = 0.334, P < .001). CONCLUSION We found serum complement C1q levels were significantly higher in MDD patients than in controls. The current results suggest that the dysfunction of complement C1q may be involved in the pathophysiology of MDD.
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16
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Lubbers R, van Schaarenburg RA, Kwekkeboom JC, Levarht EWN, Bakker AM, Mahdad R, Monteagudo S, Cherifi C, Lories RJ, Toes REM, Ioan-Facsinay A, Trouw LA. Complement component C1q is produced by isolated articular chondrocytes. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2020; 28:675-684. [PMID: 31634584 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2019.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/21/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Inflammation and innate immune responses may contribute to development and progression of Osteoarthritis (OA). Chondrocytes are the sole cell type of the articular cartilage and produce extracellular-matrix molecules. How inflammatory mediators reach chondrocytes is incompletely understood. Previous studies have shown that chondrocytes express mRNA encoding complement proteins such as C1q, suggesting local protein production, which has not been demonstrated conclusively. The aim of this study is to explore C1q production at the protein level by chondrocytes. DESIGN We analysed protein expression of C1q in freshly isolated and cultured human articular chondrocytes using Western blot, ELISA and flow cytometry. We examined changes in mRNA expression of collagen, MMP-1 and various complement genes upon stimulation with pro-inflammatory cytokines or C1q. mRNA expression of C1 genes was determined in articular mouse chondrocytes. RESULTS Primary human articular chondrocytes express genes encoding C1q, C1QA, C1QB, C1QC, and secrete C1q to the extracellular medium. Stimulation of chondrocytes with pro-inflammatory cytokines upregulated C1QA, C1QB, C1QC mRNA expression, although this was not confirmed at the protein level. Extracellular C1q bound to the chondrocyte surface dose dependently. In a pilot study, binding of C1q to chondrocytes resulted in changes in the expression of collagens with a decrease in collagen type 2 and an increase in type 10. Mouse articular chondrocytes also expressed C1QA, C1QB, C1QC, C1R and C1S at the mRNA level. CONCLUSIONS C1q protein can be expressed and secreted by human articular chondrocytes and is able to bind to chondrocytes influencing the relative collagen expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Lubbers
- Department of Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands.
| | - R A van Schaarenburg
- Department of Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands; Charles River, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - J C Kwekkeboom
- Department of Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - E W N Levarht
- Department of Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - A M Bakker
- Department of Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - R Mahdad
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Alrijne Hospital, Leiderdorp, the Netherlands
| | - S Monteagudo
- Laboratory of Tissue Homeostasis and Disease, Skeletal Biology and Engineering Research Center, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - C Cherifi
- Laboratory of Tissue Homeostasis and Disease, Skeletal Biology and Engineering Research Center, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - R J Lories
- Laboratory of Tissue Homeostasis and Disease, Skeletal Biology and Engineering Research Center, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Division of Rheumatology, University Hospitals Leuven, Belgium
| | - R E M Toes
- Department of Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - A Ioan-Facsinay
- Department of Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - L A Trouw
- Department of Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands; Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical, Center, Leiden, the Netherlands.
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17
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Kawai S, Kurganov E, Miyata S. Transient increase of microglial C1q expression in the circumventricular organs of adult mouse during LPS-induced inflammation. Cell Biochem Funct 2020; 38:392-400. [PMID: 31904875 DOI: 10.1002/cbf.3477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Revised: 10/14/2019] [Accepted: 12/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The circumventricular organs (CVOs) are the brain regions that lack the blood-brain barrier and allow free entry of blood-derived molecules, offering specialized niche to initiate rapid and early neuroinflammatory responses in the brain. Complement component 1q (C1q) is shown to be the first recognition component of the complement pathway and has a crucial function in the brain under pathological conditions. In the present study, we found that C1q expression in CX3CR1-positive microglia was increased in the CVOs and their neighbouring brain regions of adult mice at 1 day after a single administration of 1 mg/kg lipopolysaccharide (LPS), whereas it returned to control levels at 3 days after LPS stimulation. C1q expression was also seen to localize at synapsin-positive presynaptic axonal terminals in various brain regions. Thus, the present study demonstrates a transient upregulation of microglial C1q expression in the CVOs and their adjacent brain regions, indicating that a transient upregulation of C1q is possibly concerned with physiological responses at early phase of brain inflammation. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY: The circumventricular organs (CVOs) are specialized brain regions that lack the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and initiate neuroinflammatory responses in the brains. The present study showed that the expression of complement protein C1q was highly increased in microglia of the CVOs and their adjacent brain regions. Moreover, C1q expression was observed to localize specifically at presynaptic axonal terminals in the CVOs and their neighbouring brain regions. Thus, the present study indicates that C1q is possibly correlated with physiological responses at early phase of brain inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shintaro Kawai
- Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Erkin Kurganov
- Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Seiji Miyata
- Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan
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18
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Lecca D, Bader M, Tweedie D, Hoffman AF, Jung YJ, Hsueh SC, Hoffer BJ, Becker RE, Pick CG, Lupica CR, Greig NH. (-)-Phenserine and the prevention of pre-programmed cell death and neuroinflammation in mild traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer's disease challenged mice. Neurobiol Dis 2019; 130:104528. [PMID: 31295555 PMCID: PMC6716152 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2019.104528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Revised: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is a risk factor for neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). TBI-derived neuropathologies are promoted by inflammatory processes: chronic microgliosis and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines that further promote neuronal dysfunction and loss. Herein, we evaluated the effect on pre-programmed cell death/neuroinflammation/synaptic integrity and function of (-)-Phenserine tartrate (Phen), an agent originally developed for AD. This was studied at two clinically translatable doses (2.5 and 5.0 mg/kg, BID), in a weight drop (concussive) mTBI model in wild type (WT) and AD APP/PSEN1 transgenic mice. Phen mitigated mTBI-induced cognitive impairment, assessed by Novel Object Recognition and Y-maze behavioral paradigms, in WT mice. Phen fully abated mTBI-induced neurodegeneration, evaluated by counting Fluoro-Jade C-positive (FJC+) cells, in hippocampus and cortex of WT mice. In APP/PSEN1 mice, degenerating cell counts were consistently greater across all experimental groups vs. WT mice. mTBI elevated FJC+ cell counts vs. the APP/PSEN1 control (sham) group, and Phen similarly mitigated this. Anti-inflammatory effects on microglial activation (IBA1-immunoreactivity (IR)) and the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α were evaluated. mTBI increased IBA1-IR and TNF-α/IBA1 colocalization vs. sham, both in WT and APP/PSEN1 mice. Phen decreased IBA1-IR throughout hippocampi and cortices of WT mice, and in cortices of AD mice. Phen, likewise, reduced levels of IBA1/TNF-α-IR colocalization volume across all areas in WT animals, with a similar trend in APP/PSEN1 mice. Actions on astrocyte activation by mTBI were followed by evaluating GFAP, and were similarly mitigated by Phen. Synaptic density was evaluated by quantifying PSD-95+ dendritic spines and Synaptophysin (Syn)-IR. Both were significantly reduced in mTBI vs. sham in both WT and APP/PSEN1 mice. Phen fully reversed the PSD-95+ spine loss in WT and Syn-IR decrease in both WT and APP/PSEN1 mice. To associate immunohistochemical changes in synaptic markers with function, hippocampal long term potentiation (LTP) was induced in WT mice. LTP was impaired by mTBI, and this impairment was mitigated by Phen. In synopsis, clinically translatable doses of Phen ameliorated mTBI-mediated pre-programmed cell death/neuroinflammation/synaptic dysfunction in WT mice, consistent with fully mitigating mTBI-induced cognitive impairments. Phen additionally demonstrated positive actions in the more pathologic brain microenvironment of AD mice, further supporting consideration of its repurposing as a treatment for mTBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Lecca
- Translational Gerontology Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Miaad Bader
- Department of Anatomy and Anthropology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - David Tweedie
- Translational Gerontology Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Alexander F Hoffman
- Electrophysiology Research Section, Cellular Neurobiology Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, 21224 Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Yoo Jin Jung
- Translational Gerontology Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Shin-Chang Hsueh
- Department of Neurosurgery, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Barry J Hoffer
- Department of Neurosurgery, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Robert E Becker
- Translational Gerontology Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA; Aristea Translational Medicine Corporation, Park City, UT 84098, USA
| | - Chaim G Pick
- Department of Anatomy and Anthropology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel; Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 69978, Israel; Center for the Biology of Addictive Diseases, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Carl R Lupica
- Electrophysiology Research Section, Cellular Neurobiology Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, 21224 Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Nigel H Greig
- Translational Gerontology Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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19
