Hook3 interacts with PCM1 to regulate pericentriolar material assembly and the timing of neurogenesis

Nuclei as mechanical bumpers during epithelial remodeling

The morphogenesis of developing tissues relies on extensive cellular rearrangements in shape, position, and identity. A key process in reshaping tissues is cell intercalation-driven elongation, where epithelial cells align and intercalate along a common axis. Typically, analyses focus on how peripheral cortical forces influence cell shape changes. Less attention is given to how inhomogeneities in internal structures, particularly the nucleus, impact cell shaping. Here, we examine how pulsed contractile and extension dynamics interact with the nucleus in elongating Drosophila embryos. Our data show that tightly packed nuclei in apical layers hinder tissue remodeling/oscillatory behaviors. We identify two mechanisms for resolving internuclear tensions: nuclear deformation and dispersion. Embryos with non-deformable nuclei use nuclear dispersion to maintain near-normal extensile rates, while those with non-dispersible nuclei due to microtubule inhibition exhibit disruptions in contractile behaviors. Disrupting both mechanisms leads to severe tissue extension defects and cell extrusion. These findings highlight the critical role of nuclear shape and positioning in topological remodeling of epithelia.

Proximity-dependent biotinylation reveals an interaction between ubiquitin-specific peptidase 46 and centrosome-related proteins

Protein ubiquitination extensively modulates protein functions and controls various biological processes, such as protein degradation, signal transduction, transcription, and DNA repair. Ubiquitination is a reversible post-translational modification, and deubiquitinating enzymes cleave ubiquitin from proteins. Ubiquitin-specific peptidase 46 (USP46), a deubiquitinase, is highly expressed in the brain and regulates neural functions. Deleting lysine 92 (ΔK92) in USP46 reduces murine depression-like behavior in the tail suspension test. However, the molecular basis for USP46's role in regulating neural function has not yet been fully understood. Here we employed a proximity-dependent biotinylation approach to characterize the USP46 protein interaction partners. Using homology-independent targeted integration (HITI), a genome editing technique, we established knockin cell lines that stably express USP46 wildtype- or ΔK92-biotin ligase fusion protein. We identified 286 candidate interaction partners, including well-known binding partners of USP46. Although there were no obvious differences in the interactome of USP46 between wildtype and ΔK92, a gene ontology analysis revealed that centrosome-related proteins were significantly enriched in the proximal proteins of USP46. Several centrosome-related proteins were bound to USP46 in Neuro2a cells, but their protein expression levels were not affected in the brains of USP46-deficient mice. These results uncover a potential relationship between USP46 and centrosome regulation independently of protein stabilization.

KIF1C facilitates retrograde transport of lysosomes through Hook3 and dynein

Lysosomes, crucial cellular organelles, undergo bidirectional transport along microtubules, mediated by motor proteins such as cytoplasmic dynein-1 (dynein) and various kinesins. While the kinesin-3 family member KIF1C is established in mediating anterograde vesicle transport, its role in lysosomal transport remains unclear. Our study reveals that KIF1C unexpectedly supports the retrograde transport of lysosomes, driven by dynein, and contributes to their perinuclear localization. Notably, while KIF1C facilitates this perinuclear positioning, its motor activity is not required and, instead, exerts an inhibitory effect on this process. Mechanistically, KIF1C facilitates this process by interacting with the dynein-activating adaptor Hook3, which associates with the lysosome-anchored protein RUFY3. This regulatory mechanism is critical for the efficient degradation of cargo in autophagic and endocytic pathways. Our findings identify an unconventional, non-motor role for KIF1C in activating dynein-driven lysosomal transport, expanding our understanding of its functional diversity in cellular trafficking.

Radial glia progenitor polarity in health and disease

Radial glia (RG) are the main progenitor cell type in the developing cortex. These cells are highly polarized, with a long basal process spanning the entire thickness of the cortex and acting as a support for neuronal migration. The RG cell terminates by an endfoot that contacts the pial (basal) surface. A shorter apical process also terminates with an endfoot that faces the ventricle, with a primary cilium protruding in the cerebrospinal fluid. These cell domains have particular subcellular compositions that are critical for the correct functioning of RG. When altered, this can affect proper development of the cortex, ultimately leading to cortical malformations, associated with different pathological outcomes. In this review, we focus on the current knowledge concerning the cell biology of these bipolar stem cells and discuss the role of their polarity in health and disease.

Human Accelerated Regions regulate gene networks implicated in apical-to-basal neural progenitor fate transitions

The evolution of the human cerebral cortex involved modifications in the composition and proliferative potential of the neural stem cell (NSC) niche during brain development. Human Accelerated Regions (HARs) exhibit a significant excess of human-specific sequence changes and have been implicated in human brain evolution. Multiple studies support that HARs include neurodevelopmental enhancers with novel activities in humans, but their biological functions in NSCs have not been empirically assessed at scale. Here we conducted a direct-capture Perturb-seq screen repressing 180 neurodevelopmentally active HARs in human iPSC-derived NSCs with single-cell transcriptional readout. After profiling >188,000 NSCs, we identified a set of HAR perturbations with convergent transcriptional effects on gene networks involved in NSC apicobasal polarity, a cellular process whose precise regulation is critical to the developmental emergence of basal radial glia (bRG), a progenitor population that is expanded in humans. Across multiple HAR perturbations, we found convergent dysregulation of specific apicobasal polarity and adherens junction regulators, including PARD3, ABI2, SETD2 , and PCM1 . We found that the repression of one candidate from the screen, HAR181, as well as its target gene CADM1 , disrupted apical PARD3 localization and NSC rosette formation. Our findings reveal interconnected roles for HARs in NSC biology and cortical development and link specific HARs to processes implicated in human cortical expansion.

PCM1 conveys centrosome asymmetry to polarized endosome dynamics in regulating daughter cell fate

Vertebrate radial glia progenitors (RGPs), the principal neural stem cells, balance self-renewal and differentiation through asymmetric cell division (ACD), during which unequal inheritance of centrosomes is observed. Mechanistically, how centrosome asymmetry leads to distinct daughter cell fate remains largely unknown. Here we find that the centrosome protein Pericentriolar Material 1 (Pcm1), asymmetrically distributed at the centrosomes, regulates polarized endosome dynamics and RGP fate. In vivo time-lapse imaging and nanoscale-resolution expansion microscopy of zebrafish embryonic RGPs detect Pcm1 on Notch ligand-containing endosomes, in a complex with the polarity regulator Par-3 and dynein motor. Loss of pcm1 disrupts endosome dynamics, with clonal analysis uncovering increased neuronal production at the expense of progenitors. Pcm1 facilitates an exchange of Rab5b (early) for Rab11a (recycling) endosome markers and promotes the formation of Par-3 and dynein macromolecular complexes on recycling endosomes. Finally, in human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived brain organoids, PCM1 shows asymmetry and co-localization with PARD3 and RAB11A in mitotic neural progenitors. Our data reveal a new mechanism by which centrosome asymmetry is conveyed by Pcm1 to polarize endosome dynamics and Notch signaling in regulating ACD and progenitor fate.

