Transfer of maternal psychosocial stress to the fetus

Associations of couples' balanced time perspective with maternal prenatal hair cortisol concentration and perceived stress

OBJECTIVE

The stress experienced by a woman during pregnancy not only has a negative impact on her well-being and physical health but also adversely affects the fetus. Stress is strongly linked with time perspective, defined as the tendency to focus on the past, present, or future. The study aimed to investigate how couples' balanced time perspective was related to maternal prenatal hair cortisol concentration and perceived stress in the first and third trimesters of pregnancy.

METHOD

The participants were pregnant women and their male partners (84 couples). Women completed online questionnaires: the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI), the Dark Future Scale (DFS), and the Perceived Stress Scale, while men completed online versions of the ZTPI and the DFS. These questionnaire measurements were conducted in the first and third trimesters. Maternal cortisol levels were measured in hair samples taken during gynecological visits, in the first and third trimesters.

RESULTS

The study revealed that the more unbalanced the partner's time perspective, the more unbalanced the pregnant woman's time perspective and, consequently, the higher the stress perceived by the pregnant woman. This effect was present in both the first (B = 1.06, SE =.36, p <.001, 95 % CI [.398, 1.826]) and the third trimesters (B =.98, SE =.36, p <.001, 95 % CI [.327, 1.774]). Moreover, the more unbalanced the partner's time perspective, the more unbalanced the woman's time perspective and, consequently, the lower the hair cortisol concentration in the first trimester (B = -.08, SE =.04, p <.05, 95 % CI [-.171, -.010]). Partner's unbalanced time perspective in the first trimester was also a predictor of stress perceived by the woman in the third trimester (t = 2.38, p <.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest the significance of the partner's time perspective for the pregnant woman's mental health. The partner's unbalanced, negative time perspective in the first trimester may increase the pregnant woman's stress in the third trimester. This effect can be even stronger than that of the woman's time perspective.

Perinatal meaning-making and meaning-focused coping in the COVID-19 pandemic

INTRODUCTION

The COVID-19 pandemic caused unprecedented levels of stress amongst pregnant women and new mothers. The current qualitative study explored the ways in which perinatal women made meaning of their experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

Data came from a parent study in which 54 perinatal (pregnant and postpartum) women in the United States completed semi-structured interviews from October 2021 to January 2022 describing their experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. The data was interpreted using a hermeneutic, phenomenological approach to delve deeply into the concept of meaning-making.

RESULTS

Despite high levels of stress and challenging circumstances, participants reported engaging in meaning-making through finding connection, focusing on gratitude, and identifying openings for change. Unique forms of meaning-making amongst this population include a sense of connection to women throughout history, connection to their baby, and recognition of the need for systemic change for perinatal women.

CONCLUSIONS

Perinatal women coped with the stress of the COVID-19 pandemic by making meaning from their experiences. Future research should further explore the importance of these aspects of meaning-making to perinatal women and implement these findings to adapt prevention and treatment approaches to address perinatal stress, especially during times of crisis.

Prenatal stress impacts foetal neurodevelopment: Temporal windows of gestational vulnerability

Prenatal maternal stressors ranging in severity from everyday occurrences/hassles to the experience of traumatic events negatively impact neurodevelopment, increasing the risk for the onset of psychopathology in the offspring. Notably, the timing of prenatal stress exposure plays a critical role in determining the nature and severity of subsequent neurodevelopmental outcomes. In this review, we evaluate the empirical evidence regarding temporal windows of heightened vulnerability to prenatal stress with respect to motor, cognitive, language, and behavioural development in both human and animal studies. We also explore potential temporal windows whereby several mechanisms may mediate prenatal stress-induced neurodevelopmental effects, namely, excessive hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity, altered serotonin signalling and sympathetic-adrenal-medullary system, changes in placental function, immune system dysregulation, and alterations of the gut microbiota. While broadly defined developmental windows are apparent for specific psychopathological outcomes, inconsistencies arise when more complex cognitive and behavioural outcomes are considered. Novel approaches to track molecular markers reflective of the underlying aetiologies throughout gestation to identify tractable biomolecular signatures corresponding to critical vulnerability periods are urgently required.

Inadequate linear catch-up growth in children born small for gestational age: Influencing factors and underlying mechanisms

A minority of children born small for gestational age (SGA) may experience catch-up growth failure and remain short in adulthood. However, the underlying causes and mechanisms of this phenomenon are not yet fully comprehended. We reviewed the present state of research concerning the growth hormone-insulin-like growth factor axis and growth plate in SGA children who fail to achieve catch-up growth. Additionally, we explored the factors influencing catch-up growth in SGA children and potential molecular mechanisms involved. Furthermore, we considered the potential benefits of supplementary nutrition, specific dietary patterns, probiotics and drug therapy in facilitating catch-up growth.

Association between prenatal glucocorticoid exposure and adolescent neurodevelopment: An observational follow-up study

INTRODUCTION

Prenatal exposure to supraphysiological glucocorticoid (GC) levels may lead to long-lasting developmental changes in numerous biological systems. Our prior study identified an association between prenatal GC prophylaxis and reduced cognitive performance, electrocortical changes, and altered autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity in children aged 8-9 years. This follow-up study aimed to examine whether these findings persisted into adolescence.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Prospective observational follow-up study involving twenty-one 14- to 15-year-old adolescents born to mothers who received betamethasone for induction of fetal lung maturation in threatened preterm birth, but who were born with a normal weight appropriate for their gestational age (median 37+4 gestational weeks). Thirty-five children not exposed to betamethasone served as the reference group (median 37+6 gestational weeks). The primary endpoint was cognitive performance, measured by intelligence quotient (IQ). Key secondary endpoints included symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and metabolic markers. Additionally, we determined electrocortical (electroencephalogram), hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPAA), and ANS activity in response to a standardized stress paradigm.

RESULTS

No statistically significant group difference was observed in global IQ (adjusted mean: betamethasone 103.9 vs references 105.9, mean difference -2.0, 95% confidence interval [CI]: -7.12 to 3.12, p = 0.44). Similarly, ADHD symptoms, metabolic markers, the overall and stress-induced activity of the HPAA and the ANS did not differ significantly between groups. However, the betamethasone group exhibited reduced electrocortical activity in the frontal brain region (spectral edge frequency-adjusted means: 16.0 Hz vs 17.8 Hz, mean difference -1.83 Hz, 95% CI: -3.21 to -0.45, p = 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

In 14- to 15-year-old adolescents, prenatal GC exposure was not associated with differences in IQ scores or ANS activity compared to unexposed controls. However, decelerated electrocortical activity in the frontal region potentially reflects disturbances in the maturation of cortical and/or subcortical brain structures. The clinical significance of these changes remains unknown. Given the small sample size, selective participation/loss of follow-up and potential residual confounding, these findings should be interpreted cautiously. Further research is required to replicate these results in larger cohorts before drawing firm clinical conclusions.

Greater Neighborhood Disadvantage Is Associated with Alterations in Fetal Functional Brain Network Structure

OBJECTIVE

To determine the association between neighborhood disadvantage (ND) and functional brain development of in utero fetuses.

STUDY DESIGN

We conducted an observational study using Social Vulnerability Index (SVI) scores to assess the impact of ND on a prospectively recruited sample of healthy pregnant women from Washington, DC. Using 79 functional magnetic resonance imaging scans from 68 healthy pregnancies at a mean gestational age of 33.12 weeks, we characterized the overall functional brain network structure using a graph metric approach. We used linear mixed effects models to assess the relationship between SVI and gestational age on 5 graph metrics, adjusting for multiple scans.

RESULTS

Exposure to greater ND was associated with less well integrated functional brain networks, as observed by longer characteristic path lengths and diminished global efficiency (GE), as well as diminished small world propensity (SWP). Across gestational ages, however, the association between SVI and network integration diminished to a negligible relationship in the third trimester. Conversely, SWP was significant across pregnancy, but the relationship changed such that there was a negative association with SWP earlier in the second trimester that inverted around the transition to the third trimester to a positive association.

CONCLUSIONS

These data directly connect ND and altered functional brain maturation in fetuses. Our results suggest that, even before birth, proximity to environmental stressors in the wider neighborhood environment are associated with altered brain development.

A Review of Fetal Development in Pregnancies with Maternal Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM)-Associated Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis Dysregulation: Possible Links to Pregestational Prediabetes

Research has identified fetal risk factors for adult diseases, forming the basis for the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) hypothesis. DOHaD suggests that maternal insults during pregnancy cause structural and functional changes in fetal organs, increasing the risk of chronic diseases like type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in adulthood. It is proposed that altered maternal physiology, such as increased glucocorticoid (GC) levels associated with a dysregulated hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in maternal stress and T2DM during pregnancy, exposes the fetus to excess GC. Prenatal glucocorticoid exposure reduces fetal growth and programs the fetal HPA axis, permanently altering its activity into adulthood. This programmed HPA axis is linked to increased risks of hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and mental disorders in adulthood. With the global rise in T2DM, particularly among young adults of reproductive age, it is crucial to prevent its onset. T2DM is often preceded by a prediabetic state, a condition that does not show any symptoms, causing many to unknowingly progress to T2DM. Studying prediabetes is essential, as it is a reversible stage that may help prevent T2DM-related pregnancy complications. The existing literature focuses on HPA axis dysregulation in T2DM pregnancies and its link to fetal programming. However, the effects of prediabetes on HPA axis function, specifically glucocorticoid in pregnancy and fetal outcomes, are not well understood. This review consolidates research on T2DM during pregnancy, its impact on fetal programming via the HPA axis, and possible links with pregestational prediabetes.