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Cho K. Emerging Roles of Complement Protein C1q in Neurodegeneration. Aging Dis 2019; 10:652-663. [PMID: 31165008 PMCID: PMC6538225 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2019.0118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The innate immune system is an ancient and primary component system that rapidly reacts to defend the body against external pathogens. C1 is the initial responder of classical pathway of the innate immune system. C1 is comprised of C1q, C1r, and C1s. Among them, C1q is known to interact with diverse ligands, which can perform various functions in physiological and pathophysiological conditions. Because C1q participates in the clearance of pathogens, its interaction with novel receptors is expected to facilitate apoptosis induction, which could prevent the onset or progression of neurodegenerative diseases and could delay the aging process. Because senescence-associated secreting phenotype determinants are generally inflammatory cytokines or immune factors to activate immune cells. In the central nervous system, C1q has diverse neuroprotective roles against pathogens and inflammation. Most of neurodegenerative diseases show region specific pathology feature in the brain. It has been suggested the evidences that the active site and amount of C1q may be disease specific. This review considers currently the emerging and under-recognized roles of C1q in neurodegeneration and highlights the need for further research to clarify these roles. Future studies on the roles of C1q in regulating disease progression should consider these aspects, including the age-dependent onset time of each neurodegenerative disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyoungjoo Cho
- Department of Life Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon, South Korea
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20
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Wang T, Sun X, Qin W, Zhang X, Wu L, Li Y, Zhou C, Zhou H, He S, Cong H. From inflammatory reactions to neurotransmitter changes: Implications for understanding the neurobehavioral changes in mice chronically infected with Toxoplasma gondii. Behav Brain Res 2018; 359:737-748. [PMID: 30253194 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Revised: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that can cause a latent infection in the central nervous system, leading to neurobehavioral abnormalities in the host. However, the mechanism underlying these changes remains relatively unexplored. In this study, we detected behavioral changes, pathological injury, secretion of neurotransmitters and related signal pathway in mice infected by T. gondii using behavioral test, histopathology, immunofluorescence staining, western blotting, HPLC and real time PCR. Mice showed neurobehavioral disturbances two months after infection with T. gondii. Histopathology revealed the activation of astrocytes and microglia, apoptosis of neurons and decreases in synapses in the brain of infected mice. Excessive secretion of cytokines and chemokines was detected in the brains of mice infected by T. gondii compared to uninfected mice. Furthermore, T. gondii infection led to abnormalities in neurotransmitters and the activation of NF-κB and dopamine (DA) signaling pathways in the infected mice. In conclusion, excessive activation of the inflammation in the brain could induce neuronal apoptosis in mice chronically infected with T. gondii. Dysregulation of the dopaminergic neurotransmitter could provide an explanation of neurobehavioral disorders in infected hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Wang
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Xiahui Sun
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Wen Qin
- University hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Xiaoli Zhang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Leilei Wu
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Yan Li
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Chunxue Zhou
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Huaiyu Zhou
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Shenyi He
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Hua Cong
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China.
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21
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Tenner AJ, Stevens B, Woodruff TM. New tricks for an ancient system: Physiological and pathological roles of complement in the CNS. Mol Immunol 2018; 102:3-13. [PMID: 29958698 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2018.06.264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
While the mechanisms underlying the functions of the complement system in the central nervous system (CNS) and systemically, namely opsonization, chemotaxis, membrane lysis, and regulation of inflammation are the same, the plethora of functions that complement orchestrates in the central nervous system (CNS) is complex. Strictly controlled expression of complement effector molecules, regulators and receptors across the gamut of life stages (embryogenesis, development and maturation, aging and disease) dictate fascinating contributions for this ancient system. Furthermore, it is becoming apparent that complement functions differ widely across distinct brain regions. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the newly identified roles for complement in the brain, including its roles in CNS development and function, during aging and in the processes of neurodegeneration. The diversity and selectively of beneficial and detrimental activities of complement, while challenging, should lead to precision targeting of specific components to provide disease modifying treatments for devastating psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders that are still without effective treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea J Tenner
- Departments of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Neurobiology and Behavior, and Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States.
| | - Beth Stevens
- F.M. Kirby Center for Neurobiology, Boston Children's Hospital, Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States; Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Trent M Woodruff
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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22
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Wilhelmsson U, Andersson D, de Pablo Y, Pekny R, Ståhlberg A, Mulder J, Mitsios N, Hortobágyi T, Pekny M, Pekna M. Injury Leads to the Appearance of Cells with Characteristics of Both Microglia and Astrocytes in Mouse and Human Brain. Cereb Cortex 2018; 27:3360-3377. [PMID: 28398520 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhx069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia and astrocytes have been considered until now as cells with very distinct identities. Here, we assessed the heterogeneity within microglia/monocyte cell population in mouse hippocampus and determined their response to injury, by using single-cell gene expression profiling of cells isolated from uninjured and deafferented hippocampus. We found that in individual cells, microglial markers Cx3cr1, Aif1, Itgam, and Cd68 were co-expressed. Interestingly, injury led to the co-expression of the astrocyte marker Gfap in a subpopulation of Cx3cr1-expressing cells from both the injured and contralesional hippocampus. Cells co-expressing astrocyte and microglia markers were also detected in the in vitro LPS activation/injury model and in sections from human brain affected by stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and Lewy body dementia. Our findings indicate that injury and chronic neurodegeneration lead to the appearance of cells that share molecular characteristics of both microglia and astrocytes, 2 cell types with distinct embryologic origin and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrika Wilhelmsson
- Laboratory of Astrocyte Biology and CNS Regeneration, Center for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Daniel Andersson
- Laboratory of Astrocyte Biology and CNS Regeneration, Center for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Yolanda de Pablo
- Laboratory of Astrocyte Biology and CNS Regeneration, Center for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Roy Pekny
- Laboratory of Astrocyte Biology and CNS Regeneration, Center for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anders Ståhlberg
- Laboratory of Astrocyte Biology and CNS Regeneration, Center for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Jan Mulder
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Nicholas Mitsios
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Tibor Hortobágyi
- Division of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Hungary.,Department of Old Age Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, UK
| | - Milos Pekny
- Laboratory of Astrocyte Biology and CNS Regeneration, Center for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden.,Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Hunter Medical Research Institute, University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Marcela Pekna
- Laboratory of Regenerative Neuroimmunology, Center for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden.,Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Hunter Medical Research Institute, University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
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23
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C1q as an autocrine and paracrine regulator of cellular functions. Mol Immunol 2016; 84:26-33. [PMID: 27914690 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2016.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2016] [Revised: 11/01/2016] [Accepted: 11/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Most of the complement proteins in circulation are, by and large, synthesized in the liver. However data accumulated over the past several decades provide incontrovertible evidence that some if not most of the individual complement proteins are also synthesized extrahepatically by activated as well as non-activated cells. The question that is finally being addressed by various investigators is: are the locally synthesized proteins solely responsible for the myriad of biological functions in situ without the contribution of systemic complement? The answer is probably "yes". Among the proteins that are synthesized locally, C1q takes center stage for several reasons. First, it is synthesized predominantly by potent antigen presenting cells such as monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs), which by itself is a clue that it plays an important role in antigen presentation and/or DC maturation. Second, it is transiently anchored on the cell surface via a transmembrane domain located in its A chain before it is cleaved off and released into the pericellular milieu. The membrane-associated C1q in turn, is able to sense danger patterns via its versatile antigen-capturing globular head domains. More importantly, locally synthesized C1q has been shown to induce a plethora of biological functions through the induction of immunomodulatory molecules by an autocrine- or paracrine- mediated signaling in a manner that mimics those of TNFα. These include recognition of pathogen- and danger- associated molecular patterns, phagocytosis, angiogenesis, apoptosis and induction of cytokines or chemokines that are important in modulating the inflammatory response. The functional convergence between C1q and TNFα in turn is attributed to their shared genetic ancestry. In this paper, we will infer to the aforementioned "local-synthesis-for-local function" paradigm using as an example, the role played by locally synthesized C1q in autoimmunity in general and in systemic lupus erythematosus in particular.