Navigating centriolar satellites: the role of PCM1 in cellular and organismal processes

Centriolar satellites are ubiquitous membrane-less organelles that play critical roles in numerous cellular and organismal processes. They were initially discovered through electron microscopy as cytoplasmic granules surrounding centrosomes in vertebrate cells. These structures remained enigmatic until the identification of pericentriolar material 1 protein (PCM1) as their molecular marker, which has enabled their in-depth characterization. Recently, centriolar satellites have come into the spotlight due to their links to developmental and neurodegenerative disorders. This review presents a comprehensive summary of the major advances in centriolar satellite biology, with a focus on studies that investigated their biology associated with the essential scaffolding protein PCM1. We begin by exploring the molecular, cellular, and biochemical properties of centriolar satellites, laying the groundwork for a deeper understanding of their functions and mechanisms at both cellular and organismal levels. We then examine the implications of their dysregulation in various diseases, particularly highlighting their emerging roles in neurodegenerative and developmental disorders, as revealed by organismal models of PCM1. We conclude by discussing the current state of knowledge and posing questions about the adaptable nature of these organelles, thereby setting the stage for future research.

Necrosulfonamide causes oxidation of PCM1 and impairs ciliogenesis and autophagy

Centriolar satellites are high-order assemblies, scaffolded by the protein PCM1, that gravitate as particles around the centrosome and play pivotal roles in fundamental cellular processes notably ciliogenesis and autophagy. Despite stringent control mechanisms involving phosphorylation and ubiquitination, the landscape of post-translational modifications shaping these structures remains elusive. Here, we report that necrosulfonamide (NSA), a small molecule known for binding and inactivating the pivotal effector of cell death by necroptosis MLKL, intersects with centriolar satellites, ciliogenesis, and autophagy independently of MLKL. NSA functions as a potent redox cycler and triggers the oxidation and aggregation of PCM1 alongside select partners, while minimally impacting the overall distribution of centriolar satellites. Additionally, NSA-mediated ROS production disrupts ciliogenesis and leads to the accumulation of autophagy markers, partially alleviated by PCM1 deletion. Together, these results identify PCM1 as a redox sensor protein and provide new insights into the interplay between centriolar satellites and autophagy.

The centrosomal protein 131 participates in the regulation of mitochondrial apoptosis

Centriolar satellites are multiprotein aggregates that orbit the centrosome and govern centrosome homeostasis and primary cilia formation. In contrast to the scaffold PCM1, which nucleates centriolar satellites and has been linked to microtubule dynamics, autophagy, and intracellular trafficking, the functions of its interactant CEP131 beyond ciliogenesis remain unclear. Using a knockout strategy in a non-ciliary T-cell line, we report that, although dispensable for centriolar satellite assembly, CEP131 participates in optimal tubulin glycylation and polyglutamylation, and microtubule regrowth. Our unsupervised label-free proteomic analysis by quantitative mass spectrometry further uncovered mitochondrial and apoptotic signatures. CEP131-deficient cells showed an elongated mitochondrial network. Upon cell death inducers targeting mitochondria, knockout cells displayed delayed cytochrome c release from mitochondria, subsequent caspase activation, and apoptosis. This mitochondrial permeabilization defect was intrinsic, and replicable in vitro with isolated organelles. These findings extend CEP131 functions to life-and-death decisions and propose ways to interfere with mitochondrial apoptosis.

The microtubule cytoskeleton of radial glial progenitor cells

A high number of genetic mutations associated with cortical malformations are found in genes coding for microtubule-related factors. This has stimulated research to understand how the various microtubule-based processes are regulated to build a functional cerebral cortex. Here, we focus our review on the radial glial progenitor cells, the stem cells of the developing neocortex, summarizing research mostly performed in rodents and humans. We highlight how the centrosomal and acentrosomal microtubule networks are organized during interphase to support polarized transport and proper attachment of the apical and basal processes. We describe the molecular mechanism for interkinetic nuclear migration (INM), a microtubule-dependent oscillation of the nucleus. Finally, we describe how the mitotic spindle is built to ensure proper chromosome segregation, with a strong focus on factors mutated in microcephaly.

Identification of Novel Candidate Genes for Familial Thyroid Cancer by Whole Exome Sequencing

Thyroid carcinoma (TC) can be classified as medullary (MTC) and non-medullary (NMTC). While most TCs are sporadic, familial forms of MTC and NMTC also exist (less than 1% and 3-9% of all TC cases, respectively). Germline mutations in RET are found in more than 95% of familial MTC, whereas familial NMTC shows a high degree of genetic heterogeneity. Herein, we aimed to identify susceptibility genes for familial NMTC and non-RET MTC by whole exome sequencing in 58 individuals belonging to 18 Spanish families with these carcinomas. After data analysis, 53 rare candidate segregating variants were identified in 12 of the families, 7 of them located in previously TC-associated genes. Although no common mutated genes were detected, biological processes regulating functions such as cell proliferation, differentiation, survival and adhesion were enriched. The reported functions of the identified genes together with pathogenicity and structural predictions, reinforced the candidacy of 36 of them, suggesting new loci related to TC and novel genotype-phenotype correlations. Therefore, our strategy provides clues to possible molecular mechanisms underlying familial forms of MTC and NMTC. These new molecular findings and clinical data of patients may be helpful for the early detection, development of tailored therapies and optimizing patient management.

Drug Repurposing: The Mechanisms and Signaling Pathways of Anti-Cancer Effects of Anesthetics

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. There are only limited treatment strategies that can be applied to treat cancer, including surgical resection, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, but these have only limited effectiveness. Developing a new drug for cancer therapy is protracted, costly, and inefficient. Recently, drug repurposing has become a rising research field to provide new meaning for an old drug. By searching a drug repurposing database ReDO_DB, a brief list of anesthetic/sedative drugs, such as haloperidol, ketamine, lidocaine, midazolam, propofol, and valproic acid, are shown to possess anti-cancer properties. Therefore, in the current review, we will provide a general overview of the anti-cancer mechanisms of these anesthetic/sedative drugs and explore the potential underlying signaling pathways and clinical application of these drugs applied individually or in combination with other anti-cancer agents.