Maternal antenatal mental health and its associations with perinatal outcomes and the use of healthcare services in children from the NINFEA birth cohort study

To investigate the associations between maternal mental health disorders before and during pregnancy and perinatal outcomes and child healthcare utilization between 6 and 18 months of age. Among the 6814 mother-child pairs from the Italian Internet-based NINFEA birth cohort, maternal depression, anxiety, and sleep disorders diagnosed by a physician before and during pregnancy were assessed through self-reported questionnaires completed during pregnancy and 6 months after delivery. Perinatal outcomes (preterm birth, birth weight, small for gestational age, congenital anomalies, and neonatal intensive care unit (NICU)) and children's healthcare utilization (emergency department (ED) visits, hospitalizations, and outpatient visits) were reported by mothers at 6 and 18 months postpartum. We used regression models adjusted for maternal age, education, parity, country of birth, region of delivery, and household income. Maternal mental health disorders were not associated with perinatal outcomes, except for depression, which increased the risk of offspring admission to NICU, and anxiety disorders during pregnancy, which were associated with preterm birth and lower birth weight. Children born to mothers with depression/anxiety disorders before pregnancy, compared to children of mothers without these disorders, had an increased odds of a visit to ED for any reason (odds ratio (ORadj) = 1.26, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.02-1.54), of an ED visit resulting in hospitalization (ORadj = 1.75, 95%CI: 1.27-2.42), and of planned hospital admissions (ORadj = 1.55, 95%CI: 1.01-2.40). These associations with healthcare utilization were similar for mental disorders also during pregnancy. The association pattern of maternal sleep disorders with perinatal outcomes and child healthcare utilization resembled that of maternal depression and/or anxiety disorders with these outcomes.   Conclusion: Antenatal maternal mental health is a potential risk factor for child-health outcomes and healthcare use. Early maternal mental health interventions may help to promote child health and reduce healthcare costs. What is Known: • Poor maternal mental health affects pregnancy outcomes and child health, and children of mothers with mental health conditions tend to have increased healtcare utilization. • Parents with poor mental health often face challenges in caring for their children and have less parenting self-efficacy, which could potentially lead to frequent medical consultations for minor health issues. What is New: • Maternal pre-pregnancy mental disorders were not associated with preterm birth, low birth weight, SGA, and congenital anomalies, except for depression, which increased the risk of offspring admission to NICU. Anxiety disorders during pregnancy were associated with lower birth weight and an increased odds of preterm birth. • Maternal depression and/or anxiety and sleep disorders, both before and during pregnancy, were associated with an increase in children's healthcare utilization between 6 and 18 months of life.

A perspective-based analysis of attachment from prenatal period to second year postnatal life

Attachment is one of the foundational themes in the history of the psychological development of human beings. For this reason, we assume that it must be approached by taking into account multiple scientific perspectives. The present review aims at analyzing the state of the art regarding the genetic, neurobiological and cognitive mechanisms underlying the development of attachment bonding, considering the child as the frame of reference. We hypothesize that attachment may be present in prototypical forms even in the prenatal period, thus our analysis has a temporal origin in the intrauterine period preceding birth. The intrauterine period is assumed to be a period of maximum sensitivity to stimuli and in particular to those coming from a potential primary caregiver: the biological mother. We conclude with a reframing of the state of the art and propose that future research work would benefit from a superordinate model of attachment, capable of containing and regulating all its components and variables.

Assessment of Postpartum Stress Using the Maternal Postpartum Stress Scale (MPSS) in Spanish Women

Although scales that evaluate postpartum stress exist, they lack specificity in maternal postpartum stress. The MPSS was created because there was a need to assess maternal stress during the postpartum stage. The introduction of the MPSS has enriched the evaluation tools for postpartum stress and has helped understand maternal stress at various postpartum time points and identify women at high risk for postpartum stress during this period. The aim was to translate the MPSS into Spanish and study its psychometric properties. Postpartum women (N = 167) with a mean age of 34.26 (SD = 4.71) were involved in this study. In addition to the MPSS, a battery of instruments was administered: a demographic sheet, the Birth Satisfaction Scale-Revised (BSS-R) and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). The MPSS data were analyzed, checking item communality first. As a result, three items showed unsatisfactory communality values (h2 < 0.40). Confirmatory Factor Analysis was conducted, comparing factor models using the full pool of MPSS items or the version without items with unacceptable communality. As a result, the original three-factor structure was endorsed on the Spanish MPSS, with better fit indices when removing items with low communality (RMSEA = 0.067, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.99). The reliability of this version was satisfactory (ω = 0.93). Finally, group comparisons for some perinatal variables were performed, showing no significant differences between groups of interest (p = 0.05 and above). To conclude, the MPSS will contribute to the existing literature, having a wider capacity to assess perinatal mental health difficulties in Spanish-speaking populations.

Sleep and circadian rhythms during pregnancy, social disadvantage, and alterations in brain development in neonates

Pregnant women in poverty may be especially likely to experience sleep and circadian rhythm disturbances, which may have downstream effects on fetal neurodevelopment. However, the associations between sleep and circadian rhythm disturbances, social disadvantage during pregnancy, and neonatal brain structure remains poorly understood. The current study explored the association between maternal sleep and circadian rhythm disturbances during pregnancy and neonatal brain outcomes, examining sleep and circadian rhythm disturbances as a mediator of the effect of social disadvantage during pregnancy on infant structural brain outcomes. The study included 148 mother-infant dyads, recruited during early pregnancy, who had both actigraphy and neuroimaging data. Mothers' sleep was assessed throughout their pregnancy using actigraphy, and neonates underwent brain magnetic resonance imaging in the first weeks of life. Neonatal structural brain outcomes included cortical gray matter, subcortical gray matter, and white matter volumes along with a measure of the total surface area of the cortex. Neonates of mothers who experienced greater inter-daily deviations in sleep duration had smaller total cortical gray and white matter volumes and reduced cortical surface areas. Neonates of mothers who had higher levels of circadian misalignment and later sleep timing during pregnancy showed smaller subcortical gray matter volumes. Inter-daily deviations in sleep duration during pregnancy mediated the association between maternal social disadvantage and neonatal structural brain outcomes. Findings highlight the importance of regularity and rhythmicity in sleep schedules during pregnancy and bring to light the role of chronodisruption as a potential mechanism underlying the deleterious neurodevelopmental effects of prenatal adversity. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Social disadvantage was associated with sleep and circadian rhythm disturbances during pregnancy, including later sleep schedules, increased variability in sleep duration, circadian misalignment, and a higher proportion of the sleep period spent awake. Maternal sleep and circadian rhythm disturbances during pregnancy were associated with decreased brain volume and reduced cortical surface area in neonates. Maternal inter-daily deviations in sleep duration during pregnancy mediated the association between social disadvantage and neonatal brain volume and cortical surface area.

The Impact of Maternal Interpersonal Violent Trauma and Related Psychopathology on Child Outcomes and Intergenerational Transmission

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review aims to outline some consequences that maternal history of trauma with and without related psychopathology, such as posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), can have on their children's development and functioning. It then addresses mechanisms through which intergenerational transmission of interpersonal violence (IPV) and related psychopathology may occur.

RECENT FINDINGS

Findings include the effects of maternal IPV experience and related psychopathology on child social-emotional and biologically-based outcomes. This includes increased developmental disturbances and child psychopathology, as well as physiological factors. Secondly, the review focuses on psychobiological mechanisms by which maternal experience of IPV and related psychopathology likely trigger intergenerational effects. Maternal IPV and related psychopathology can have a negative impact on several areas of their child's life including development, interactive behavior, psychopathology, and physiology. This transmission may partially be due to fetal and perinatal processes, genetic and epigenetic effects, and interactions with their parents.

Association between Maternal Perinatal Stress and Depression on Infant DNA Methylation in the First Year of Life

Maternal stress and depression during pregnancy and the first year of the infant's life affect a large percentage of mothers. Maternal stress and depression have been associated with adverse fetal and childhood outcomes as well as differential child DNA methylation (DNAm). However, the biological mechanisms connecting maternal stress and depression to poor health outcomes in children are still largely unknown. Here we aim to determine whether prenatal stress and depression are associated with changes in cord blood mononuclear cell DNAm (CBMC-DNAm) in newborns (n = 119) and whether postnatal stress and depression are associated with changes in peripheral blood mononuclear cell DNAm (PBMC-DNAm) in children of 12 months of age (n = 113) from the Canadian Healthy Infant Longitudinal Development (CHILD) cohort. Stress was measured using the 10-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and depression was measured using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Questionnaire (CESD). Both stress and depression were measured at 18 weeks and 36 weeks of pregnancy and six months and 12 months postpartum. We conducted epigenome-wide association studies (EWAS) using robust linear regression followed by a sensitivity analysis in which we bias-adjusted for inflation and unmeasured confounding using the bacon and cate methods. To investigate the cumulative effect of maternal stress and depression, we created composite prenatal and postnatal adversity scores. We identified a significant association between prenatal stress and differential CBMC-DNAm at 8 CpG sites and between prenatal depression and differential CBMC-DNAm at 2 CpG sites. Additionally, we identified a significant association between postnatal stress and differential PBMC-DNAm at 8 CpG sites and between postnatal depression and differential PBMC-DNAm at 11 CpG sites. Using our composite scores, we further identified 2 CpG sites significantly associated with prenatal adversity and 7 CpG sites significantly associated with postnatal adversity. Several of the associated genes, including PLAGL1, HYMAI, BRD2, and ERC2 have been implicated in adverse fetal outcomes and neuropsychiatric disorders. This suggested that differential DNAm may play a role in the relationship between maternal mental health and child health.