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24
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Agostinis C, Tedesco F, Bulla R. Alternative functions of the complement protein C1q at embryo implantation site. J Reprod Immunol 2016; 119:74-80. [PMID: 27687635 DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2016.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 09/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Complement component C1q is one of the recognition molecules of the complement system which can serve several functions unrelated to complement activation. This molecule is produced at foeto-maternal interface by macrophages as wells as by decidual endothelial cells and invading trophoblast. Foetal trophoblast cells migrating through the decidua in the early stages of pregnancy synthesize and express C1q on their surface, which is actively involved in promoting trophoblast endovascular and interstitial invasion of the decidua. These functions are mediated by two cell surface receptors, gC1qR and α4β1 integrin, which promote trophoblast adhesion and migration through the activation of ERK1/2 MAPKs. C1q-/- mice manifest increased frequency of foetal resorption, reduced foetal weight, and smaller litter size when compared to their wild-type counterparts, suggesting that defective local production of C1q may be involved in pregnancy disorders, such as pre-eclampsia. C1q acts also as a strong angiogenic factor and promotes neovascularization. These studies suggest novel and unexpected roles of this complement component in physiological and pathological pregnancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Agostinis
- Institute for Maternal and Child Health, IRCCS Burlo Garofolo, 34137, Trieste, Italy
| | | | - Roberta Bulla
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127, Trieste, Italy.
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Severance EG, Yolken RH, Eaton WW. Autoimmune diseases, gastrointestinal disorders and the microbiome in schizophrenia: more than a gut feeling. Schizophr Res 2016; 176:23-35. [PMID: 25034760 PMCID: PMC4294997 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2014] [Revised: 06/17/2014] [Accepted: 06/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Autoimmunity, gastrointestinal (GI) disorders and schizophrenia have been associated with one another for a long time. This paper reviews these connections and provides a context by which multiple risk factors for schizophrenia may be related. Epidemiological studies strongly link schizophrenia with autoimmune disorders including enteropathic celiac disease. Exposure to wheat gluten and bovine milk casein also contribute to non-celiac food sensitivities in susceptible individuals. Co-morbid GI inflammation accompanies humoral immunity to food antigens, occurs early during the course of schizophrenia and appears to be independent from antipsychotic-generated motility effects. This inflammation impacts endothelial barrier permeability and can precipitate translocation of gut bacteria into systemic circulation. Infection by the neurotropic gut pathogen, Toxoplasma gondii, will elicit an inflammatory GI environment. Such processes trigger innate immunity, including activation of complement C1q, which also functions at synapses in the brain. The emerging field of microbiome research lies at the center of these interactions with evidence that the abundance and diversity of resident gut microbiota contribute to digestion, inflammation, gut permeability and behavior. Dietary modifications of core bacterial compositions may explain inefficient gluten digestion and how immigrant status in certain situations is a risk factor for schizophrenia. Gut microbiome research in schizophrenia is in its infancy, but data in related fields suggest disease-associated altered phylogenetic compositions. In summary, this review surveys associative and experimental data linking autoimmunity, GI activity and schizophrenia, and proposes that understanding of disrupted biological pathways outside of the brain can lend valuable information regarding pathogeneses of complex, polygenic brain disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily G. Severance
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Blalock 1105, Baltimore, MD 21287-4933 U.S.A
| | - Robert H. Yolken
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Blalock 1105, Baltimore, MD 21287-4933 U.S.A
| | - William W. Eaton
- Department of Mental Health, Bloomberg School of Public Health, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, U.S.A
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Gellner AK, Reis J, Fritsch B. Glia: A Neglected Player in Non-invasive Direct Current Brain Stimulation. Front Cell Neurosci 2016; 10:188. [PMID: 27551261 PMCID: PMC4976108 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2016.00188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-invasive electrical brain stimulation by application of direct current (DCS) promotes plasticity in neuronal networks in vitro and in in vivo. This effect has been mainly attributed to the direct modulation of neurons. Glia represents approximately 50% of cells in the brain. Glial cells are electrically active and participate in synaptic plasticity. Despite of that, effects of DCS on glial structures and on interaction with neurons are only sparsely investigated. In this perspectives article we review the current literature, present own dose response data and provide a framework for future research from two points of view: first, the direct effects of DCS on glia and second, the contribution of glia to DCS related neuronal plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Janine Reis
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Freiburg Freiburg, Germany
| | - Brita Fritsch
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Freiburg Freiburg, Germany
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Association Between Microglia, Inflammatory Factors, and Complement with Loss of Hippocampal Mossy Fiber Synapses Induced by Trimethyltin. Neurotox Res 2016; 30:53-66. [PMID: 26892644 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-016-9606-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Revised: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Complement-associated factors are implicated in pathogen presentation, neurodegeneration, and microglia resolution of tissue injury. To characterize complement activation with microglial clearance of degenerating mossy fiber boutons, hippocampal dentate granule neurons were ablated in CD-1 mice with trimethyltin (TMT; 2.2 mg/kg, i.p.). Neuronal apoptosis was accompanied by amoeboid microglia and elevations in tumor necrosis factor [Tnfa], interleukin 1β [Il1b], and Il6 mRNA and C1q protein. Inos mRNA levels were unaltered. Silver degeneration and synaptophysin staining indicated loss of synaptic innervation to CA3 pyramidal neurons. Reactive microglia with thickened bushy morphology showed co-localization of synaptophysin+ fragments. The initial response at 2 days post-TMT included transient elevations in Tnfa, Il1b, Il6, and Inos mRNA levels. A concurrent increase at 2 days was observed in arginase-1 [Arg1], Il10, transforming growth factor β1 [Tgfb1], and chitinase 3 like-3 [Ym1] mRNA levels. At 2 days, C1q protein was evident in the CA3 with elevated C1qa, C1qb, C3, Cr3a, and Cr3b mRNA levels. mRNA levels remained elevated at 5 days, returning to control by 14 days, corresponding to silver degeneration. mRNA levels for pentraxin3 (Ptx3) were elevated on day 2 and Ptx1 was not altered. Our data suggest an association between microglia reactivity, the induction of anti-inflammatory genes concurrent with pro-inflammatory genes and the expression of complement-associated factors with the degeneration of synapses following apoptotic neuronal loss.