Function of Centriolar Satellites and Regulation by Post-Translational Modifications

Centriolar satellites are small membrane-less granules that gravitate around the centrosome. Recent advances in defining the satellite proteome and interactome have unveiled hundreds of new satellite components thus illustrating the complex nature of these particles. Although initially linked to the homeostasis of centrosome and the formation of primary cilia, these composite and highly dynamic structures appear to participate in additional cellular processes, such as proteostasis, autophagy, and cellular stress. In this review, we first outline the main features and many roles of centriolar satellites. We then discuss how post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation and ubiquitination, shape their composition and functions. This is of particular interest as interfering with these processes may provide ways to manipulate these structures.

Epigenomic changes after acupuncture treatment in patients suffering from burnout

INTRODUCTION

The effects of acupuncture treatment in patients suffering from burnout may imply an epigenetic control mediated by DNA methylation changes. In this observational study, a genome-wide characterization of epigenetic changes in blood DNA, before and after acupuncture treatment, was performed in a cohort of 11 patients suffering from burnout.

METHODS

Burnout was assessed using the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) and DNA was extracted from blood samples and analyzed by Illumina EPIC BeadChip.

RESULTS

Before acupuncture, all patients suffered of emotional exhaustion (EE) (MBI-EE score, 44±6), 81% suffered of depersonalization (DP) (MBI-DP score, 16±6), and 72% of low feelings of personal accomplishment (PA) (MBI-PA score, 29±9). After acupuncture, all MBI dimensions improved significantly (EE, 16±11 [p=1.5*10-4]; DP, 4±5 [p=5.3*10-4]; and PA, 40±6 [p=4.1*10-3]). For each patient, both methylomes obtained before and after acupuncture co-clustered in the multidimensional scaling plot, indicating a high level of similarity. Genes corresponding to the 10 most differentially methylated CpGs showed enrichment in the brain dopaminergic signalling, steroid synthesis and in the insulin sensitivity pathways.

CONCLUSION

Acupuncture treatment was found to be highly effective on all burnout dimensions and the epigenetic targets identified were involved in some major disturbances of this syndrome.

Evaluation of circulating miRNAs and mRNAs expression patterns in autism spectrum disorder

Background

Autism spectrum disorder is a condition related to brain development that affects a person’s perception and socialization, resulting in problems in social interaction and communication. It has no single known cause, yet several different genes appear to be involved in autism. As a genetically complex disease, dysregulation of miRNA expression and miRNA–mRNA interactions might be a feature of autism spectrum disorder. The aim of the current study was to investigate the expression profile of circulating miRNA-128, miRNA-7 and SHANK gene family in ASD patients and to assess the possible influence of miRNA-128 and miRNA-7 on SHANK genes, which might provide an insight into the pathogenic mechanisms of ASD and introduce noninvasive molecular biomarkers for the disease diagnosis and prognosis. Quantitative real-time PCR technique was employed to determine expression levels of miRNA-128, miRNA-7 and SHANK gene family in blood samples of 40 autistic cases along with 30 age- and sex-matched normal volunteer subjects.

Results

Our study revealed a statistical significant upregulation of miRNA-128 expression levels in ASD cases compared to controls (p value < 0.001). A statistical significant difference in SHANK-3 expression was encountered on comparing cases to controls (p value < 0.001). However, miRNA-7 expression showed no significant difference between the studied groups.

Conclusions

MiRNA-128 and SHANK-3 gene are emerging players in the field of ASD. They are promising candidates as noninvasive biomarkers in autism. Future studies are needed to emphasize their pivotal role.

LncRNA-ENST00000421645 promotes T cells to secrete IFN-γ by sponging PCM1 in neurosyphilis

Aim: Neurosyphilis patients exhibited significant expression of long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) in peripheral blood T lymphocytes. In this study, we further clarified the role of lncRNA-ENST00000421645 in the pathogenic mechanism of neurosyphilis. Methods: lncRNA-ENST00000421645 was transfected into Jurkat-E6-1 cells, namely lentivirus (Lv)-1645 cells. RNA pull-down assay, flow cytometry, RT-qPCR, ELISA (Neobioscience Technology Co Ltd, Shenzhen, China) and RNA immunoprecipitation chip assay were used to analyze the function of lncRNA-ENST00000421645. Results: The expression of IFN-γ in Lv-1645 cells was significantly increased compared to that in Jurkat-E6-1 cells stimulated by phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA). Then, it was suggested that lncRNA-ENST00000421645 interacts with PCM1 protein. Silencing PCM1 significantly increased the level of IFN-γ in Lv-1645 cells stimulated by PMA. Conclusion: This study revealed that lncRNA-ENST00000421645 mediates the production of IFN-γ by sponging PCM1 protein after PMA stimulation.

Midazolam increases cisplatin-sensitivity in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) via the miR-194-5p/HOOK3 axis

Backgrounds

As previously reported, midazolam anesthesia exerts tumor-suppressing effects in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), but the regulating effects of this drug on cisplatin-resistance in NSCLC have not been studied. Thus, we designed this study to investigate this issue and preliminarily delineate the potential molecular mechanisms.

Methods

We performed MTT assay and trypan blue staining assay to measure cell proliferation and viability. Cell apoptosis was examined by FCM. qRT-PCR and immunoblotting were performed to determine the expression levels of genes. The targeting sites between genes were predicted by bioinformatics analysis and were validated by dual-luciferase reporter gene system assay. Mice tumor-bearing models were established and the tumorigenesis was evaluated by measuring tumor weight and volume. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was used to examine the pro-proliferative Ki67 protein expressions in mice tumor tissues.

Results

The cisplatin-resistant NSCLC (CR-NSCLC) cells were treated with high-dose cisplatin (50 μg/ml) and low-dose midazolam (10 μg/ml), and the results showed that midazolam suppressed cell proliferation and viability, and promoted cell apoptosis in cisplatin-treated CR-NSCLC cells. In addition, midazolam enhanced cisplatin-sensitivity in CR-NSCLC cell via modulating the miR-194-5p/hook microtubule-tethering protein 3 (HOOK3) axis. Specifically, midazolam upregulated miR-194-5p, but downregulated HOOK3 in the CR-NSCLC cells, and further results validated that miR-194-5p bound to the 3’ untranslated region (3’UTR) of HOOK3 mRNA for its inhibition. Also, midazolam downregulated HOOK3 in CR-NSCLC cells by upregulating miR-194-5p. Functional experiments validated that both miR-194-5p downregulation and HOOK3 upregulation abrogated the promoting effects of midazolam on cisplatin-sensitivity in CR-NSCLC cells.