Relationships Among Number of Stressors, Perceived Stress, and Salivary Cortisol Levels During the Third Trimester of Pregnancy

OBJECTIVE

To examine relationships among the number of stressors, perceived stress, and salivary cortisol levels during the third trimester of pregnancy.

DESIGN

Secondary analysis of cross-sectional data.

SETTING

Participants' homes.

PARTICIPANTS

Women during the third trimester of pregnancy (N = 73).

METHODS

Participants provided saliva samples at four time points over 2 days for cortisol assay and completed questionnaires to assess stressors and perceived stress. We computed multiple linear regression models to examine the relationships among the number of stressors and perceived stress to cortisol awakening response, diurnal slope, and overall cortisol secretion. We also computed a multiple linear regression model to examine the relationship between perceived stress and the number of stressors.

RESULTS

Greater perceived stress was associated with reduced overall cortisol secretion across the day (β = -0.41, p = .01). The number of stressors was associated with perceived stress (β = 0.48, p = .002) but not salivary cortisol measures.

CONCLUSION

Elevated perceived stress and the related cortisol alterations that we identified could represent salient targets for enhancing hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function during the third trimester. Perceived stress may shape the relationship between exposure to stressors and cortisol response during pregnancy. Future research is warranted to confirm study results and to understand the implications for parturition and fetal development.

Maternal Prenatal Depressive Symptoms and Fetal Growth During the Critical Rapid Growth Stage

Importance

Fetal growth in the critical rapid growth stage (CRGS) before delivery, approximately between 30 to 37 gestational weeks, carries significant implications for subsequent overweight, obesity, and arterial health. Previous evidence has demonstrated the association between maternal depressive symptoms and fetal growth trajectories from early to late pregnancy, but there remains limited understanding of the association of these symptoms with the longitudinal fetal growth change within the CRGS.

Objective

To investigate the association between maternal depressive symptoms and fetal growth during the CRGS before delivery.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This prospective birth cohort study was conducted from January 2018 to December 2020. Volunteer pregnant women were enrolled in their first trimester of prenatal visits. Women with severe disease before pregnancy and multiple births, fetuses with congenital anomalies, and preterm or postterm births were excluded. This multicenter study was based in 13 hospitals covering 81 counties across 12 cities in Sichuan Province, China. Follow-up visits were performed at the second trimester, the third trimester, and 24 hours after delivery. The analysis was conducted from January to May 2023.

Exposures

Maternal depressive symptoms, as a continuous variable, measured by the Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS) at a median gestational week of 24 (range, 14 to 27) weeks of gestation. A higher score on the EPDS indicates worse depressive symptoms.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The main outcomes included ultrasonography-measured biparietal diameter (BPD), femur length (FL), and abdominal circumference (AC), along with calculated estimated fetal weight (EFW). These parameters were evaluated longitudinally at a median gestational week of 30 (range, 28 to 32) and 37 (range, 35 to 39) weeks. Linear mixed models were used to estimate the associations between maternal depressive symptoms and fetal growth parameters.

Results

A total of 2676 mother-offspring dyads were included, in which the mean (SD) age of mothers was 28.0 (4.4) years, and 1294 (48.4%) of the offspring were female. The median (IQR) maternal EPDS score was 5.0 (4.0 to 9.0). After adjustment for confounders, a significant correlation was found between a higher score of depressive symptoms in mothers and a slower rate of fetal growth across FL (β = -0.40; 95% CI, -0.58 to -0.22), AC (β = -1.97; 95% CI, -2.90 to -1.03), and EFW (β = -50.11; 95% CI, -68.46 to -31.75). These associations were stronger in female fetuses or those with better family socioeconomic conditions.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this prospective cohort study, maternal depressive symptoms were associated with slower fetal growth rate in the CRGS before delivery. Early screening for depressive disorders in pregnant women appears to be essential for fetal growth and later health.

Prenatal maternal stress is associated with site-specific and age acceleration changes in maternal and newborn DNA methylation

Prenatal maternal stress has a negative impact on child health but the mechanisms through which maternal stress affects child health are unclear. Epigenetic variation, such as DNA methylation, is a likely mechanistic candidate as DNA methylation is sensitive to environmental insults and can regulate long-term changes in gene expression. We recruited 155 mother-newborn dyads in the Democratic Republic of Congo to investigate the effects of maternal stress on DNA methylation in mothers and newborns. We used four measures of maternal stress to capture a range of stressful experiences: general trauma, sexual trauma, war trauma, and chronic stress. We identified differentially methylated positions (DMPs) associated with general trauma, sexual trauma, and war trauma in both mothers and newborns. No DMPs were associated with chronic stress. Sexual trauma was positively associated with epigenetic age acceleration across several epigenetic clocks in mothers. General trauma and war trauma were positively associated with newborn epigenetic age acceleration using the extrinsic epigenetic age clock. We tested the top DMPs for enrichment of DNase I hypersensitive sites (DHS) and found no enrichment in mothers. In newborns, top DMPs associated with war trauma were enriched for DHS in embryonic and foetal cell types. Finally, one of the top DMPs associated with war trauma in newborns also predicted birthweight, completing the cycle from maternal stress to DNA methylation to newborn health outcome. Our results indicate that maternal stress is associated with site-specific changes in DNAm and epigenetic age acceleration in both mothers and newborns.

Perinatal, obstetric and parental risk factors for asthma in the offspring throughout childhood: a longitudinal cohort study

OBJECTIVES

Asthma is a common chronic and burdensome disease which typically begins in childhood. The aim of this study was to assess perinatal and obstetric factors which may increase the risk of developing asthma in the offspring.

METHODS

Data from five consecutive waves (n=7,073 children, from birth to 15 years old) from a nationally-representative birth cohort of people born in the United Kingdom between 2000 and 2002, the Millennium Cohort Study (MCS), were used. The Kaplan-Meier survival curve was used to graphically display the risk of developing asthma from early childhood to adolescence. The Z-based Wald test was used to prove significant covariate loading.

RESULTS

Cox regression analyzing the influence of covariates on asthma development risk showed a significant likelihood ratio test, χ2(18)=899.30, p<0.01. A parent with asthma (OR=2.02, p<0.01), a younger maternal age at delivery (OR=0.98, p<0.05), and the use of assisted reproductive technology (OR=1.43, p<0.05) were associated with an increased risk of developing asthma in the offspring.

CONCLUSIONS

Perinatal factors (a younger maternal age, assisted reproductive technology) and a parental factor (a parent with asthma) increased the risk for developing asthma in the offspring.

Can we influence the neurological development and hair cortisol concentration of offspring by reducing the stress of the mother during pregnancy? A randomized controlled trial

The objective was to evaluate the effects of a stress management cognitive behavioural therapy followed during pregnancy on subsequent childhood on hair cortisol at birth and on neurodevelopment and Hair Cortisol Concentrations (HCC) at 6 months of age. The study sample included 48 pregnant women, divided into two groups: 24 women in the Therapy Group (TG) and 24 women who received standard pregnancy care (control group (CG); CG). To test the therapy efficacy, an evaluation of the HCC and psychological stress, psychopathological symptomatology and resilience was conducted before and after the treatment. The level of cortisol in their hair was obtained during pregnancy and that of their babies at birth. Six months after birth, a cortisol sample was taken from the hair and the babies' neurodevelopment was evaluated based on a Bayley-III test. The TG presented reductions in psychological stress and psychopathological symptomatology after treatment. On the other hand, the CG increased their cortisol concentrations between the pre and post intervention, remaining stable in the TG. Moreover, results showed that TG babies had lower cortisol concentrations at birth and obtained significantly higher cognitive and motor development scores at 6 months. These findings support that providing psychological care to pregnant women may not only have a benefit on these women's mental state, but may also benefit the neurodevelopment of their offspring.

Renal Glucose Release after Unilateral Renal Denervation during a Hypoglycemic Clamp in Pigs with an Altered Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Axis after Late-Gestational Dexamethasone Injection

Previously, we demonstrated in pigs that renal denervation halves glucose release during hypoglycaemia and that a prenatal dexamethasone injection caused increased ACTH and cortisol concentrations as markers of a heightened hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis (HPAA) during hypoglycaemia. In this study, we investigated the influence of an altered HPAA on renal glucose release during hypoglycaemia. Pigs whose mothers had received two late-gestational dexamethasone injections were subjected to a 75 min hyperinsulinaemic-hypoglycaemic clamp (<3 mmol/L) after unilateral surgical denervation. Para-aminohippurate (PAH) clearance, inulin, sodium excretion and arterio-venous blood glucose difference were measured every fifteen minutes. The statistical analysis was performed with a Wilcoxon signed-rank test. PAH, inulin, the calculated glomerular filtration rate and plasma flow did not change through renal denervation. Urinary sodium excretion increased significantly (p = 0.019). Side-dependent renal net glucose release (SGN) decreased by 25 ± 23% (p = 0.004). At 25 percent, the SGN decrease was only half of that observed in non-HPAA-altered animals in our prior investigation. The current findings may suggest that specimens with an elevated HPAA undergo long-term adaptations to maintain glucose homeostasis. Nonetheless, the decrease in SGN warrants further investigations and potentially caution in performing renal denervation in certain patient groups, such as diabetics at risk of hypoglycaemia.