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Kouser L, Madhukaran SP, Shastri A, Saraon A, Ferluga J, Al-Mozaini M, Kishore U. Emerging and Novel Functions of Complement Protein C1q. Front Immunol 2015; 6:317. [PMID: 26175731 PMCID: PMC4484229 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Complement protein C1q, the recognition molecule of the classical pathway, performs a diverse range of complement and non-complement functions. It can bind various ligands derived from self, non-self, and altered self and modulate the functions of immune and non-immune cells including dendritic cells and microglia. C1q involvement in the clearance of apoptotic cells and subsequent B cell tolerance is more established now. Recent evidence appears to suggest that C1q plays an important role in pregnancy where its deficiency and dysregulation can have adverse effects, leading to preeclampsia, missed abortion, miscarriage or spontaneous loss, and various infections. C1q is also produced locally in the central nervous system, and has a protective role against pathogens and possible inflammatory functions while interacting with aggregated proteins leading to neurodegenerative diseases. C1q role in synaptic pruning, and thus CNS development, its anti-cancer effects as an immune surveillance molecule, and possibly in aging are currently areas of extensive research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lubna Kouser
- Centre for Infection, Immunity and Disease Mechanisms, College of Health and Life Sciences, Brunel University London , Uxbridge , UK
| | - Shanmuga Priyaa Madhukaran
- Centre for Infection, Immunity and Disease Mechanisms, College of Health and Life Sciences, Brunel University London , Uxbridge , UK ; Centre for Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jawaharlal Nehru Institute for Advanced Studies, School of Life Sciences , Secunderabad , India
| | - Abhishek Shastri
- St. Ann's Hospital, Dorset Healthcare University NHS Foundation Trust , Poole , UK
| | - Anuvinder Saraon
- Centre for Infection, Immunity and Disease Mechanisms, College of Health and Life Sciences, Brunel University London , Uxbridge , UK
| | - Janez Ferluga
- Centre for Infection, Immunity and Disease Mechanisms, College of Health and Life Sciences, Brunel University London , Uxbridge , UK
| | - Maha Al-Mozaini
- Department of Infection and Immunity, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre , Riyadh , Saudi Arabia
| | - Uday Kishore
- Centre for Infection, Immunity and Disease Mechanisms, College of Health and Life Sciences, Brunel University London , Uxbridge , UK
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Spanos JP, Hsu NJ, Jacobs M. Microglia are crucial regulators of neuro-immunity during central nervous system tuberculosis. Front Cell Neurosci 2015; 9:182. [PMID: 26041993 PMCID: PMC4435040 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) infection of the central nervous system (CNS) is the most devastating manifestation of tuberculosis (TB), with both high mortality and morbidity. Although research has been fueled by the potential therapeutic target microglia offer against neurodegenerative inflammation, their part in TB infection of the CNS has not been fully evaluated nor elucidated. Yet, as both the preferential targets of M. tuberculosis and the immune-effector cells of the CNS, microglia are likely to be key determinants of disease severity and clinical outcomes. Following pathogen recognition, bacilli are internalized and capable of replicating within microglia. Cellular activation ensues, utilizing signaling molecules that may be neurotoxic. Central to initiating, orchestrating and modulating the tuberculous immune response is microglial secretion of cytokines and chemokines. However, the neurological environment is unique in that inflammatory signals, which appear to be damaging in the periphery, could be beneficial by governing neuronal survival, regeneration and differentiation. Furthermore, microglia are important in the recruitment of peripheral immune cells and central to defining the pro-inflammatory milieu of which neurotoxicity may result from many of the participating local or recruited cell types. Microglia are capable of both presenting antigen to infiltrating CD4(+) T-lymphocytes and inducing their differentiation-a possible correlate of protection against M. tuberculosis infection. Clarifying the nature of the immune effector molecules secreted by microglia, and the means by which other CNS-specific cell types govern microglial activation or modulate their responses is critical if improved diagnostic and therapeutic strategies are to be attained. Therefore, this review evaluates the diverse roles microglia play in the neuro-immunity to M. tuberculosis infection of the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Paul Spanos
- Division of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Nai-Jen Hsu
- Division of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Muazzam Jacobs
- Division of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town Cape Town, South Africa ; National Health Laboratory Service Johannesburg, South Africa
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Lee J, Joo EJ, Lim HJ, Park JM, Lee KY, Park A, Seok A, Lee H, Kang HG. Proteomic analysis of serum from patients with major depressive disorder to compare their depressive and remission statuses. Psychiatry Investig 2015; 12:249-59. [PMID: 25866527 PMCID: PMC4390597 DOI: 10.4306/pi.2015.12.2.249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2014] [Revised: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 12/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Currently, there are a few biological markers to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of depression. However, it is not sufficient for diagnosis. We attempted to identify differentially expressed proteins during depressive moods as putative diagnostic biomarkers by using quantitative proteomic analysis of serum. METHODS Blood samples were collected twice from five patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) at depressive status before treatment and at remission status during treatment. Samples were individually analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for protein profiling. Differentially expressed proteins were analyzed by label-free quantification. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) results and receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curves were used to validate the differentially expressed proteins. For validation, 8 patients with MDD including 3 additional patients and 8 matched normal controls were analyzed. RESULTS The quantitative proteomic studies identified 10 proteins that were consistently upregulated or downregulated in 5 MDD patients. ELISA yielded results consistent with the proteomic analysis for 3 proteins. Expression levels were significantly different between normal controls and MDD patients. The 3 proteins were ceruloplasmin, inter-alpha-trypsin inhibitor heavy chain H4 and complement component 1qC, which were upregulated during the depressive status. The depressive status could be distinguished from the euthymic status from the ROC curves for these proteins, and this discrimination was enhanced when all 3 proteins were analyzed together. CONCLUSION This is the first proteomic study in MDD patients to compare intra-individual differences dependent on mood. This technique could be a useful approach to identify MDD biomarkers, but requires additional proteomic studies for validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiyeong Lee
- Department of Senior Healthcare, BK21 Plus Program, Graduate School, Eulji University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Jeong Joo
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, School of Medicine, Eulji University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Joung Lim
- Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, Division of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Moon Park
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyu Young Lee
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, School of Medicine, Eulji University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Arum Park
- Department of Senior Healthcare, BK21 Plus Program, Graduate School, Eulji University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - AeEun Seok
- Department of Senior Healthcare, BK21 Plus Program, Graduate School, Eulji University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - HooKeun Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Gyoo Kang
- Department of Senior Healthcare, BK21 Plus Program, Graduate School, Eulji University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
- Institute for Senior Industry, Eulji University, Seongnam, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, Graduate School of Health Science, Eulji University, Seongnam, Republic of Korea
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Zimmer J, Hobkirk J, Mohamed F, Browning MJ, Stover CM. On the Functional Overlap between Complement and Anti-Microbial Peptides. Front Immunol 2015; 5:689. [PMID: 25646095 PMCID: PMC4298222 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Intriguingly, activated complement and anti-microbial peptides share certain functionalities; lytic, phagocytic, and chemo-attractant activities and each may, in addition, exert cell instructive roles. Each has been shown to have distinct LPS detoxifying activity and may play a role in the development of endotoxin tolerance. In search of the origin of complement, a functional homolog of complement C3 involved in opsonization has been identified in horseshoe crabs. Horseshoe crabs possess anti-microbial peptides able to bind to acyl chains or phosphate groups/saccharides of endotoxin, LPS. Complement activity as a whole is detectable in marine invertebrates. These are also a source of anti-microbial peptides with potential pharmaceutical applicability. Investigating the locality for the production of complement pathway proteins and their role in modulating cellular immune responses are emerging fields. The significance of local synthesis of complement components is becoming clearer from in vivo studies of parenchymatous disease involving specifically generated, complement-deficient mouse lines. Complement C3 is a central component of complement activation. Its provision by cells of the myeloid lineage varies. Their effector functions in turn are increased in the presence of anti-microbial peptides. This may point to a potentiating range of activities, which should serve the maintenance of health but may also cause disease. Because of the therapeutic implications, this review will consider closely studies dealing with complement activation and anti-microbial peptide activity in acute inflammation (e.g., dialysis-related peritonitis, appendicitis, and ischemia).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Zimmer