Conclusions

Taken together, this study found that midazolam anesthesia reduced cisplatin-resistance in CR-NSCLC cells by regulating the miR-194-5p/HOOK3 axis, implying that midazolam could be used as adjuvant drug for NSCLC treatment in clinical practices.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12935-021-02104-6.

Mitotic HOOK3 phosphorylation by ERK1c drives microtubule-dependent Golgi destabilization and fragmentation

ERK1c is an alternatively spliced isoform of ERK1 that specifically regulates mitotic Golgi fragmentation, which allows division of the Golgi during mitosis. We have previously shown that ERK1c translocates to the Golgi during mitosis where it is activated by a resident MEK1b to induce Golgi fragmentation. However, the mechanism of ERK1c functions in the Golgi remained obscure. Here, we searched for ERK1c substrates and identified HOOK3 as a mediator of ERK1c-induced mitotic Golgi fragmentation, which requires a second phosphorylation by AuroraA for its function. In cycling cells, HOOK3 interacts with microtubules (MTs) and links them to the Golgi. Early in mitosis, HOOK3 is phosphorylated by ERK1c and later by AuroraA, resulting in HOOK3 detachment from the MTs, and elevated interaction with GM130. This detachment modulates Golgi stability and allows fragmentation of the Golgi. This study demonstrates a novel mechanism of Golgi apparatus destabilization early in mitosis to allow mitotic progression.

Unraveling the mysteries of centriolar satellites: time to rewrite the textbooks about the centrosome/cilium complex

Centriolar satellites are membraneless granules that localize and move around centrosomes and cilia. Once referred to as structures with no obvious function, research in the past decade has identified satellites as key regulators of a wide range of cellular and organismal processes. Importantly, these studies have revealed a substantial overlap between functions, proteomes, and disease links of satellites with centrosomes and cilia. Therefore, satellites are now accepted as the “third component” of the vertebrate centrosome/cilium complex, which profoundly changes the way we think about the assembly, maintenance, and remodeling of the complex at the cellular and organismal levels. In this perspective, we first provide an overview of the cellular and structural complexities of centriolar satellites. We then describe the progress in the identification of the satellite interactome, which have paved the way to a molecular understanding of their mechanism of action and assembly mechanisms. After exploring current insights into their functions as recently described by loss-of-function studies and comparative evolutionary approaches, we discuss major unanswered questions regarding their functional and compositional diversity and their functions outside centrosomes and cilia.

Dynamic Polarization of Rab11a Modulates Crb2a Localization and Impacts Signaling to Regulate Retinal Neurogenesis

Interkinetic nuclear migration (IKNM) is the process in which pseudostratified epithelial nuclei oscillate from the apical to basal surface and in phase with the mitotic cycle. In the zebrafish retina, neuroepithelial retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) increase Notch activity with apical movement of the nuclei, and the depth of nuclear migration correlates with the probability that the next cell division will be neurogenic. This study focuses on the mechanisms underlying the relationships between IKNM, cell signaling, and neurogenesis. In particular, we have explored the role IKNM has on endosome biology within RPCs. Through genetic manipulation and live imaging in zebrafish, we find that early (Rab5-positive) and recycling (Rab11a-positive) endosomes polarize in a dynamic fashion within RPCs and with reference to nuclear position. Functional analyses suggest that dynamic polarization of recycling endosomes and their activity within the neuroepithelia modulates the subcellular localization of Crb2a, consequently affecting multiple signaling pathways that impact neurogenesis including Notch, Hippo, and Wnt activities. As nuclear migration is heterogenous and asynchronous among RPCs, Rab11a-affected signaling within the neuroepithelia is modulated in a differential manner, providing mechanistic insight to the correlation of IKNM and selection of RPCs to undergo neurogenesis.

PCM1 is necessary for focal ciliary integrity and is a candidate for severe schizophrenia

The neuronal primary cilium and centriolar satellites have functions in neurogenesis, but little is known about their roles in the postnatal brain. We show that ablation of pericentriolar material 1 in the mouse leads to progressive ciliary, anatomical, psychomotor, and cognitive abnormalities. RNAseq reveals changes in amine- and G-protein coupled receptor pathways. The physiological relevance of this phenotype is supported by decreased available dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) levels and the failure of antipsychotic drugs to rescue adult behavioral defects. Immunoprecipitations show an association with Pcm1 and D2Rs. Finally, we sequence PCM1 in two human cohorts with severe schizophrenia. Systematic modeling of all discovered rare alleles by zebrafish in vivo complementation reveals an enrichment for pathogenic alleles. Our data emphasize a role for the pericentriolar material in the postnatal brain, with progressive degenerative ciliary and behavioral phenotypes; and they support a contributory role for PCM1 in some individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia.

The role of ciliary/centriolar components in the postnatal brain is unclear. Here, the authors show via ablation of Pcm1 in mice that degenerative ciliary/centriolar phenotypes induce neuroanatomical and behavioral changes. Sequencing of PCM1 in human cohorts and zebrafish in vivo complementation suggests PCM1 mutations can contribute to schizophrenia.

CYLD Regulates Centriolar Satellites Proteostasis by Counteracting the E3 Ligase MIB1

The tumor suppressor CYLD is a deubiquitinating enzyme that removes non-degradative ubiquitin linkages bound to a variety of signal transduction adaptors. CYLD participates in the formation of primary cilia, a microtubule-based structure that protrudes from the cell body to act as a "sensing antenna." Yet, how exactly CYLD regulates ciliogenesis is not fully understood. Here, we conducted an unbiased proteomic screen of CYLD binding partners and identified components of the centriolar satellites. These small granular structures, tethered to the scaffold protein pericentriolar matrix protein 1 (PCM1), gravitate toward the centrosome and orchestrate ciliogenesis. CYLD knockdown promotes PCM1 degradation and the subsequent dismantling of the centriolar satellites. We found that CYLD marshals the centriolar satellites by deubiquitinating and preventing the E3 ligase Mindbomb 1 (MIB1) from marking PCM1 for proteasomal degradation. These results link CYLD to the regulation of centriolar satellites proteostasis and provide insight into how reversible ubiquitination finely tunes ciliogenesis.