Prenatal exposure to environmental air pollution and psychosocial stress jointly contribute to the epigenetic regulation of the serotonin transporter gene in newborns

Antenatal exposures to maternal stress and to particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) have been independently associated with developmental outcomes in early infancy and beyond. Knowledge about their joint impact, biological mechanisms of their effects and timing-effects, is still limited. Both PM2.5 and maternal stress exposure during pregnancy might result in altered patterns of DNA methylation in specific stress-related genes, such as the serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4 DNAm), that might, in turn, influence infant development across several domains, including bio-behavioral, cognitive and socio-emotional domains. Here, we investigated the independent and interactive influence of variations in antenatal exposures to maternal pandemic-related stress (PRS) and PM2.5 on SLC6A4 DNAm levels in newborns. Mother-infant dyads (N = 307) were enrolled at delivery during the COVID-19 pandemic. Infants' methylation status was assessed in 13 CpG sites within the SLC6A4 gene's region (chr17:28562750-28562958) in buccal cells at birth and women retrospectively report on PRS. PM2.5 exposure throughout the entire gestation and at each gestational trimester was estimated using a spatiotemporal model based on residential address. Among several potentially confounding socio-demographic and health-related factors, infant's sex was significantly associated with infants' SLC6A4 DNAm levels, thus hierarchical regression models were adjusted for infant's sex. Higher levels of SLC6A4 DNAm at 6 CpG sites were found in newborns born to mothers reporting higher levels of antenatal PRS and greater PM2.5 exposure across gestation, while adjusting for infant's sex. These effects were especially evident when exposure to elevated PM2.5 occurred during the second trimester of pregnancy. Several important brain processes (e.g., synaptogenesis and myelination) occur during mid-pregnancy, potentially making the second trimester a sensitive time window for the effects of stress-related exposures. Understanding the interplay between environmental and individual-level stressors has important implications for the improvement of mother-infant health during and after the pandemic.

Pandemic-related stress in pregnant women during the first COVID-19 lockdown and neonatal development

BACKGROUND

Maternal stress and psychopathology have a negative effect on mothers and neonates. Maternal stress may affect neonatal growth and development both physically and psychologically.

PURPOSE

To study the impact of pandemic-related pregnancy stress and maternal psychopathological symptoms during the COVID-19 lockdown in 2020 on neonatal development.

METHODS

A two-phase prospective study was carried out on a sample of 181 pregnant women ranged from 18 to 40 years old in Spain (Europe). Phase 1: Pandemic-related pregnancy stress (PREPS), Prenatal Distress Questionnaire (PDQ), Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and the revised version of the Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90-R) were used to assess psychological symptoms during the lockdown. In the follow-up (Phase 2), obstetric, birth-related and anthropometric variables were collected from 81 pregnant women-neonates dyads.

RESULTS

Primiparous women showed higher psychopathological symptoms and higher levels of pandemic-related pregnancy stress than multiparous women. A multiple linear regression model showed that pandemic-related pregnancy stress could predict the length of neonate by adjusting for maternal age and gestational age, especially for primiparous women.

IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH

Studies assessing neonates development should evaluate the long-term effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on neonates´ length.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

States the relation between pandemic-related pregnancy stress and neonatal development by being able to track the effects on neonates whose mothers had high levels of stress during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The Benefit of a Retrospective Pregnancy Anamnesis in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: The Reliability of Maternal Self-Report during Childhood Development

Pregnancy anamnesis is a crucial part of child and adolescent psychiatry diagnostics. In previous works, the reliability of retrospective maternal self-report on perinatal characteristics was heterogeneous. This prospective longitudinal study aimed to evaluate women's recall of prenatal events in a within-subject design. A sample of 241 women gave a self-report on prenatal alcohol, smoking, partnership quality, pregnancy satisfaction, and obstetric complications during the 3rd trimester (t0), childhood (t1, 6-10 y), and adolescence (t2, 12-14 y). The intra-individual agreement was examined. The t0-t1-(t2) agreement was poor to substantial; this was highest for smoking and worst for obstetric complications, followed by alcohol (Fleiss' κ = 0.719 to -0.051). There were significant t0-t1-(t2) differences for all pregnancy variables (p < 0.017), except for 3rd trimester satisfaction (p = 0.256). For alcohol (t0 25.8%, t1 17.4%, t2 41.0%) and smoking (t0 11.9%, t1 16.4%, t2 22.6%), the highest self-reported rates were found during adolescence. During childhood, fewer obstetric complications (t0 84.9%, t1 42.2%) and worse partnerships were reported (t0 M = 8.86, t1 M = 7.89). Thought to be due to social stigmata and memory effects, pregnancy self-reports cannot be precisely reproduced. Creating a respectful and trusting atmosphere is essential for mothers to give honest self-reports that are in the best interest of their children.

Maternal anxiety, exposure to the COVID-19 pandemic and socioemotional development of offspring

The COVID-19 pandemic context may predispose mothers to increased maternal psychopathology, which may be associated with offspring socioemotional development. The aim of this study is to analyze the relationships between prenatal anxiety and depression and exposure to the COVID-19 pandemic with offspring socioemotional development, controlling for postnatal anxiety and depression. A total of 105 mother-child dyads were assessed in pre- and postnatal periods. Questionnaires were used to assess the impact of the pandemic, indicators of psychopathology, and the socioemotional development of the offspring. Results suggest that negative pandemic experiences are indirectly associated with offspring socioemotional development via prenatal maternal anxiety symptomatology and after controlling for postnatal anxiety and depression. These indicators predispose to emotional deficits and increase the risks of psychopathological and neurodevelopmental disorders. It is important to adopt health policies that provide timely assessment of development in early childhood to reduce the risks associated with these deficits.

2D:4D biomarker reliability and validity in a within-subject pregnancy-childhood-adolescence cohort

BACKGROUND

A lot of studies use the second-to-fourth digit length ratio (2D:4D) as a biomarker for intrauterine androgen load to predict behavioral and mental health problems. Thus, knowledge of 2D:4D's metric properties, namely reliability and validity, is essential.

METHOD

2D:4D handscans were available from 149 adolescents (M = 13.32 years, SD = 0.35) and their mothers. For 88 adolescents, there were also primary-school age handscans (M = 7.87 years, SD = 0.68). Prenatal risks for the 1st to 3rd trimesters were recorded during the 3rd trimester of pregnancy (alcohol exposition: meconium biomarker and maternal self-report; nicotine exposition: maternal self-report; maternal depressive symptoms and subjective stress: questionnaires).

RESULTS

The 2D:4D ratio was highly stable from childhood to early adolescence. However, both developmental and sex effects were present: The 2D:4D ratio increased with age and was higher in adolescent girls vs. boys. Significant 2D:4D mother-child associations were found for girls. Significant main effects could be found for the prenatal risk factors alcohol (self-report) and nicotine consumption.

CONCLUSION

In line with earlier studies, the 2D:4D biomarker proved to be an inter-individually stable measure with an intra-individual increase from childhood to early adolescence. Sex differences in adolescence and associations with maternal prenatal health behaviour underline the validity of the biomarker. Findings on heritability emphasize the importance of interpreting 2D:4D results in a sex-specific manner.

Evaluation of a Child-centred Psychosocial Healthcare Intervention (KIDPROTEKT) - Results of a Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial in Paediatric and Gynaecologic Practices

KID-PROTEKT is a child-centred psychosocial healthcare intervention which aims at improving the identification of psychosocial needs and navigation in the outpatient gynaecologic and paediatric setting. In this cluster randomized-controlled trail we examined the effect of KID-PROTEKT on the referrals (to support services) in comparison to the regular gynaecologic and paediatric outpatient healthcare . A variant based on the qualification of the healthcare providers (qualified treatment, QT) and a variant with social worker (supported treatment, ST) were compared to the regular healthcare (treatment as usual, TAU). Twenty-four gynaecologic and paediatric practices were randomized to one of three study arms. Therefore 8,458 pregnant women and families recruited in one of these practices were enrolled in the study. Participating patients reported on average 1.73 (SD = 1.34) psychosocial risks. In total 522 patients were linked to a support service. Compared to TAU, the probability of a referral was significantly higher in QT (OR = 10.70) and ST (OR = 11.28). Also, a higher number of psychosocial risks were linked to a referral (OR = 2.72). These findings support the importance of a psychosocial assessment in the gynaecologic and paediatric setting.