- Department of Infectious Diseases - Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Ruprecht-Karls-University of Heidelberg , Heidelberg , Germany
| | - James Hobkirk
- Department of Academic Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Hull York Medical School, University of Hull , Hull , UK
| | - Fatima Mohamed
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester , Leicester , UK
| | - Michael J Browning
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester , Leicester , UK ; Department of Immunology, Leicester Royal Infirmary , Leicester , UK
| | - Cordula M Stover
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester , Leicester , UK
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Le Marrec-Croq F, Bocquet-Garcon A, Vizioli J, Vancamp C, Drago F, Franck J, Wisztorski M, Salzet M, Sautiere PE, Lefebvre C. Calreticulin contributes to C1q-dependent recruitment of microglia in the leech Hirudo medicinalis following a CNS injury. Med Sci Monit 2014; 20:644-53. [PMID: 24747831 PMCID: PMC3999160 DOI: 10.12659/msm.890091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The medicinal leech is considered as a complementary and appropriate model to study immune functions in the central nervous system (CNS). In a context in which an injured leech’s CNS can naturally restore normal synaptic connections, the accumulation of microglia (immune cells of the CNS that are exclusively resident in leeches) has been shown to be essential at the lesion to engage the axonal sprouting. HmC1q (Hm for Hirudo medicinalis) possesses chemotactic properties that are important in the microglial cell recruitment by recognizing at least a C1q binding protein (HmC1qBP alias gC1qR). Material/Methods Recombinant forms of C1q were used in affinity purification and in vitro chemotaxis assays. Anti-calreticulin antibodies were used to neutralize C1q-mediated chemotaxis and locate the production of calreticulin in leech CNS. Results A newly characterized leech calreticulin (HmCalR) has been shown to interact with C1q and participate to the HmC1q-dependent microglia accumulation. HmCalR, which has been detected in only some microglial cells, is consequently a second binding protein for HmC1q, allowing the chemoattraction of resident microglia in the nerve repair process. Conclusions These data give new insight into calreticulin/C1q interaction in an immune function of neuroprotection, suggesting another molecular target to use in investigation of microglia reactivity in a model of CNS injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francoise Le Marrec-Croq
- Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse Biologique Fondamentale et Appliquée - EA4550, Université Lille Nord de France, University of Lille 1, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Annelise Bocquet-Garcon
- Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse Biologique Fondamentale et Appliquée - EA4550, Université Lille Nord de France, University of Lille 1, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Jacopo Vizioli
- Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse Biologique Fondamentale et Appliquée - EA4550, Université Lille Nord de France, University of Lille 1, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Christelle Vancamp
- Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse Biologique Fondamentale et Appliquée - EA4550, Université Lille Nord de France, University of Lille 1, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Francesco Drago
- Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse Biologique Fondamentale et Appliquée - EA4550, Université Lille Nord de France, University of Lille 1, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Julien Franck
- Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse Biologique Fondamentale et Appliquée - EA4550, Université Lille Nord de France, University of Lille 1, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Maxence Wisztorski
- Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse Biologique Fondamentale et Appliquée - EA4550, Université Lille Nord de France, University of Lille 1, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Michel Salzet
- Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse Biologique Fondamentale et Appliquée - EA4550, Université Lille Nord de France, University of Lille 1, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Pierre-Eric Sautiere
- Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse Biologique Fondamentale et Appliquée - EA4550, Université Lille Nord de France, University of Lille 1, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Christophe Lefebvre
- Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse Biologique Fondamentale et Appliquée - EA4550, Université Lille Nord de France, University of Lille 1, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
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Kitic M, Hochmeister S, Wimmer I, Bauer J, Misu T, Mader S, Reindl M, Fujihara K, Lassmann H, Bradl M. Intrastriatal injection of interleukin-1 beta triggers the formation of neuromyelitis optica-like lesions in NMO-IgG seropositive rats. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2013; 1:5. [PMID: 24252536 PMCID: PMC3776214 DOI: 10.1186/2051-5960-1-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2013] [Accepted: 03/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neuromyelitis optica (NMO) is a severe, disabling disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by the formation of astrocyte-destructive, neutrophil-dominated inflammatory lesions in the spinal cord and optic nerves. These lesions are initiated by the binding of pathogenic aquaporin 4 (AQP4)-specific autoantibodies to astrocytes and subsequent complement-mediated lysis of these cells. Typically, these lesions form in a setting of CNS inflammation, where the blood-brain barrier is open for the entry of antibodies and complement. However, it remained unclear to which extent pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines contribute to the formation of NMO lesions. To specifically address this question, we injected the cytokines interleukin-1 beta, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-6, interferon gamma and the chemokine CXCL2 into the striatum of NMO-IgG seropositive rats and analyzed the tissue 24 hours later by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS All injected cytokines and chemokines led to profound leakage of immunoglobulins into the injected hemisphere, but only interleukin-1 beta induced the formation of perivascular, neutrophil-infiltrated lesions with AQP4 loss and complement-mediated astrocyte destruction distant from the needle tract. Treatment of rat brain endothelial cells with interleukin-1 beta, but not with any other cytokine or chemokine applied at the same concentration and over the same period of time, caused profound upregulation of granulocyte-recruiting and supporting molecules. Injection of interleukin-1 beta caused higher numbers of blood vessels with perivascular, cellular C1q reactivity than any other cytokine tested. Finally, the screening of a large sample of CNS lesions from NMO and multiple sclerosis patients revealed large numbers of interleukin-1 beta-reactive macrophages/activated microglial cells in active NMO lesions but not in MS lesions with comparable lesion activity and location. CONCLUSIONS Our data strongly suggest that interleukin-1 beta released in NMO lesions and interleukin-1 beta-induced production/accumulation of complement factors (like C1q) facilitate neutrophil entry and BBB breakdown in the vicinity of NMO lesions, and might thus be an important secondary factor for lesion formation, possibly by paving the ground for rapid lesion growth and amplified immune cell recruitment to this site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja Kitic
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Medical University Vienna, Center for Brain Research, Spitalgasse 4, Vienna, A-1090, Austria
| | | | - Isabella Wimmer
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Medical University Vienna, Center for Brain Research, Spitalgasse 4, Vienna, A-1090, Austria
| | - Jan Bauer
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Medical University Vienna, Center for Brain Research, Spitalgasse 4, Vienna, A-1090, Austria
| | - Tatsuro Misu
- Departments of Multiple Sclerosis Therapeutics and Neurology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1 Seiryomachi,Aobaku, Sendai, 980-8574, Japan
| | - Simone Mader
- Clinical Department of Neurology, Innsbruck Medical University, Anich0strasse 35, Innsbruck, A-6020, Austria
| | - Markus Reindl
- Clinical Department of Neurology, Innsbruck Medical University, Anich0strasse 35, Innsbruck, A-6020, Austria
| | - Kazuo Fujihara
- Department of Neurology, Medical University Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Hans Lassmann
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Medical University Vienna, Center for Brain Research, Spitalgasse 4, Vienna, A-1090, Austria
| | - Monika Bradl
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Medical University Vienna, Center for Brain Research, Spitalgasse 4, Vienna, A-1090, Austria
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van Oeveren W. Obstacles in haemocompatibility testing. SCIENTIFICA 2013; 2013:392584. [PMID: 24278774 PMCID: PMC3820147 DOI: 10.1155/2013/392584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2013] [Accepted: 04/03/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
ISO 10993-4 is an international standard describing the methods of testing of medical devices for interactions with blood for regulatory purpose. The complexity of blood responses to biomaterial surfaces and the variability of blood functions in different individuals and species pose difficulties in standardisation. Moreover, in vivo or in vitro testing, as well as the clinical relevance of certain findings, is still matter of debate. This review deals with the major remaining problems, including a brief explanation of surface interactions with blood, the current ISO 10993 requirements for testing, and the role of in vitro test models. The literature is reviewed on anticoagulation, shear rate, blood-air interfaces, incubation time, and the importance of evaluation of the surface area after blood contact. Two test categories deserve further attention: complement and platelet function, including the effects on platelets from adhesion proteins, venipuncture, and animal derived- blood. The material properties, hydrophilicity, and roughness, as well as reference materials, are discussed. Finally this review calls for completing the acceptance criteria in the ISO standard based on a panel of test results.