MECP2 mutations affect ciliogenesis: a novel perspective for Rett syndrome and related disorders

Mutations in MECP2 cause several neurological disorders of which Rett syndrome (RTT) represents the best-defined condition. Although mainly working as a transcriptional repressor, MeCP2 is a multifunctional protein revealing several activities, the involvement of which in RTT remains obscure. Besides being mainly localized in the nucleus, MeCP2 associates with the centrosome, an organelle from which primary cilia originate. Primary cilia function as "sensory antennae" protruding from most cells, and a link between primary cilia and mental illness has recently been reported. We herein demonstrate that MeCP2 deficiency affects ciliogenesis in cultured cells, including neurons and RTT fibroblasts, and in the mouse brain. Consequently, the cilium-related Sonic Hedgehog pathway, which is essential for brain development and functioning, is impaired. Microtubule instability participates in these phenotypes that can be rescued by HDAC6 inhibition together with the recovery of RTT-related neuronal defects. Our data indicate defects of primary cilium as a novel pathogenic mechanism that by contributing to the clinical features of RTT might impact on proper cerebellum/brain development and functioning, thus providing a novel therapeutic target.

A liquid-like spindle domain promotes acentrosomal spindle assembly in mammalian oocytes

Mammalian oocytes segregate chromosomes with a microtubule spindle that lacks centrosomes, but the mechanisms by which acentrosomal spindles are organized and function are largely unclear. In this study, we identify a conserved subcellular structure in mammalian oocytes that forms by phase separation. This structure, which we term the liquid-like meiotic spindle domain (LISD), permeates the spindle poles and forms dynamic protrusions that extend well beyond the spindle. The LISD selectively concentrates multiple microtubule regulatory factors and allows them to diffuse rapidly within the spindle volume. Disruption of the LISD via different means disperses these factors and leads to severe spindle assembly defects. Our data suggest a model whereby the LISD promotes meiotic spindle assembly by serving as a reservoir that sequesters and mobilizes microtubule regulatory factors in proximity to spindle microtubules.

Centriolar satellite biogenesis and function in vertebrate cells

Centriolar satellites are non-membranous cytoplasmic granules that concentrate in the vicinity of the centrosome, the major microtubule-organizing centre (MTOC) in animal cells. Originally assigned as conduits for the transport of proteins towards the centrosome and primary cilium, the complexity of satellites is starting to become apparent. Recent studies defined the satellite proteome and interactomes, placing hundreds of proteins from diverse pathways in association with satellites. In addition, studies on cells lacking satellites have revealed that the centrosome can assemble in their absence, whereas studies on acentriolar cells have demonstrated that satellite assembly is independent from an intact MTOC. A role for satellites in ciliogenesis is well established; however, their contribution to other cellular functions is poorly understood. In this Review, we discuss the developments in our understanding of centriolar satellite assembly and function, and why satellites are rapidly becoming established as governors of multiple cellular processes. We highlight the composition and biogenesis of satellites and what is known about the regulation of these aspects. Furthermore, we discuss the evolution from thinking of satellites as mere facilitators of protein trafficking to the centrosome to thinking of them being key regulators of protein localization and cellular proteostasis for a diverse set of pathways, making them of broader interest to fields beyond those focused on centrosomes and ciliogenesis.

Radial somatic F-actin organization affects growth cone dynamics during early neuronal development

The centrosome is thought to be the major neuronal microtubule-organizing center (MTOC) in early neuronal development, producing microtubules with a radial organization. In addition, albeit in vitro, recent work showed that isolated centrosomes could serve as an actin-organizing center, raising the possibility that neuronal development may, in addition, require a centrosome-based actin radial organization. Here, we report, using super-resolution microscopy and live-cell imaging of cultured rodent neurons, F-actin organization around the centrosome with dynamic F-actin aster-like structures with F-actin fibers extending and retracting actively. Photoactivation/photoconversion experiments and molecular manipulations of F-actin stability reveal a robust flux of somatic F-actin toward the cell periphery. Finally, we show that somatic F-actin intermingles with centrosomal PCM-1 (pericentriolar material 1 protein) satellites. Knockdown of PCM-1 and disruption of centrosomal activity not only affect F-actin dynamics near the centrosome but also in distal growth cones. Collectively, the data show a radial F-actin organization during early neuronal development, which might be a cellular mechanism for providing peripheral regions with a fast and continuous source of actin polymers, hence sustaining initial neuronal development.

Global landscape and genetic regulation of RNA editing in cortical samples from individuals with schizophrenia

RNA editing critically regulates neurodevelopment and normal neuronal function. The global landscape of RNA editing was surveyed across 364 schizophrenia cases and 383 control postmortem brain samples from the CommonMind Consortium, comprising two regions: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex. In schizophrenia, RNA editing sites in genes encoding AMPA-type glutamate receptors and postsynaptic density proteins were less edited, whereas those encoding translation initiation machinery were edited more. These sites replicate between brain regions, map to 3'-untranslated regions and intronic regions, share common sequence motifs and overlap with binding sites for RNA-binding proteins crucial for neurodevelopment. These findings cross-validate in hundreds of non-overlapping dorsolateral prefrontal cortex samples. Furthermore, ~30% of RNA editing sites associate with cis-regulatory variants (editing quantitative trait loci or edQTLs). Fine-mapping edQTLs with schizophrenia risk loci revealed co-localization of eleven edQTLs with six loci. The findings demonstrate widespread altered RNA editing in schizophrenia and its genetic regulation, and suggest a causal and mechanistic role of RNA editing in schizophrenia neuropathology.

SIAH1 ubiquitin ligase mediates ubiquitination and degradation of Akt3 in neural development

Akt signaling is an important regulator of neural development, but the distinctive function of Akt isoforms in brain development presents a challenge. Here we show Siah1 as an ubiquitin ligase that preferentially interacts with Akt3 and facilitates ubiquitination and degradation of Akt3. Akt3 is enriched in the axonal shaft and branches but not growth cone tips, where Siah1 is prominently present. Depletion of Siah1 enhanced Akt3 levels in the soma and axonal tips, eliciting multiple branching. Brain-specific somatic mutation in Akt3-E17K escapes from Siah1-mediated degradation and causes improper neural development with dysmorphic neurons. Remarkably, coexpression of Siah1 with Akt3-WT restricted disorganization of neural development is caused by Akt3 overexpression, whereas forced expression of Siah1 with the Akt3-E17K mutant fails to cope with malformation of neural development. These findings demonstrate that Siah1 limits Akt3 turnover during brain development and that this event is essential for normal organization of the neural network.