Maternal glucocorticoids do not directly mediate the effects of maternal social stress on the fetus

Stress during pregnancy negatively affects the fetus and increases the risk for affective disorders in adulthood. Excess maternal glucocorticoids are thought to mediate fetal programming; however, whether they exert their effects directly or indirectly remains unclear. During pregnancy, protective mechanisms including maternal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis hyporesponsiveness and placental 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11βHSD) type 2, which inactivates glucocorticoids, limit mother-to-fetus glucocorticoid transfer. However, whether repeated stress negatively impacts these mechanisms is not known. Pregnant rats were exposed to repeated social stress on gestational days (GD) 16-20 and several aspects of HPA axis and glucocorticoid regulation, including concentrations of glucocorticoids, gene expression for their receptors (Nr3c1, Nr3c2), receptor chaperones (Fkbp51, Fkbp52) and enzymes that control local glucocorticoid availability (Hsd11b1, Hsd11b2), were investigated in the maternal, placental and fetal compartments on GD20. The maternal HPA axis was activated following stress, though the primary driver was vasopressin, rather than corticotropin-releasing hormone. Despite the stress-induced increase in circulating corticosterone in the dams, only a modest increase was detected in the circulation of female fetuses, with no change in the fetal brain of either sex. Moreover, there was no change in the expression of genes that mediate glucocorticoid actions or modulate local concentrations in the fetal brain. In the placenta labyrinth zone, stress increased Hsd11b2 expression only in males and Fkbp51 expression only in females. Our results indicate that any role glucocorticoids play in fetal programming is likely indirect, perhaps through sex-dependent alterations in placental gene expression, rather than exerting effects via direct crossover into the fetal brain.

Using non-parametric Bayes shrinkage to assess relationships between multiple environmental and social stressors and neonatal size and body composition in the Healthy Start cohort

BACKGROUND

Both environmental and social factors have been linked to birth weight and adiposity at birth, but few studies consider the effects of exposure mixtures. Our objective was to identify which components of a mixture of neighborhood-level environmental and social exposures were driving associations with birth weight and adiposity at birth in the Healthy Start cohort.

METHODS

Exposures were assessed at the census tract level and included air pollution, built environment characteristics, and socioeconomic status. Prenatal exposures were assigned based on address at enrollment. Birth weight was measured at delivery and adiposity was measured using air displacement plethysmography within three days. We used non-parametric Bayes shrinkage (NPB) to identify exposures that were associated with our outcomes of interest. NPB models were compared to single-predictor linear regression. We also included generalized additive models (GAM) to assess nonlinear relationships. All regression models were adjusted for individual-level covariates, including maternal age, pre-pregnancy BMI, and smoking.

RESULTS

Results from NPB models showed most exposures were negatively associated with birth weight, though credible intervals were wide and generally contained zero. However, the NPB model identified an interaction between ozone and temperature on birth weight, and the GAM suggested potential non-linear relationships. For associations between ozone or temperature with birth weight, we observed effect modification by maternal race/ethnicity, where effects were stronger for mothers who identified as a race or ethnicity other than non-Hispanic White. No associations with adiposity at birth were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

NPB identified prenatal exposures to ozone and temperature as predictors of birth weight, and mothers who identify as a race or ethnicity other than non-Hispanic White might be disproportionately impacted. However, NPB models may have limited applicability when non-linear effects are present. Future work should consider a two-stage approach where NPB is used to reduce dimensionality and alternative approaches examine non-linear effects.

Maternal Distress during Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period: Underlying Mechanisms and Child's Developmental Outcomes-A Narrative Review

Maternal mental health may be considered a determining factor influencing fetal and child development. An essential factor with potentially negative consequences for a child's psychophysiological development is the presence of maternal distress during pregnancy and the postpartum period. The review is organized and presented to explore and describe the effects of anxiety, stress, and depression in pregnancy and the postpartum period on adverse child developmental outcomes. The neurobiology of maternal distress and the transmission mechanisms at the molecular level to the fetus and child are noted. In addition, the paper discusses the findings of longitudinal studies in which early child development is monitored concerning the presence of maternal distress in pregnancy and the postpartum period. This topic gained importance in the COVID-19 pandemic context, during which a higher frequency of maternal psychological disorders was observed. The need for further interdisciplinary research on the relationship between maternal mental health and fetal/child development was highlighted, especially on the biological mechanisms underlying the transmission of maternal distress to the (unborn) child, to achieve positive developmental outcomes and improve maternal and child well-being.

Maternal Multiple Sclerosis and Offspring's Cognitive and Behavioral Development: What Do We Know until Now?

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic pathological condition representing one of the main causes of neurological disability in the female young population. MS, as an immune disorder, could impact fetus development, and, considering the need for and the possibility of pharmacological treatment during pregnancy, the possible influence of medication on developmental trajectories represents a topic of great interest. We provide an overview of the available literature on the influence of maternal Multiple Sclerosis on offspring cognitive and behavioral development. A study was conducted on Pubmed, Medline and Google Scholar, considering empirical studies and reviews exclusively in the English language. Maternal MS appears not to be associated with emotional and behavioral problems, as evaluated through retrospective studies. However, a specific cognitive and behavioral phenotype, through the administration of standardized instruments, has not been delineated yet. Available studies on the topic are characterized by poor methodology and do not lead to conclusions. This overview highlights implications for further longitudinal studies which should delineate offspring developmental trajectories, taking into consideration maternal confounding factors and the exposure to pharmacological treatment in pregnancy.

Impact of maternal physical exercise on inflammatory and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis markers in the brain and lungs of prenatally stressed neonatal mice

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of maternal exercise on alterations induced by prenatal stress in markers of the inflammatory process and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in the brain and lungs of neonatal mice. Female Balb/c mice were divided into three groups: control, prenatal restraint stress, prenatal restraint stress and physical exercise before and during the gestational period. On day 0 (PND0) and 10 (PND10), mice were euthanized for brain and lung analyses. The gene expression of GR, MR, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF in the brain and lungs and the protein expression of MMP-2 in the lungs were analyzed. Maternal exercise reduced IL-6 and IL-10 gene expression in the brain of PND0 mice. Prenatal stress and maternal exercise decreased GR, MR, IL-6, and TNF gene expression in the lungs of PND0 mice. In the hippocampus of PND10 females, exercise inhibited the effects of prenatal stress on the expression of MR, IL-6, and IL-10. In the lungs of PND10 females, exercise prevented the decrease in GR expression caused by prenatal stress. In the hippocampus and lungs of PND10 males, prenatal stress decreased GR gene expression. Our findings confirm the effects induced by prenatal stress and demonstrate that physical exercise before and during the gestational period may have a protective role on inflammatory changes.

Investigating the regulation of the unc-33 promoter by environmental stressors

Environmental factors such as prenatal stress are hypothesized to contribute to the development of schizophrenia. Lee and colleagues determined rats exposed to prenatal stress exhibited decreased levels of only one protein, DPYSL2, in their prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. DYPSL2, a protein seen to be inactivated in schizophrenic patients, is important for neuronal development. The C. elegans homolog of DPYSL2, UNC-33, is also found to be critical for axonal outgrowth and synapse formation. Herein, we study the effects of environmental stressors such as increasing temperatures and pathogens on the expression of GFP driven by the unc-33 promoter. Results indicate that neuronal GFP expression was lower in C. elegans exposed to these prenatal stressors, making this the first report denoting an environmental regulation of the unc -33 promoter. This study provides insight into unc-33 and the regulation of its expression in relation to temperature and infection.

Maternal caregiving moderates the impact of antenatal maternal cortisol on infant stress regulation

BACKGROUND

Emerging evidence suggests that antenatal exposure to maternal stress signals affects the development of the infant stress response systems. Animal studies indicate that maternal sensitive caregiving can reverse some of these effects. However, the generalizability of these findings to humans is unknown. This study investigated the role of maternal caregiving in the association between multiple markers of maternal antenatal stress and infant stress regulation.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 94 mother-infant (N = 47 males, mean postnatal weeks = 12; SD = 1.84) dyads. Maternal levels of Interleukin-6, C-Reactive Protein (CRP), diurnal cortisol and alpha amylase, depressive and anxiety symptoms were assessed in late pregnancy (mean gestational age = 34.76; SD = 1.12), whereas postnatal symptomatology, caregiving, and infant cortisol response to the inoculation were evaluated at 3 months.

RESULTS

Hierarchical linear models (HLMs) showed a significant interaction between maternal antenatal cortisol, caregiving, and time on infant cortisol reactivity, while controlling for gender, maternal age, and postnatal depression. Specifically, higher levels of maternal antenatal cortisol were associated with greater cortisol response only among infants of less emotionally available mothers. All other markers of antenatal stress were not significantly associated with infant cortisol reactivity either independently or in interaction with maternal caregiving.

CONCLUSIONS

Albeit preliminary, results provide the first evidence in humans that maternal sensitive caregiving may eliminate the association between antenatal maternal cortisol and infant cortisol regulation.

The Effects of Prenatal Exposure to Neighborhood Crime on Neonatal Functional Connectivity

BACKGROUND

Maternal exposure to adversity during pregnancy has been found to affect infant brain development; however, the specific effect of prenatal crime exposure on neonatal brain connectivity remains unclear. Based on existing research, we hypothesized that living in a high-crime neighborhood during pregnancy would affect neonatal frontolimbic connectivity over and above other individual- and neighborhood-level adversity and that these associations would be mediated by maternal psychosocial stress.