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Affiliation(s)
- W. van Oeveren
- HaemoScan and Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, UMCG Groningen, The Netherlands
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Lin Y, Wen L. Inflammatory response following diffuse axonal injury. Int J Med Sci 2013; 10:515-21. [PMID: 23532682 PMCID: PMC3607236 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.5423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2012] [Accepted: 03/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
DAI is a leading cause of the patient's death or lasting vegetable state following severe TBI, and up to now the detailed mechanism of axonal injury after head trauma is still unclear. Inflammatory responses have been proved to be an important mechanism of neural injury after TBI. However, most of these studies are concerned with focal cerebral injury following head trauma. In contrast to focal injury, studies on the inflammatory reaction following DAI are only beginning. And in this article, we aimed to review such studies. From the studies reviewed, immune response cells would become reactive around the sites of axonal injury after DAI. Besides, the concentrations of several important inflammatory factors, such as IL-1 family, IL-6 and TNF-ɑ, increased after DAI as well, which implies the participation of inflammatory responses. It can be concluded that inflammatory responses probably participate in the neural injury in DAI, but at present the study of inflammatory responses following DAI is still limited and the clear effects of inflammatory response on axonal injury remain to be more explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Lin
- School of Medicine, Zhejiang University City College, China
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Abstract
Multiorgan failure (MOF) represents the leading cause of death in patients with sepsis and systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) following severe trauma. The underlying immune response is highly complex and involves activation of the complement system as a crucial entity of innate immunity. Uncontrolled activation of the complement system during sepsis and SIRS with in excessive generation of complement activation products contributes to an ensuing dysfunction of various organ systems. In the present review, mechanisms of the inflammatory response in the development of MOF in sepsis and SIRS with particular focus on the complement system are discussed.
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Rangroo Thrane V, Thrane AS, Chang J, Alleluia V, Nagelhus EA, Nedergaard M. Real-time analysis of microglial activation and motility in hepatic and hyperammonemic encephalopathy. Neuroscience 2012; 220:247-55. [PMID: 22728097 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2012] [Revised: 06/05/2012] [Accepted: 06/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a potentially fatal complication of acute liver failure, associated with severe neurological dysfunction and coma. The brain's innate immune cells, microglia, have recently been implicated in the pathophysiology of HE. To date, however, only ex vivo studies have been used to characterize microglial involvement. Our study uses in vivo two-photon imaging of awake-behaving mice expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) under the Cx3cr1 promoter to examine microglial involvement in two different models of encephalopathy - a slower, fatal model of azoxymethane-induced HE and a rapid, reversible acute hyperammonemic encephalopathy (AHE) induced by an ammonia load. To investigate the potential contribution of microglia to the neurological deterioration seen in these two models, we developed a software to analyze microglial activation and motility in vivo. In HE, we found that microglia do not become activated prior to the onset of neurological dysfunction, but undergo activation with mildly impaired motility during the terminal stage IV. We demonstrate that this microglial activation coincides with blood-brain barrier (BBB) opening and brain edema. Conversely, both microglial activation and motility are unchanged during AHE, despite the mice developing pathologically increased plasma ammonia and severe neurological dysfunction. Our study indicates that microglial activation does not contribute to the early neurological deterioration observed in either HE or AHE. The late microglial activation in HE may therefore be associated with terminal BBB opening and brain edema, thus exacerbating the progression to coma and increasing mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Rangroo Thrane
- Division of Glia Disease and Therapeutics, Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
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Tahtouh M, Garçon-Bocquet A, Croq F, Vizioli J, Sautière PE, Van Camp C, Salzet M, Nagnan-le Meillour P, Pestel J, Lefebvre C. Interaction of HmC1q with leech microglial cells: involvement of C1qBP-related molecule in the induction of cell chemotaxis. J Neuroinflammation 2012; 9:37. [PMID: 22356764 PMCID: PMC3298539 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-9-37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2011] [Accepted: 02/22/2012] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Background In invertebrates, the medicinal leech is considered to be an interesting and appropriate model to study neuroimmune mechanisms. Indeed, this non-vertebrate animal can restore normal function of its central nervous system (CNS) after injury. Microglia accumulation at the damage site has been shown to be required for axon sprouting and for efficient regeneration. We characterized HmC1q as a novel chemotactic factor for leech microglial cell recruitment. In mammals, a C1q-binding protein (C1qBP alias gC1qR), which interacts with the globular head of C1q, has been reported to participate in C1q-mediated chemotaxis of blood immune cells. In this study, we evaluated the chemotactic activities of a recombinant form of HmC1q and its interaction with a newly characterized leech C1qBP that acts as its potential ligand. Methods Recombinant HmC1q (rHmC1q) was produced in the yeast Pichia pastoris. Chemotaxis assays were performed to investigate rHmC1q-dependent microglia migration. The involvement of a C1qBP-related molecule in this chemotaxis mechanism was assessed by flow cytometry and with affinity purification experiments. The cellular localization of C1qBP mRNA and protein in leech was investigated using immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization techniques. Results rHmC1q-stimulated microglia migrate in a dose-dependent manner. This rHmC1q-induced chemotaxis was reduced when cells were preincubated with either anti-HmC1q or anti-human C1qBP antibodies. A C1qBP-related molecule was characterized in leech microglia. Conclusions A previous study showed that recruitment of microglia is observed after HmC1q release at the cut end of axons. Here, we demonstrate that rHmC1q-dependent chemotaxis might be driven via a HmC1q-binding protein located on the microglial cell surface. Taken together, these results highlight the importance of the interaction between C1q and C1qBP in microglial activation leading to nerve repair in the medicinal leech.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muriel Tahtouh
- Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse Biologique Fondamentale et Appliquée - EA4550, Microglial activation group, Université Lille Nord de France, Université Lille 1, IFR 147, bâtiment SN3, 59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
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Morimoto SI, Ito M, Oda S, Sugiyama A, Kuroda M, Adachi-Akahane S. Spinal Mechanism Underlying the Antiallodynic Effect of Gabapentin Studied in the Mouse Spinal Nerve Ligation Model. J Pharmacol Sci 2012; 118:455-66. [DOI: 10.1254/jphs.11102fp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
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Ghebrehiwet B, Hosszu KK, Valentino A, Peerschke EIB. The C1q family of proteins: insights into the emerging non-traditional functions. Front Immunol 2012; 3. [PMID: 22536204 PMCID: PMC3334295 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Research conducted over the past 20 years have helped us unravel not only the hidden structural and functional subtleties of human C1q, but also has catapulted the molecule from a mere recognition unit of the classical pathway to a well-recognized molecular sensor of damage-modified self or non-self antigens. Thus, C1q is involved in a rapidly expanding list of pathological disorders – including autoimmunity, trophoblast migration, preeclampsia, and cancer. The results of two recent reports are provided to underscore the critical role C1q plays in health and disease. First is the observation by Singh et al. (2011) showing that pregnant C1q−/− mice recapitulate the key features of human preeclampsia that correlate with increased fetal death. Treatment of the C1q−/− mice with pravastatin restored trophoblast invasiveness, placental blood flow, and angiogenic balance and, thus, prevented the onset of preeclampsia. Second is the report by Hong et al. (2009) which showed that C1q can induce apoptosis of prostate cancer cells by activating the tumor suppressor molecule WW-domain containing oxydoreductase (WWOX or WOX1) and destabilizing cell adhesion. Downregulation of C1q on the other hand, enhanced prostate hyperplasia and cancer formation due to failure of WOX1 activation. C1q belongs to a family of structurally and functionally related TNF-α-like family of proteins that may have arisen from a common ancestral gene. Therefore C1q not only shares the diverse functions with the tumor necrosis factor family of proteins, but also explains why C1q has retained some of its ancestral “cytokine-like” activities. This review is intended to highlight some of the structural and functional aspects of C1q by underscoring the growing list of its non-traditional functions.