Centriolar satellites are required for efficient ciliogenesis and ciliary content regulation

Centriolar satellites are ubiquitous in vertebrate cells. They have recently emerged as key regulators of centrosome/cilium biogenesis, and their mutations are linked to ciliopathies. However, their precise functions and mechanisms of action remain poorly understood. Here, we generated a kidney epithelial cell line (IMCD3) lacking satellites by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated PCM1 deletion and investigated the cellular and molecular consequences of satellite loss. Cells lacking satellites still formed full-length cilia but at significantly lower numbers, with changes in the centrosomal and cellular levels of key ciliogenesis factors. Using these cells, we identified new ciliary functions of satellites such as regulation of ciliary content, Hedgehog signaling, and epithelial cell organization in three-dimensional cultures. However, other functions of satellites, namely proliferation, cell cycle progression, and centriole duplication, were unaffected in these cells. Quantitative transcriptomic and proteomic profiling revealed that loss of satellites affects transcription scarcely, but significantly alters the proteome. Importantly, the centrosome proteome mostly remains unaltered in the cells lacking satellites. Together, our findings identify centriolar satellites as regulators of efficient cilium assembly and function and provide insight into disease mechanisms of ciliopathies.

Incorporating Motility in the Motor: Role of the Hook Protein Family in Regulating Dynein Motility

Cytoplasmic dynein is a retrograde microtubule-based motor transporting cellular cargo, including organelles, vesicular intermediates, RNA granules, and proteins, thus regulating their subcellular distribution and function. Mammalian dynein associates with dynactin, a multisubunit protein complex that is necessary for the processive motility of dynein along the microtubule tracks. Recent studies have shown that the interaction between dynein and dynactin is enhanced in the presence of a coiled-coil activating adaptor protein, which performs dual functions of recruiting dynein and dynactin to their cargoes and inducing the superprocessive motility of the motor complex. One such family of coiled-coil activating adaptor proteins is the Hook family of proteins that are conserved across evolution with three paralogs in the case of mammals, namely, HOOK1-HOOK3. This Perspective aims to provide an overview of the Hook protein structure and the cellular functions of Hook proteins, with an emphasis on the recent developments in understanding their role as activating dynein adaptors.

A centrosomal view of CNS growth

Embryonic development of the central nervous system (CNS) requires the proliferation of neural progenitor cells to be tightly regulated, allowing the formation of an organ with the right size and shape. This includes regulation of both the spatial distribution of mitosis and the mode of cell division. The centrosome, which is the main microtubule-organizing centre of animal cells, contributes to both of these processes. Here, we discuss the impact that centrosome-mediated control of cell division has on the shape of the overall growing CNS. We also review the intrinsic properties of the centrosome, both in terms of its molecular composition and its signalling capabilities, and discuss the fascinating notion that intrinsic centrosomal asymmetries in dividing neural progenitor cells are instructive for neurogenesis. Finally, we discuss the genetic links between centrosome dysfunction during development and the aetiology of microcephaly.

Strain-specific differences in brain gene expression in a hydrocephalic mouse model with motile cilia dysfunction

Congenital hydrocephalus results from cerebrospinal fluid accumulation in the ventricles of the brain and causes severe neurological damage, but the underlying causes are not well understood. It is associated with several syndromes, including primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD), which is caused by dysfunction of motile cilia. We previously demonstrated that mouse models of PCD lacking ciliary proteins CFAP221, CFAP54 and SPEF2 all have hydrocephalus with a strain-dependent severity. While morphological defects are more severe on the C57BL/6J (B6) background than 129S6/SvEvTac (129), cerebrospinal fluid flow is perturbed on both backgrounds, suggesting that abnormal cilia-driven flow is not the only factor underlying the hydrocephalus phenotype. Here, we performed a microarray analysis on brains from wild type and nm1054 mice lacking CFAP221 on the B6 and 129 backgrounds. Expression differences were observed for a number of genes that cluster into distinct groups based on expression pattern and biological function, many of them implicated in cellular and biochemical processes essential for proper brain development. These include genes known to be functionally relevant to congenital hydrocephalus, as well as formation and function of both motile and sensory cilia. Identification of these genes provides important clues to mechanisms underlying congenital hydrocephalus severity.

The cytoplasmic dynein transport machinery and its many cargoes

Cytoplasmic dynein 1 is an important microtubule-based motor in many eukaryotic cells. Dynein has critical roles both in interphase and during cell division. Here, we focus on interphase cargoes of dynein, which include membrane-bound organelles, RNAs, protein complexes and viruses. A central challenge in the field is to understand how a single motor can transport such a diverse array of cargoes and how this process is regulated. The molecular basis by which each cargo is linked to dynein and its cofactor dynactin has started to emerge. Of particular importance for this process is a set of coiled-coil proteins - activating adaptors - that both recruit dynein-dynactin to their cargoes and activate dynein motility.

Regulation of neural stem cell proliferation and differentiation by Kinesin family member 2a

In the developing neocortex, cells in the ventricular/subventricular zone are largely multipotent neural stem cells and neural progenitor cells. These cells undergo self-renewal at the early stage of embryonic development to amplify the progenitor pool and subsequently differentiate into neurons. It is thus of considerable interest to investigate mechanisms controlling the switch from neural stem cells or neural progenitor cells to neurons. Here, we present evidence that Kif2a, a member of the Kinesin-13 family, plays a role in regulating the proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells or neural progenitor cells at embryonic day 13.5. Silencing Kif2a by use of in utero electroporation of Kif2a shRNA reduced neural stem cells proliferation or self-renewal but increased neuronal differentiation. We further found that knockdown of Kif2a decreased the protein level of β-catenin, which is a critical molecule for neocortical neurogenesis. Together, these results reveal an important function of Kif2a in embryonic neocortical neurogenesis.

Pseudostratified epithelia - cell biology, diversity and roles in organ formation at a glance

Pseudostratified epithelia (PSE) are widespread and diverse tissue arrangements, and many PSE are organ precursors in a variety of organisms. While cells in PSE, like other epithelial cells, feature apico-basal polarity, they generally are more elongated and their nuclei are more densely packed within the tissue. In addition, nuclei in PSE undergo interkinetic nuclear migration (IKNM, also referred to as INM), whereby all mitotic events occur at the apical surface of the elongated epithelium. Previous reviews have focused on the links between IKNM and the cell cycle, as well as the relationship between IKNM and neurogenesis, which will not be elaborated on here. Instead, in this Cell Science at a Glance article and the accompanying poster, I will discuss the cell biology of PSEs, highlighting how differences in PSE architecture could influence cellular behaviour, especially IKNM. Furthermore, I will summarize what we know about the links between apical mitosis in PSE and tissue integrity and maturation.