METHODS

Participants included 399 pregnant women, recruited as part of the eLABE (Early Life Adversity, Biological Embedding, and Risk for Developmental Precursors of Mental Disorders) study. In the neonatal period, 319 healthy, nonsedated infants were scanned using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (repetition time = 800 ms; echo time = 37 ms; voxel size = 2.0 × 2.0 × 2.0 mm3; multiband = 8) on a Prisma 3T scanner and had at least 10 minutes of high-quality data. Crime data at the block group level were obtained from Applied Geographic Solution. Linear regressions and mediation models tested associations between crime, frontolimbic connectivity, and psychosocial stress.

RESULTS

Living in a neighborhood with high property crime during pregnancy was related to weaker neonatal functional connectivity between the thalamus-anterior default mode network (aDMN) (β = -0.15, 95% CI = -0.25 to -0.04, p = .008). Similarly, high neighborhood violent crime was related to weaker functional connectivity between the thalamus-aDMN (β = -0.16, 95% CI = -0.29 to -0.04, p = .01) and amygdala-hippocampus (β = -0.16, 95% CI = -0.29 to -0.03, p = .02), controlling for other types of adversity. Psychosocial stress partially mediated relationships between the thalamus-aDMN and both violent and property crime.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that prenatal exposure to crime is associated with weaker neonatal limbic and frontal functional brain connections, providing another reason for targeted public policy interventions to reduce crime.

Maternal-fetal stress and DNA methylation signatures in neonatal saliva: an epigenome-wide association study

BACKGROUND

Maternal stress before, during and after pregnancy has profound effects on the development and lifelong function of the infant's neurocognitive development. We hypothesized that the programming of the central nervous system (CNS), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and autonomic nervous system (ANS) induced by prenatal stress (PS) is reflected in electrophysiological and epigenetic biomarkers. In this study, we aimed to find noninvasive epigenetic biomarkers of PS in the newborn salivary DNA.

RESULTS

A total of 728 pregnant women were screened for stress exposure using Cohen Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), 164 women were enrolled, and 114 dyads were analyzed. Prenatal Distress Questionnaire (PDQ) was also administered to assess specific pregnancy worries. Transabdominal fetal electrocardiograms (taECG) were recorded to derive coupling between maternal and fetal heart rates resulting in a 'Fetal Stress Index' (FSI). Upon delivery, we collected maternal hair strands for cortisol measurements and newborn's saliva for epigenetic analyses. DNA was extracted from saliva samples, and DNA methylation was measured using EPIC BeadChip array (850 k CpG sites). Linear regression was used to identify associations between PSS/PDQ/FSI/Cortisol and DNA methylation. We found epigenome-wide significant associations for 5 CpG with PDQ and cortisol at FDR < 5%. Three CpGs were annotated to genes (Illumina Gene annotation file): YAP1, TOMM20 and CSMD1, and two CpGs were located approximately lay at 50 kb from SSBP4 and SCAMP1. In addition, two differentiated methylation regions (DMR) related to maternal stress measures PDQ and cortisol were found: DAXX and ARL4D.

CONCLUSIONS

Genes annotated to these CpGs were found to be involved in secretion and transportation, nuclear signaling, Hippo signaling pathways, apoptosis, intracellular trafficking and neuronal signaling. Moreover, some CpGs are annotated to genes related to autism, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and schizophrenia. However, our results should be viewed as hypothesis generating until replicated in a larger sample. Early assessment of such noninvasive PS biomarkers will allow timelier detection of babies at risk and a more effective allocation of resources for early intervention programs to improve child development. A biomarker-guided early intervention strategy is the first step in the prevention of future health problems, reducing their personal and societal impact.

Early-life exposure to economic stress and metabolic risks in young adulthood: the children of the reunification in East Germany

BACKGROUND

Research on the long-term health consequences of early-life exposure to economic crises is scarce. We examine for the first time the long-term effects of early-life exposure to an economic crisis on metabolic health risks. We study objective health measures, and exploit the quasi-experimental situation of the postreunification economic crisis in East Germany.

METHODS

Data were drawn from two waves of the longitudinal German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (2003-2006, 2014-2017). We compared 392 East Germans who were exposed to the economic crisis in utero and at ages 0-5 with 1123 of their West German counterparts using propensity score matching on individual and family characteristics. We assessed blood pressure, cholesterol, blood fat and body mass index (BMI); both combined as above-average metabolic health risks and individually at ages 19-30.

RESULTS

Early-life exposure to the economic crisis significantly increased the number of above-average metabolic health risks in young adulthood by 0.1482 (95% CI 0.0169 to 0.2796), which was 5.8% higher compared with no exposure. Among individuals exposed in utero, only females showed significant effects. Early-life exposure to the economic crisis was associated with increased systolic (0.9969, 95% CI -0.2806 to 2.2743) and diastolic blood pressure (0.6786, 95% CI -0.0802 to 1.4373), and with increased BMI (0.0245, 95% CI -0.6516 to 0.7001).

CONCLUSION

The increased metabolic health risks found for women exposed to the postreunification economic crisis in-utero are likely attributable to increased economic stress. While the observed differences are small, they may foreshadow the emergence of greater health disparities in older age.

Prenatal stress perturbs fetal iron homeostasis in a sex specific manner

The adverse effects of maternal prenatal stress (PS) on child's neurodevelopment warrant the establishment of biomarkers that enable early interventional therapeutic strategies. We performed a prospective matched double cohort study screening 2000 pregnant women in third trimester with Cohen Perceived Stress Scale-10 (PSS-10) questionnaire; 164 participants were recruited and classified as stressed and control group (SG, CG). Fetal cord blood iron parameters of 107 patients were measured at birth. Transabdominal electrocardiograms-based Fetal Stress Index (FSI) was derived. We investigated sex contribution to group differences and conducted causal inference analyses to assess the total effect of PS exposure on iron homeostasis using a directed acyclic graph (DAG) approach. Differences are reported for p < 0.05 unless noted otherwise. Transferrin saturation was lower in male stressed neonates. The minimum adjustment set of the DAG to estimate the total effect of PS exposure on fetal ferritin iron biomarkers consisted of maternal age and socioeconomic status: SG revealed a 15% decrease in fetal ferritin compared with CG. Mean FSI was higher among SG than among CG. FSI-based timely detection of fetuses affected by PS can support early individualized iron supplementation and neurodevelopmental follow-up to prevent long-term sequelae due to PS-exacerbated impairment of the iron homeostasis.

Association between visceral adipose tissue and major depressive disorder across the lifespan: A scoping review

OBJECTIVES

Increasing evidence supports a bidirectional relationship between major depressive disorder (MDD) and obesity, but the role of visceral adipose tissue (VAT) as a measure of obesity in relation to MDD is not well understood. Here we review literature investigating the link between MDD and VAT in terms of biomarkers, sex differences, and aging.

METHODS

PubMed, EMBASE, PsycINFO, and CINAHL searches were conducted on December 11, 2020. No date or language limits were imposed. Major concepts searched were Depressive Disorder linked with Adipose Tissue, White, Hypothalmo-Hypophyseal System, and Pituitary-Adrenal System in addition to keywords. A final set of 32 items meeting criteria for inclusion.

RESULTS

Converging biological evidence suggests a significant bidirectional relationship between VAT and MDD across the lifespan. In adulthood, greater VAT was associated with increased risk for depression, especially in vulnerable groups such as individuals who are overweight/obese, postmenopausal women, and individuals with comorbid medical or psychiatric illness. In older adults, sarcopenia had an impact on the relationship between abnormal VAT and risk of depression. Additionally, sex differences emerged as a potential factor affecting the strength of the association between VAT and depression.

CONCLUSIONS

Elucidating the pathophysiological mechanisms associated with increased rates of depression in obese individuals will be crucial for developing specific treatment strategies that seek to improve outcomes in individuals with comorbid depression and obesity. Moreover, identifying age- and sex-specific risk factors may contribute to a more personalized medicine approach, thereby improving the quality of clinical care.

Acute and Protracted Prenatal Stress Produce Mood Disorder-Like and Ethanol Drinking Behaviors in Male and Female Adult Offspring

Background

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a complex and chronic relapsing brain disease, which is often co-morbid with psychiatric disorders such as anxiety and depression. AUD phenotypes differ in men and women. Although genetic factors play an important role in its pathophysiology, epidemiologic evidence suggests that during prenatal development, individuals are more vulnerable to the negative effects of environmental factors that may predispose them to AUD later in life. We explored the effects of prenatal stress on the development of AUD phenotypes as well as anxiety- and depression-like behaviors using rat model.

Methods

In this study, timed-pregnant Sprague Dawley dams were used. Dams in the control group were left undisturbed throughout gestation, whereas dams in stress groups were either subjected to protracted or acute restraint stress under bright light. At adulthood, the anxiety-like, ethanol drinking, and sucrose drinking behaviors were measured using the Light/Dark Box test and two-bottle free-choice procedure.

Results

Compared to the control group, both the male and female offspring in the stress groups exhibited anxiety-like behavior and consumed significantly higher amounts of ethanol in which the acute stress group demonstrated the higher ethanol preference. Moreover, male but not female offspring from the stress groups had decreased sucrose preferences.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that protracted and acute prenatal stress in late pregnancy can induce in anxiety-, depressive-like behaviors, and excessive ethanol intake in adult offspring.