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Tsai SY, Rothman RK, Su TP. Insights into the Sigma-1 receptor chaperone's cellular functions: a microarray report. Synapse 2012; 66:42-51. [PMID: 21905129 PMCID: PMC3705961 DOI: 10.1002/syn.20984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2011] [Accepted: 08/24/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
We previously demonstrated that Sig-1Rs are critical regulators in neuronal morphogenesis and development via the regulation of oxidative stress and mitochondrial functions. In the present study, we sought to identify pathways and genes that are affected by Sig-1R. Gene expression profiles were examined in rat hippocampal neurons that had been cultured for 18 days in vitro (DIV). The cells were transduced with AAV siRNA targeting Sig-1R on DIV 10 for 7 days, followed by gene expression analysis using a rat genome cDNA array. The gene array results indicated that Sig-1R knockdown hampered cellular functions including steroid biogenesis, protein ubiquitination, actin cytoskeleton network, and Nrf-2 mediated oxidative stress. Many of the cellular components important for actin polymerization and synapse plasticity, including F-actin capping protein and neurofilaments, were significantly changed in AAV-siSig-1R neurons. Further, cytochrome c was reduced in AAV-Sig-1R neurons whereas free-radical generating enzymes including cytochrome p450 and cytochrome b-245 were increased. The microarray results also suggest that Sig-1Rs may regulate genes that are involved in the pathogenesis of many CNS diseases including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. These data further confirmed that Sig-1Rs play critical roles in the CNS and thus these findings may aid in future development of therapeutic treatments targeting neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shang-Yi Tsai
- Cellular Pathobiology Section, Integrative Neuroscience Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, DHHS, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA
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Abstract
Pneumococcal meningitis continues to be associated with high rates of mortality and long-term neurological sequelae. The most common route of infection starts by nasopharyngeal colonization by Streptococcus pneumoniae, which must avoid mucosal entrapment and evade the host immune system after local activation. During invasive disease, pneumococcal epithelial adhesion is followed by bloodstream invasion and activation of the complement and coagulation systems. The release of inflammatory mediators facilitates pneumococcal crossing of the blood-brain barrier into the brain, where the bacteria multiply freely and trigger activation of circulating antigen-presenting cells and resident microglial cells. The resulting massive inflammation leads to further neutrophil recruitment and inflammation, resulting in the well-known features of bacterial meningitis, including cerebrospinal fluid pleocytosis, cochlear damage, cerebral edema, hydrocephalus, and cerebrovascular complications. Experimental animal models continue to further our understanding of the pathophysiology of pneumococcal meningitis and provide the platform for the development of new adjuvant treatments and antimicrobial therapy. This review discusses the most recent views on the pathophysiology of pneumococcal meningitis, as well as potential targets for (adjunctive) therapy.
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Depboylu C, Schorlemmer K, Klietz M, Oertel WH, Weihe E, Höglinger GU, Schäfer MKH. Upregulation of microglial C1q expression has no effects on nigrostriatal dopaminergic injury in the MPTP mouse model of Parkinson disease. J Neuroimmunol 2011; 236:39-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2011.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2011] [Revised: 05/09/2011] [Accepted: 05/11/2011] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Larochelle C, Alvarez JI, Prat A. How do immune cells overcome the blood-brain barrier in multiple sclerosis? FEBS Lett 2011; 585:3770-80. [PMID: 21550344 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2011.04.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 260] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2011] [Revised: 04/26/2011] [Accepted: 04/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) restricts the movement of soluble mediators and leukocytes from the periphery to the central nervous system (CNS). Leukocyte entry into the CNS is nonetheless an early event in multiple sclerosis (MS), an inflammatory disorder of the CNS. Whether BBB dysfunction precedes immune cell infiltration or is the consequence of perivascular leukocyte accumulation remains enigmatic, but leukocyte migration modifies BBB permeability. Immune cells of MS subjects express inflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and enzymes that can facilitate their migration to the CNS by influencing BBB function, either directly or indirectly. In this review, we describe how immune cells from the peripheral blood overcome the BBB and promote CNS inflammation in MS through BBB disruption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Larochelle
- Neuroimmunology Research Laboratory, Center of Excellence in Neuromics, CRCHUM, Notre-Dame Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
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Wisor JP, Schmidt MA, Clegern WC. Cerebral microglia mediate sleep/wake and neuroinflammatory effects of methamphetamine. Brain Behav Immun 2011; 25:767-76. [PMID: 21333736 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2011.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2010] [Revised: 01/27/2011] [Accepted: 02/04/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Methamphetamine and modafinil exert their wake-promoting effects by elevating monoaminergic tone. The severity of hypersomnolence that occurs subsequent to induced wakefulness differs between these two agents. Microglia detects and modulates CNS reactions to agents such as D-methamphetamine that induce cellular stress. We therefore hypothesized that changes in the sleep/wake cycle that occur subsequent to administration of D-methamphetamine are modulated by cerebral microglia. In CD11b-herpes thymidine kinase transgenic mice (CD11b-TK(mt-30)), activation of the inducible transgene by intracerebroventricular (icv) ganciclovir results in toxicity to CD11b-positive cells (i.e. microglia), thereby reducing cerebral microglial cell counts. CD11b-TK(mt-30)and wild type mice were subjected to chronic icv ganciclovir or vehicle administration with subcutaneous mini-osmotic pumps. D-methamphetamine (1 and 2 mg/kg), modafinil (30 and 100 mg/kg) and vehicle were administered intraperitoneally to these animals. In CD11b-TK(mt-30) mice, but not wild type, icv infusion of ganciclovir reduced the duration of wake produced by D-methamphetamine at 2 mg/kg by nearly 1h. Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity, studied ex vivo, and NOS expression were elevated in CD11b-positive cerebral microglia from wild type mice acutely exposed to d-methamphetamine. Additionally, CD11b-positive microglia, but not other cerebral cell populations, exhibited changes in sleep-regulatory cytokine expression in response to d-METH. Finally, CD11b-positive microglia exposed to d-methamphetamine in vitro exhibited increased NOS activity relative to pharmacologically-naïve cells. CD11b-positive microglia from the brains of neuronal NOS (nNOS)-knockout mice failed to exhibit this effect. We propose that the effects of D-METH on sleep/wake cycles are mediated in part by actions on microglia, including possibly nNOS activity and cytokine synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan P Wisor
- Department of Veterinary Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology and Physiology, WWAMI Medical Education Program, Washington State University, Spokane, WA 99202, USA.