Probing the Energetics of Dynactin Filament Assembly and the Binding of Cargo Adaptor Proteins Using Molecular Dynamics Simulation and Electrostatics-Based Structural Modeling

Dynactin, a large multiprotein complex, binds with the cytoplasmic dynein-1 motor and various adaptor proteins to allow recruitment and transportation of cellular cargoes toward the minus end of microtubules. The structure of the dynactin complex is built around an actin-like minifilament with a defined length, which has been visualized in a high-resolution structure of the dynactin filament determined by cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM). To understand the energetic basis of dynactin filament assembly, we used molecular dynamics simulation to probe the intersubunit interactions among the actin-like proteins, various capping proteins, and four extended regions of the dynactin shoulder. Our simulations revealed stronger intersubunit interactions at the barbed and pointed ends of the filament and involving the extended regions (compared with the interactions within the filament), which may energetically drive filament termination by the capping proteins and recruitment of the actin-like proteins by the extended regions, two key features of the dynactin filament assembly process. Next, we modeled the unknown binding configuration among dynactin, dynein tails, and a number of coiled-coil adaptor proteins (including several Bicaudal-D and related proteins and three HOOK proteins), and predicted a key set of charged residues involved in their electrostatic interactions. Our modeling is consistent with previous findings of conserved regions, functional sites, and disease mutations in the adaptor proteins and will provide a structural framework for future functional and mutational studies of these adaptor proteins. In sum, this study yielded rich structural and energetic information about dynactin and associated adaptor proteins that cannot be directly obtained from the cryo-EM structures with limited resolutions.

Dynamics of the association of heat shock protein HSPA6 (Hsp70B') and HSPA1A (Hsp70-1) with stress-sensitive cytoplasmic and nuclear structures in differentiated human neuronal cells

Heat shock proteins (Hsps) are cellular repair agents that counter the effects of protein misfolding that is a characteristic feature of neurodegenerative diseases. HSPA1A (Hsp70-1) is a widely studied member of the HSPA (Hsp70) family. The little-studied HSPA6 (Hsp70B') is present in the human genome and absent in mouse and rat; hence, it is missing in current animal models of neurodegenerative diseases. Differentiated human neuronal SH-SY5Y cells were employed to compare the dynamics of the association of YFP-tagged HSPA6 and HSPA1A with stress-sensitive cytoplasmic and nuclear structures. Following thermal stress, live-imaging confocal microscopy and Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) demonstrated that HSPA6 displayed a prolonged and more dynamic association, compared to HSPA1A, with centrioles that play critical roles in neuronal polarity and migration. HSPA6 and HSPA1A also targeted nuclear speckles, rich in RNA splicing factors, and the granular component of the nucleolus that is involved in rRNA processing and ribosomal subunit assembly. HSPA6 and HSPA1A displayed similar FRAP kinetics in their interaction with nuclear speckles and the nucleolus. Subsequently, during the recovery from neuronal stress, HSPA6, but not HSPA1A, localized with the periphery of nuclear speckles (perispeckles) that have been characterized as transcription sites. The stress-induced association of HSPA6 with perispeckles displayed the greatest dynamism compared to the interaction of HSPA6 or HSPA1A with other stress-sensitive cytoplasmic and nuclear structures. This suggests involvement of HSPA6 in transcriptional recovery of human neurons from cellular stress that is not apparent for HSPA1A.

Hook2, a microtubule-binding protein, interacts with Par6α and controls centrosome orientation during polarized cell migration

Polarity protein complexes function during polarized cell migration and a subset of these proteins localizes to the reoriented centrosome during this process. Despite these observations, the mechanisms behind the recruitment of these polarity complexes such as the aPKC/PAR6α complex to the centrosome are not well understood. Here we identify Hook2 as an interactor for the aPKC/PAR6α complex that functions to localize this complex at the centrosome. We first demonstrate that Hook2 is essential for the polarized Golgi re-orientation towards the migration front. Depletion of Hook2 results in a decrease of PAR6α at the centrosome during cell migration, while overexpression of Hook2 in cells induced the formation of aggresomes with the recruitment of PAR6α, aPKC and PAR3. In addition, we demonstrate that the interaction between the C-terminal domain of Hook2 and the aPKC-binding domain of PAR6α localizes PAR6α to the centrosome during cell migration. Our data suggests that Hook2, a microtubule binding protein, plays an important role in the regulation of PAR6α recruitment to the centrosome to bridge microtubules and the aPKC/PAR complex. This data reveals how some of the polarity protein complexes are recruited to the centrosome and might regulate pericentriolar and microtubule organization and potentially impact on polarized migration.

Regulation of centriolar satellite integrity and its physiology

Centriolar satellites comprise cytoplasmic granules that are located around the centrosome. Their molecular identification was first reported more than a quarter of a century ago. These particles are not static in the cell but instead constantly move around the centrosome. Over the last decade, significant advances in their molecular compositions and biological functions have been achieved due to comprehensive proteomics and genomics, super-resolution microscopy analyses and elegant genetic manipulations. Centriolar satellites play pivotal roles in centrosome assembly and primary cilium formation through the delivery of centriolar/centrosomal components from the cytoplasm to the centrosome. Their importance is further underscored by the fact that mutations in genes encoding satellite components and regulators lead to various human disorders such as ciliopathies. Moreover, the most recent findings highlight dynamic structural remodelling in response to internal and external cues and unexpected positive feedback control that is exerted from the centrosome for centriolar satellite integrity.

ZIKV - CDB: A Collaborative Database to Guide Research Linking SncRNAs and ZIKA Virus Disease Symptoms

BACKGROUND

In early 2015, a ZIKA Virus (ZIKV) infection outbreak was recognized in northeast Brazil, where concerns over its possible links with infant microcephaly have been discussed. Providing a causal link between ZIKV infection and birth defects is still a challenge. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs (sncRNAs) that regulate post-transcriptional gene expression by translational repression, and play important roles in viral pathogenesis and brain development. The potential for flavivirus-mediated miRNA signalling dysfunction in brain-tissue development provides a compelling hypothesis to test the perceived link between ZIKV and microcephaly.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Here, we applied in silico analyses to provide novel insights to understand how Congenital ZIKA Syndrome symptoms may be related to an imbalance in miRNAs function. Moreover, following World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations, we have assembled a database to help target investigations of the possible relationship between ZIKV symptoms and miRNA-mediated human gene expression.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

We have computationally predicted both miRNAs encoded by ZIKV able to target genes in the human genome and cellular (human) miRNAs capable of interacting with ZIKV genomes. Our results represent a step forward in the ZIKV studies, providing new insights to support research in this field and identify potential targets for therapy.

