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Mogil JS, Parisien M, Esfahani SJ, Diatchenko L. Sex differences in mechanisms of pain hypersensitivity. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 163:105749. [PMID: 38838876 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 06/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
The introduction of sex-as-a-biological-variable policies at funding agencies around the world has led to an explosion of very recent observations of sex differences in the biology underlying pain. This review considers evidence of sexually dimorphic mechanisms mediating pain hypersensitivity, derived from modern assays of persistent pain in rodent animal models. Three well-studied findings are described in detail: the male-specific role of spinal cord microglia, the female-specific role of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), and the female-specific role of prolactin and its receptor. Other findings of sex-specific molecular involvement in pain are subjected to pathway analyses and reveal at least one novel hypothesis: that females may preferentially use Th1 and males Th2 T cell activity to mediate chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey S Mogil
- Alan Edwards Centre for Research on Pain, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1B1, Canada.
| | - Marc Parisien
- Alan Edwards Centre for Research on Pain, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1B1, Canada
| | - Sahel J Esfahani
- Alan Edwards Centre for Research on Pain, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1B1, Canada
| | - Luda Diatchenko
- Alan Edwards Centre for Research on Pain, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1B1, Canada
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2
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Shi Y, Chen Y, Pan Y, Chen G, Xiao Z, Chen X, Wang M, Liang D. Minocycline prevents photoreceptor degeneration in Retinitis pigmentosa through modulating mitochondrial homeostasis. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 139:112703. [PMID: 39018687 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2024.112703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2024] [Revised: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 07/14/2024] [Indexed: 07/19/2024]
Abstract
Minocycline, a broad-spectrum tetracycline antibiotic, has been shown to possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects in various neurodegenerative diseases. However, its specific effects on retinitis pigmentosa (RP) have not been thoroughly investigated. Therefore, the objective of this study was to explore the potential role of minocycline in treating RP. In this investigation, we used rd1 to explore the antioxidant effect of minocycline in RP. Minocycline therapy effectively restored retinal function and structure in rd1 mice at 14 days postnatal. Additionally, minocycline inhibited the activation of microglia. Moreover, RNA sequencing analysis revealed a significant downregulation in the expression of mitochondrial genes within the retina of rd1 mice. Further KEGG and GO pathway analysis indicated impaired oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport chain processes. TEM confirmed the presence of damaged mitochondria in photoreceptors, while JC-1 staining demonstrated a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential, accompanied by an increase in mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. However, treatment with minocycline successfully reversed the abnormal expression of mitochondrial genes and reduced the levels of mitochondrial ROS, thereby providing protection against photoreceptor degeneration. Collectively, minocycline demonstrated the ability to rescue photoreceptor cells in RP by effectively modulating mitochondrial homeostasis and subsequently inflammation. These findings hold significant implications for the development of potential therapeutic strategies for RP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuxun Shi
- Department of Ocular Immunology, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Yuxi Chen
- Department of Ocular Immunology, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Yuan Pan
- Department of Ocular Immunology, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Guanyu Chen
- Department of Ocular Immunology, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Zhiqiang Xiao
- Department of Ocular Immunology, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Xiaoqing Chen
- Department of Ocular Immunology, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Minzhen Wang
- Department of Ocular Immunology, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Dan Liang
- Department of Ocular Immunology, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Guangzhou 510060, China.