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Possible involvement of complement factor C1q in the clearance of extracellular neuromelanin from the substantia nigra in Parkinson disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2011; 70:125-32. [PMID: 21343881 DOI: 10.1097/nen.0b013e31820805b9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Activation of the complement system promotes the removal of pathogens and tissue damage products from the brain and may also be involved in neuronal cell death in neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we analyzed the expression of C1q, the initial recognition subcomponent of the classic complement cascade, in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) in Parkinson disease (PD) and control cases using immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. Microglia were determined to be the only cells that expressed C1q in the SNc and other brain areas. In the SNc of PD cases, there was increased deposition of extracellular neuromelanin in the parenchyma, resulting from degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. Neuromelanin granules and blebs of degenerated neurons seemed to be opsonized by C1q and phagocytosed by C1q-positive microglia and macrophages in the parenchyma and in the perivascular spaces. Neuromelanin-laden C1q-positive cells were also attached to the luminal surfaces of blood vessels in the SNc in PD. Thus, we present evidence suggesting that microglia are capable of phagocytosing and clearing cellular debris of degenerating neurons from the SNc through a C1q-mediated pathway in PD.
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Kraft AD, Kaltenbach LS, Lo DC, Harry GJ. Activated microglia proliferate at neurites of mutant huntingtin-expressing neurons. Neurobiol Aging 2011; 33:621.e17-33. [PMID: 21482444 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2011.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2010] [Revised: 02/01/2011] [Accepted: 02/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
In Huntington's disease (HD), mutated huntingtin (mhtt) causes striatal neurodegeneration which is paralleled by elevated microglia cell numbers. In vitro corticostriatal slice and primary neuronal culture models, in which neuronal expression of mhtt fragments drives HD-like neurotoxicity, were employed to examine wild type microglia during both the initiation and progression of neuronal pathology. As neuronal pathology progressed, microglia initially localized in the vicinity of neurons expressing mhtt fragments increased in number, demonstrated morphological evidence of activation, and expressed the proliferation marker, Ki67. These microglia were positioned along irregular neurites, but did not localize with mhtt inclusions nor exacerbate mhtt fragment-induced neurotoxicity. Prior to neuronal pathology, microglia upregulated ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba1), signaling a functional shift. With neurodegeneration, interleukin-6 and complement component 1q were increased. The results suggest a stimulatory, proliferative signal for microglia present at the onset of mhtt fragment-induced neurodegeneration. Thus, microglia effect a localized inflammatory response to neuronal mhtt expression that may serve to direct microglial removal of dysfunctional neurites or aberrant synapses, as is required for reparative actions in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Kraft
- Neurotoxicology Group, Laboratory of Toxicology and Pharmacology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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Brown AM, Skamarauskas J, Lister T, Madjd A, Ray DE. Differential susceptibility of astrocytic and neuronal function to 3-chloropropanediol in the rat inferior colliculus. J Neurochem 2011; 116:996-1004. [PMID: 21155803 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.07138.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that systemic administration of S(+)3-chloropropanediol (3-CPD) produces a morphological loss of astrocytes in specific nuclei of the rodent brain that precedes loss of both neurones and endothelial tight junctions. Here, we have evaluated the differential susceptibility of neuronal and astrocytic function to 3-CPD, in order to see if this parallels the morphological selectivity. To do this, we have developed an in vivo method for monitoring astrocyte function over time by giving hourly 20-min bolus challenge exposures to ammonia via an implanted microdialysis probe and measuring the resulting transient increases in the extracellular glutamine : glutamate ratio. These challenge ammonia exposures evoked a stable response for at least 5 h when the probe was implanted in the rat inferior colliculus, but caused no behavioural response or morphological damage. Although 3-CPD produced a rapid and sustained abolition of the ammonia response within 2 h, the field potential response of inferior collicular neurones to sound fell significantly to 75.0 ± 3.9% pre-dose at up to 8 h but then fell markedly, reaching 20.5 ± 3.7% at 2 days. Blood flow in the inferior colliculus also showed only late changes, increasing substantially at 2 days. Astrocyte damage at the EM level was seen from 3 h, followed by loss of astrocytes from 18 h to a minimum of 7 ± 10% control at 3 days. The rapid abolition of the ammonia response suggests that in addition to selective astrocyte death, 3-CPD also produces an earlier impairment of astrocyte function that precedes loss of neuronal function. This initial functional selectivity of 3-CPD provides a potential investigative tool in neurochemical studies of astrocyte-neuronal interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angus M Brown
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Queens Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK.
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Bellander BM, Olafsson IH, Ghatan PH, Bro Skejo HP, Hansson LO, Wanecek M, Svensson MA. Secondary insults following traumatic brain injury enhance complement activation in the human brain and release of the tissue damage marker S100B. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2011; 153:90-100. [PMID: 20686797 PMCID: PMC3015189 DOI: 10.1007/s00701-010-0737-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2010] [Accepted: 07/05/2010] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Object Complement activation has been suggested to play a role in the development of secondary injuries following traumatic brain injury (TBI). The present study was initiated in order to analyze complement activation in relation to the primary brain injury and to secondary insults, frequently occurring following TBI. Methods Twenty patients suffering from severe TBI (Glasgow coma score ≤8) were included in the study. The “membrane attack complex,” C5b9, which is the cytolytic end product of the complement system was analyzed in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The degree of brain tissue damage was assessed using the release of S100B and neuron-specific enolase (NSE) to the CSF and blood. The blood–brain barrier was assessed using the CSF/serum quotient of albumin (QA). Results Following impact, initial peaks (0–48 h) of C5b9, S100B, and NSE with a concomitant loss of integrity of the blood–brain barrier were observed. Secondary insults at the intensive care unit were monitored. Severe secondary insults were paralleled by a more pronounced complement activation (C5b9 in CSF) as well as increased levels of S100B (measured in CSF), but not with NSE. Conclusion This human study indicates that complement activation in the brain is triggered not only by the impact of trauma per se but also by the amount of secondary insults that frequently occur at the scene of accident as well as during treatment in the neurointensive care unit. Complement activation and in particular the end product C5b9 may in turn contribute to additional secondary brain injuries by its membrane destructive properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo-Michael Bellander
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Section for Neurosurgery, Karolinska University Hospital Solna, S-171 76 Stockholm, Sweden.
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Röhn TA, Ralvenius WT, Paul J, Borter P, Hernandez M, Witschi R, Grest P, Zeilhofer HU, Bachmann MF, Jennings GT. A Virus-Like Particle-Based Anti-Nerve Growth Factor Vaccine Reduces Inflammatory Hyperalgesia: Potential Long-Term Therapy for Chronic Pain. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 186:1769-80. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1000030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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