Protocol for a Cross-Sectional Study: Effects of a Multiple Sclerosis Relapse Therapy With Methylprednisolone on Offspring Neurocognitive Development and Behavior (MS-Children)

Introduction

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is the most common neuroimmunological disease in women of childbearing age. Current MS therapy consists of immunomodulatory relapse prevention with disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) and acute relapse therapy with the synthetic glucocorticoid (GC) methylprednisolone (MP). As most DMTs are not approved for use during pregnancy, treatment is usually discontinued, increasing the risk for relapses. While MP therapy during pregnancy is considered relatively save for the fetus, it may be detrimental for later cognitive and neuropsychiatric function. The underlying mechanism is thought to be an epigenetically mediated desensitization of GC receptors, the subsequent increase in stress sensitivity, and a GC-mediated impairment of brain development. The aim of this study is to investigate the associations of fetal MP exposure in the context of MS relapse therapy with later cognitive function, brain development, stress sensitivity, and behavior.

Methods and Analysis

Eighty children aged 8–18 years of mothers with MS will be recruited. Forty children, exposed to GC in utero will be compared to 40 children without fetal GC exposure. The intelligence quotient will serve as primary outcome. Secondary outcomes will include attention, motor development, emotional excitability, Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder-related symptoms, and behavioral difficulties. The Trier Social Stress Test will test stress sensitivity, EEG and MRI will assess functional and structural brain development. To determine underlying mechanisms, DNA methylation of the GC receptor gene and the H19/IGF2 locus and changes in the microbiome and the metabolome will be investigated. Primary and secondary outcomes will be analyzed using linear regression models. Time-variant outcomes of the stress test will be analyzed in two mixed linear models exploring overall activity and change from baseline.

Ethics and Dissemination

This study was approved by the participating institutions' ethics committees and results will be presented in accordance with the STROBE 2007 Statement.

Trial Registration

https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04832269?id=ZKSJ0130

[Maternal depression and child development: A prospective analysis of consequences, risk and protective factors]

Maternal depression and child development: A prospective analysis of consequences, risk and protective factors Abstract. Objective: Maternal stress, specifically maternal mental health problems, are considered risk factors for child development. The literature suggests that prenatal depressive symptoms as well as depressive symptoms are a widespread phenomenon during the further development of the child and have repeatedly been shown to have adverse effects on child mental health outcomes. The present study examined the longitudinal relationships between maternal depression (prenatal, postnatal, during childhood and adolescence) and child mental health from childhood to adolescence. Possible risk and protective factors were also considered. Method: N = 112 mothers were assessed for depressive symptoms via a questionnaire at four different timepoints (prenatal, T1; postnatal, T2; during childhood, T3; during adolescence, T4). Children's externalizing and internalizing symptoms (50.9 % girls) were assessed by their mothers both during childhood (M = 7.68, SD = 0.76 years) and during adolescence (M = 13.23, SD = 0.27 years). We evaluated the relationships between maternal depressive symptoms and children's externalizing/internalizing symptoms using multiple regression models and analyzed possible risk and protective factors using moderation analysis. Results: Externalizing/Internalizing symptoms were not directly associated with maternal depressive symptoms, while associations between such symptoms and maladaptive behavior were found in adolescents. The socioeconomic status of families showed a different risk profile for prenatal and postnatal depressive symptoms. The IQ of the children proved to be a risk factor for internalizing symptoms. Conclusions: Maternal depressive symptoms at any time during child development - in combination with further risk factors - have an impact on child mental health. The early identification of maternal symptoms followed by interventions to differentiate between prenatal and postnatal depression - especially in the context of socioeconomic status - are highly relevant for child development.

Residential greenness and hair cortisol levels during the first trimester of pregnancy

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Studies have shown that increased maternal cortisol level is associated with child adverse health outcomes. Hair cortisol (HC) is suitable for assessing long-term circulating cortisol concentration. Only two previous studies reported beneficial associations between cortisol and residential greenness during pregnancy and no study focused on the first trimester. Our aim was to evaluate the association between residential greenness and first trimester HC levels among pregnant women in Israel.

METHODS

Women were recruited during second and third trimesters. Hair samples were collected from the scalp and retrospective HC levels during the first trimester were quantified for 217 women. HC levels were natural log transformed and outliers were excluded. Based on geocoded birth address, small area sociodemographic status (SES) and mean residential surrounding greenness were calculated using high-resolution satellite-based Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data at 100, 300 and 500-m buffers in a cross-sectional approach. In addition, longitudinal exposure to mean greenness during a week preconception and during the first trimester were calculated. Missing covariates were imputed and linearity of the associations were evaluated. Generalized linear models were used to estimate the crude and adjusted associations controlled for the relevant covariates.

RESULTS

After exclusion of outliers, for 211 women, crude and adjusted beneficial associations between exposure to higher mean NDVI and HC levels were observed for all the exposure measures. An increase in 1 interquartile range of greenness (100 m buffer) was associated with a statistically significant lower estimated natural log mean HC level (-0.27 95% CI: -0.44; -0.11). The associations were robust to adjustment for covariates. The findings were consistent for different buffers, for the longitudinal approach, when all observations were included in the analysis and slightly stronger associations were observed for women with addresses geocoded at the home or street level. For most of the exposure measures, stronger associations were observed among those of lower sociodemographic status.

CONCLUSION

Our findings that more greenness associated with reduced maternal cortisol levels measured in the hair during the first trimester, could have substantial implications for urban planners and public health professional. If our observations will be replicated, it may present a useful avenue for public-health intervention to promote health through the provision of greenness exposure during early pregnancy, specifically to disadvantage populations.

Immunological and other biological correlates of the impact of antenatal depression on the mother-infant relationship

Antenatal depression affects up to 20% of pregnancies, yet research has historically focused on postnatal depression and its effects on mothers and their offspring. Studies are now emerging highlighting the impact that depression in pregnancy can also carry on both members of the dyad, including difficulties with psychological, physical, and social functioning. More specifically, researchers have begun to examine whether antenatal depression may lead to difficulties in the developing mother-infant relationship and subsequent infant attachment. While much of the research on this has explored psychosocial mechanisms behind the pathway from antenatal depression to a disrupted relationship in the postpartum, few studies have looked at biological underpinnings of this process. Of the literature that exists, it has been found that mothers with depression in pregnancy have lower levels of oxytocin and increased levels of inflammatory markers, plausibly creating difficulties in the mother-infant bonding process, leading to impaired mother-infant interactions and non-secure infant attachment. Furthermore, infants with non-secure attachments are at risk of entering a proinflammatory state due to a dysregulated stress response system. Overall, the literature on the neurobiology of mother-infant interactions and infant attachment in the context of antenatal depression is sparse, thus warranting future research.

Blubber Cortisol-Based Approach to Explore the Endocrine Responses of Indo-Pacific Humpback Dolphins (Sousa chinensis) to Diet Shifts and Contaminant Exposure

The detrimental effects of contaminant exposure and changes in the availability of food resources are still of concern for Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins (Sousa chinensis) of the Pearl River Estuary (PRE). Here, we validated and applied a blubber cortisol biomarker approach to assess the physiological responses of PRE dolphins to various pollutants and diet changes during 2008-2018 (n = 70). For calves, generalized additive models (GAMs) revealed that cortisol levels varied significantly by month and were positively correlated with the body length, owing to significant maternal transfer of hormones. The significantly positive correlation between length-adjusted cortisol levels in calf and the annual calf mortality ratios suggested that during years of high calf mortality, these animals were highly stressed before they die. For noncalves, blubber cortisol levels in diseased animals were significantly higher than those in "healthy" ones. Chromium (Cr) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes displayed a significant and positive relationship with blubber cortisol levels, suggesting that contaminant-mediated endocrine disruption effects may have occurred in noncalves. The GAMs indicated a decreasing trend of noncalf's blubber cortisol levels over an 11-year span, which can be explained by their declining contaminant accumulation levels due to a significant dietary shift from eating highly contaminated fishes to less polluted ones.

Trends in Research of Prenatal Stress From 2011 to 2021: A Bibliometric Study

BACKGROUND

Maternal stress during pregnancy can raise the risk of mental disorders in offspring. The continuous emergence of clinical concepts and the introduction of new technologies are great challenges. In this study, through bibliometric analysis, the research trends and hotspots on prenatal stress (PS) were explored to comprehend clinical treatments and recommend future scientific research directions.

METHODS

Studies on PS published on the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) database between 2011 and 2021 were reviewed. Bibliometric analysis was conducted according to the number of publications, keywords, journals, citations, affiliations, and countries. With the data collected from the WoSCC, visualization of geographic distribution; clustering analysis of keywords, affiliations, and authors; and descriptive analysis and review of PS were carried out.

RESULTS

A total of 7,087 articles published in 2011-2021 were retrieved. During this period, the number of publications increased. Psychoneuroendocrinology is the leading journal on PS. The largest contributor was the United States. The University of California system was leading among institutions conducting relevant research. Wang H, King S, and Tain YL were scholars with significant contributions. Hotspots were classified into four clusters, namely, pregnancy, prenatal stress, oxidative stress, and growth.

CONCLUSION

The number of studies on PS increased. Journals, countries, institutions, researchers with the most contributions, and most cited articles worldwide were extracted. Studies have mostly concentrated on treating diseases, the application of new technologies, and the analysis of epidemiological characteristics. Multidisciplinary integration is becoming the focus of current development. Epigenetics is increasingly used in studies on PS. Thus, it constitutes a solid foundation for future clinical medical and scientific research.