Emerging roles for motor proteins in progenitor cell behavior and neuronal migration during brain development

Over the past two decades, substantial progress has been made in visualizing and understanding neuronal cell migration and morphogenesis during brain development. Distinct mechanisms have evolved to support migration of the various cell types that compose the developing neocortex. A specific subset of molecular motors, so far consisting of cytoplasmic dynein 1, Kif1a and myosin II, are responsible for cytoskeletal and nuclear transport in these cells. This review focuses on the emerging roles for each of these motor proteins in the migratory mechanisms of neocortical cell types. We discuss how migration can be cell cycle regulated and how coordination of motor activity is required to ensure migratory direction. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

MiRNA-128 regulates the proliferation and neurogenesis of neural precursors by targeting PCM1 in the developing cortex

During the development, tight regulation of the expansion of neural progenitor cells (NPCs) and their differentiation into neurons is crucial for normal cortical formation and function. In this study, we demonstrate that microRNA (miR)-128 regulates the proliferation and differentiation of NPCs by repressing pericentriolar material 1 (PCM1). Specifically, overexpression of miR-128 reduced NPC proliferation but promoted NPC differentiation into neurons both in vivo and in vitro. In contrast, the reduction of endogenous miR-128 elicited the opposite effects. Overexpression of miR-128 suppressed the translation of PCM1, and knockdown of endogenous PCM1 phenocopied the observed effects of miR-128 overexpression. Furthermore, concomitant overexpression of PCM1 and miR-128 in NPCs rescued the phenotype associated with miR-128 overexpression, enhancing neurogenesis but inhibiting proliferation, both in vitro and in utero. Taken together, these results demonstrate a novel mechanism by which miR-128 regulates the proliferation and differentiation of NPCs in the developing neocortex.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.11324.001

The neurons that transmit information around the brain develop from cells called neural progenitor cells. These cells can either divide to form more progenitor cells or to become specific types of neurons. If these carefully regulated processes go wrong – for example, if progenitors fail to stop dividing in order to mature – a range of neurodevelopmental conditions may develop, including autism spectrum disorders.

Small RNA molecules called microRNAs control gene activity and protein formation by targeting certain other RNA molecules for destruction. One such microRNA, called miR-128, helps newly formed neurons to move to the correct region of the cortex – the outer layer of the brain, which is essential for many cognitive processes including thought and language. However, it was not clear whether miR-128 plays any other roles in the development of neurons.

Zhang, Kim et al. have now analysed the role of miR-128 in the developing cortex of mice. The findings suggest that miR-128 prevents cortical neural progenitor cells from dividing and supports their development into more specialized cells. Causing miR-128 to be over-produced in the progenitor cells caused the cells to divide less often and encouraged them to mature into neurons. Conversely, removing miR-128 from the progenitor cells caused them to divide more and resulted in fewer neurons forming.

Further investigation revealed that miR-128 works by causing less of a protein called PCM1 to be produced. Without this protein, cells cannot divide properly. Future studies could now investigate in more detail how miR-128 and PCM1 affect how the neurons in the cortex develop and work.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.11324.002

Molecular Pathways Underlying Projection Neuron Production and Migration during Cerebral Cortical Development

Glutamatergic neurons of the mammalian cerebral cortex originate from radial glia (RG) progenitors in the ventricular zone (VZ). During corticogenesis, neuroblasts migrate toward the pial surface using two different migration modes. One is multipolar (MP) migration with random directional movement, and the other is locomotion, which is a unidirectional movement guided by the RG fiber. After reaching their final destination, the neurons finalize their migration by terminal translocation, which is followed by maturation via dendrite extension to initiate synaptogenesis and thereby complete neural circuit formation. This switching of migration modes during cortical development is unique in mammals, which suggests that the RG-guided locomotion mode may contribute to the evolution of the mammalian neocortical 6-layer structure. Many factors have been reported to be involved in the regulation of this radial neuronal migration process. In general, the radial migration can be largely divided into four steps; (1) maintenance and departure from the VZ of neural progenitor cells, (2) MP migration and transition to bipolar cells, (3) RG-guided locomotion, and (4) terminal translocation and dendrite maturation. Among these, many different gene mutations or knockdown effects have resulted in failure of the MP to bipolar transition (step 2), suggesting that it is a critical step, particularly in radial migration. Moreover, this transition occurs at the subplate layer. In this review, we summarize recent advances in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying each of these steps. Finally, we discuss the evolutionary aspects of neuronal migration in corticogenesis.

High-Level HOOK3 Expression Is an Independent Predictor of Poor Prognosis Associated with Genomic Instability in Prostate Cancer

Hook microtubule-tethering protein 3 (HOOK3) is an adaptor protein for microtubule-dependent intracellular vesicle and protein trafficking. In order to assess the role of HOOK3 in prostate cancer we analyzed HOOK3 expression by immunohistochemistry on a TMA containing more than 12,400 prostate cancers. Results were compared to tumor phenotype and PSA recurrence as well as aberrations possibly defining relevant molecular subtypes such as ERG status and deletions of 3p13, 5q21, 6q15 and PTEN. HOOK3 immunostaining was negative in normal luminal cells of prostate epithelium, whereas 53.3% of 10,572 interpretable cancers showed HOOK3 expression, which was considered low in 36.4% and high in 16.9% of cases. High-level HOOK3 expression was linked to advanced tumor stage, high Gleason score, high proliferation index, positive lymph node stage, and PSA recurrence (p<0.0001 each). The prognostic role of HOOK3 expression was independent of established clinico-pathological parameters both in preoperative and postoperative settings. Comparisons with molecular features were performed to draw conclusions on the potential function of HOOK3 in the prostate. A strong association with all examined deletions is consistent with a role of HOOK3 for maintaining genomic integrity by contributing to proper centrosome assembly. Finding HOOK3 expression in 74% of ERG positive but in only 38% of ERG negative cancers (p<0.0001) further suggests functional interactions between these genes. In conclusion, the results of our study identify HOOK3 as a strong candidate prognostic marker with a possible role in maintaining genomic integrity in prostate cancer, which may have potential for inclusion into clinical routine assays.