Obesity and Maternal-Placental-Fetal Immunology and Health

Obesity rates in women of childbearing age is now at 29%, according to recent CDC reports. It is known that obesity is associated with oxidative stress and inflammation, including disruptions in cellular function and cytokine levels. In pregnant women who are obese, associated placental dysfunction can lead to small for gestational age (SGA) infants. More frequently, however, maternal obesity is associated with large for gestational age (LGA) newborns, who also have higher incidence of metabolic disease and asthma due to elevated levels of inflammation. In addition, anthropogenic environmental exposures to "endocrine disrupting" and "forever" chemicals affect obesity, as well as maternal physiology, the placenta, and fetal development. Placental function is intimately associated with the control of inflammation during pregnancy. There is a large amount of literature examining the relationship of placental immunology, both cellular and humoral, with pregnancy and neonatal outcomes. Cells such as placental macrophages and NK cells have been implicated in spontaneous miscarriage, preeclampsia, preterm birth, perinatal neuroinflammation, and other post-natal conditions. Differing levels of placental cytokines and molecular inflammatory mediators also have known associations with preeclampsia and developmental outcomes. In this review, we will specifically examine the literature regarding maternal, placental, and fetal immunology and how it is altered by maternal obesity and environmental chemicals. We will additionally describe the relationship between placental immune function and clinical outcomes, including neonatal conditions, autoimmune disease, allergies, immunodeficiency, metabolic and endocrine conditions, neurodevelopment, and psychiatric disorders.

Co-occurrence of preconception maternal childhood adversity and opioid use during pregnancy: Implications for offspring brain development

Understanding of the effects of in utero opioid exposure on neurodevelopment is a priority given the recent dramatic increase in opioid use among pregnant individuals. However, opioid abuse does not occur in isolation-pregnant individuals abusing opioids often have a significant history of adverse experiences in childhood, among other co-occurring factors. Understanding the specific pathways in which these frequently co-occurring factors may interact and cumulatively influence offspring brain development in utero represents a priority for future research in this area. We highlight maternal history of childhood adversity (CA) as one such co-occurring factor that is more prevalent among individuals using opioids during pregnancy and which is increasingly shown to affect offspring neurodevelopment through mechanisms beginning in utero. Despite the high incidence of CA history in pregnant individuals using opioids, we understand very little about the effects of comorbid prenatal opioid exposure and maternal CA history on fetal brain development. Here, we first provide an overview of current knowledge regarding effects of opioid exposure and maternal CA on offspring neurodevelopment that may occur during gestation. We then outline potential mechanistic pathways through which these factors might have interactive and cumulative influences on offspring neurodevelopment as a foundation for future research in this area.

Awareness of maternal stress, consequences for the offspring and the need for early interventions to increase stress resilience

Experimental and clinical studies suggest that prenatal experiences may influence health trajectories up to adulthood and high age. According to the hypothesis of developmental origins of health and disease exposure of pregnant women to stress, nutritional challenges, infection, violence, or war may "program" risks for diseases in later life. Stress and anxieties can exist or be provoked in parents after fertility treatment, after information or diagnosis of fetal abnormalities and demand simultaneous caring concepts to support the parents. In vulnerable groups, it is therefore important to increase the stress resilience to avoid harmful consequences for the growing child. "Enriched environment" defines a key paradigm to decipher how interactions between genes and environment change the structure and function of the brain. The regulation of the fetal hippocampal neurogenesis and morphology during pregnancy is one example of this complex interaction. Animal experiments have demonstrated that an enriched environment can revert consequences of stress in the offspring during critical periods of brain plasticity. Epigenetic markers of stress or wellbeing during pregnancy might even be diagnosed by fragments of placental DNA in the maternal circulation that show characteristic methylation patterns. The development of fetal senses further illustrates how external stimulation may impact individual preferences. Here, we therefore not only discuss how maternal stress influences cognitive development and resilience, but also design possibilities of non-invasive interventions for both mothers and children summarized and evaluated in the light of their potential to improve the health of future generations.

Acute relaxation during pregnancy leads to a reduction in maternal electrodermal activity and self-reported stress levels

BACKGROUND

Prenatal maternal stress can have adverse effects on birth outcomes and fetal development. Relaxation techniques have been examined as potential countermeasures. This study investigates different relaxation techniques and their effect on self-reported stress levels and physiological stress levels in pregnant women.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, 38 pregnant women in their 30th to 40th gestational week were assigned to one of three, 20-min lasting relaxation groups: listening to music (N = 12), following a guided imagery (N = 12) or resting (N = 12). The intervention, i.e., acute relaxation (music, guided imagery or resting) took place once for each study participant. Study inclusion criteria were age over 18 years, German speaking, singleton and uncomplicated pregnancy during the 30th and 40th week of gestation. The stress levels were determined during the study. Current stress level during the study was assessed by a visual analogue scale. Chronic stress levels were assessed by the Trier Inventory of Chronic Stress and the Pregnancy Distress questionnaire. Multivariate analyses of covariance were performed and dependent measures included stress levels as well as physiological measures, i.e., cardiovascular activity (electrocardiogram) and skin conductance levels.

RESULTS

All three forms of relaxation led to reduced maternal stress which manifested itself in significantly decreased skin conductance, F(3,94) = 18.011, p = .001, η_p² = .365, and subjective stress levels after the interventions with no significant group difference. Post-intervention stress ratings were further affected by gestational age, with less subjective relaxation in women later in gestation, F (1, 34)=4.971, p = .032, η_p² = .128.

CONCLUSION

Independent of relaxation technique, single, 20-min relaxation intervention (music, guided imagery or resting) can significantly reduce maternal stress. Notably, women at an earlier stage in their pregnancy reported higher relaxation after the intervention than women later in gestation. Hence, gestational age may influence perceived stress levels and should be considered when evaluating relaxation or stress management interventions during pregnancy.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Not applicable.

Maternal P7C3-A20 Treatment Protects Offspring from Neuropsychiatric Sequelae of Prenatal Stress

Aims: Impaired embryonic cortical interneuron development from prenatal stress is linked to adult neuropsychiatric impairment, stemming in part from excessive generation of reactive oxygen species in the developing embryo. Unfortunately, there are no preventive medicines that mitigate the risk of prenatal stress to the embryo, as the underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms are poorly understood. Our goal was to interrogate the molecular basis of prenatal stress-mediated damage to the embryonic brain to identify a neuroprotective strategy. Results: Chronic prenatal stress in mice dysregulated nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) synthesis enzymes and cortical interneuron development in the embryonic brain, leading to axonal degeneration in the hippocampus, cognitive deficits, and depression-like behavior in adulthood. Offspring were protected from these deleterious effects by concurrent maternal administration of the NAD⁺-modulating agent P7C3-A20, which crossed the placenta to access the embryonic brain. Prenatal stress also produced axonal degeneration in the adult corpus callosum, which was not prevented by maternal P7C3-A20. Innovation: Prenatal stress dysregulates gene expression of NAD⁺-synthesis machinery and GABAergic interneuron development in the embryonic brain, which is associated with adult cognitive impairment and depression-like behavior. We establish a maternally directed treatment that protects offspring from these effects of prenatal stress. Conclusion: NAD⁺-synthesis machinery and GABAergic interneuron development are critical to proper embryonic brain development underlying postnatal neuropsychiatric functioning, and these systems are highly susceptible to prenatal stress. Pharmacologic stabilization of NAD⁺ in the stressed embryonic brain may provide a neuroprotective strategy that preserves normal embryonic development and protects offspring from neuropsychiatric impairment. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 35, 511-530.

Maternal exposure to psychosocial job strain during pregnancy and behavioral problems in the 11-year-old children: a Danish cohort study

Maternal psychosocial stress may impact child neurodevelopment, but little is known regarding psychosocial job strain. We hypothesized high psychosocial job strain during pregnancy was associated with behavioural problems in the 11-year-old children. Mothers in the Danish National Birth Cohort (1996-2002) were included if they worked, provided information on job strain [Karasek's model: high job strain (often job demand/seldom job control) and passive (seldom or sometimes job demands/seldom job control)] during early pregnancy. At the 11-year follow-up, children (N = 30,592), mothers (N = 30,993), and teachers (N = 12,810) responded to the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), a screening tool for child behaviour. Scores for hyperactivity, conduct, emotional and peer problems were dichotomised [80% (no) vs. 20% (yes)] according to Danish norms (yes/no). Maternal job strain was not associated with behavioural problems with teachers as informants. When assessed by child or mother, high maternal job strain increased risk of child behavioural problems, but risks were more pronounced for mothers in passive jobs [maternal assessment of total difficulties/odds ratio (95% confidence interval): high strain-girls: 1.16 (0.97-1.40); boys: 1.24 (1.02-1.50). Passive girls: 1.43 (1.21-1.68); boys: 1.25 (1.05-1.49)]. This is one of the first studies on this topic. The different types of maternal job strain were partly associated with child behavioural problems at 11 years; more so if mothers worked in passive rather than the hypothesized high strain jobs. Findings showing dependency on informant could not only indicate unmeasured confounding or rater's bias, but also selection in the smaller numbers of teacher informants or different environments of interaction with the children.