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Brown RB, Tozer DJ, Loubière L, Harshfield EL, Hong YT, Fryer TD, Williams GB, Graves MJ, Aigbirhio FI, O'Brien JT, Markus HS. MINocyclinE to Reduce inflammation and blood-brain barrier leakage in small Vessel diseAse (MINERVA): A phase II, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled experimental medicine trial. Alzheimers Dement 2024; 20:3852-3863. [PMID: 38629936 PMCID: PMC11180856 DOI: 10.1002/alz.13830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cerebral small vessel disease (SVD) is a common cause of stroke/vascular dementia with few effective treatments. Neuroinflammation and increased blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability may influence pathogenesis. In rodent models, minocycline reduced inflammation/BBB permeability. We determined whether minocycline had a similar effect in patients with SVD. METHODS MINERVA was a single-center, phase II, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Forty-four participants with moderate-to-severe SVD took minocycline or placebo for 3 months. Co-primary outcomes were microglial signal (determined using 11C-PK11195 positron emission tomography) and BBB permeability (using dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI). RESULTS Forty-four participants were recruited between September 2019 and June 2022. Minocycline had no effect on 11C-PK11195 binding (relative risk [RR] 1.01, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.98-1.04), or BBB permeability (RR 0.97, 95% CI 0.91-1.03). Serum inflammatory markers were not affected. DISCUSSION 11C-PK11195 binding and increased BBB permeability are present in SVD; minocycline did not reduce either process. Whether these pathophysiological mechanisms are disease-causing remains unclear. INTERNATIONAL CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRY PORTAL IDENTIFIER ISRCTN15483452 HIGHLIGHTS: We found focal areas of increased microglial signal and increased blood-brain barrier permeability in patients with small vessel disease. Minocycline treatment was not associated with a change in these processes measured using advanced neuroimaging. Blood-brain barrier permeability was dynamic but MRI-derived measurements correlated well with CSF/serum albumin ratio. Advanced neuroimaging is a feasible outcome measure for mechanistic clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin B. Brown
- Department of Clinical NeurosciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Daniel J. Tozer
- Department of Clinical NeurosciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Laurence Loubière
- Department of Clinical NeurosciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | | | - Young T. Hong
- Department of Clinical NeurosciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Wolfson Brain Imaging CentreUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Tim D. Fryer
- Department of Clinical NeurosciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Wolfson Brain Imaging CentreUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Guy B. Williams
- Department of Clinical NeurosciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Wolfson Brain Imaging CentreUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Martin J. Graves
- Department of RadiologyUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Franklin I. Aigbirhio
- Department of Clinical NeurosciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Wolfson Brain Imaging CentreUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | | | - Hugh S. Markus
- Department of Clinical NeurosciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
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Eslami H, Rokhzadi K, Basiri M, Esmaeili-Mahani S, Mahmoodi Z, Haji-Allahverdipoor K. Direct Interaction of Minocycline to p47phox Contributes to its Attenuation of TNF-α-Mediated Neuronal PC12 Cell Death: Experimental and Simulation Validation. Cell Biochem Biophys 2024:10.1007/s12013-024-01279-9. [PMID: 38739323 DOI: 10.1007/s12013-024-01279-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024]
Abstract
Minocycline, a repurposed approved medication, shows promise in treating neurodegeneration. However, the specific pathways targeted by minocycline remain unclear despite the identification of molecular targets. This study explores minocycline's potential protective effects against TNF-α-mediated neuronal death in PC12 cells, with a focus on unraveling its interactions with key molecular targets. The study begins by exploring minocycline's protective role against TNF-α-mediated neuronal death in PC12 cells, showcasing a substantial reduction in cleaved caspase-3 expression, DNA fragmentation, and intracellular ROS levels following minocycline pretreatment. Subsequently, a comprehensive analysis utilizing pull-down assays, computational docking, mutation analysis, molecular dynamics simulations, and free energy calculations is conducted to elucidate the direct interaction between minocycline and p47phox-the organizer subunit of NADPH oxidase-2 (NOX2) complex. Computational insights, including a literature survey and analysis of key amino acid residues, reveal a potential binding site for minocycline around Trp193 and Cys196. In silico substitutions of Trp193 and Cys196 further confirm their importance in binding with minocycline. These integrated findings underscore minocycline's protective mechanisms, linking its direct interaction with p47phox to the modulation of NOX2 activity and attenuation of NOX-derived ROS generation. Minocycline demonstrates protective effects against TNF-α-induced PC12 cell death, potentially linked to its direct interaction with p47phox. This interaction leads to a reduction in NOX2 complex assembly, ultimately attenuating NOX-derived ROS generation. These findings hold significance for researchers exploring neuroprotection and the development of p47phox inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Habib Eslami
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Molecular Medicine Research Center, Hormozgan Health Institute, Hormozgan University of Medicinal Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran
| | - Koosha Rokhzadi
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Research Institute for Health Development, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran
| | - Mohsen Basiri
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Saeed Esmaeili-Mahani
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Zahra Mahmoodi
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran
| | - Kaveh Haji-Allahverdipoor
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Research Institute for Health Development, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran.
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Tone M, Iwahori K, Hirata M, Ueyama A, Tani A, Haruta JI, Takeda Y, Shintani Y, Kumanogoh A, Wada H. Tetracyclines enhance antitumor T-cell immunity via the Zap70 signaling pathway. J Immunother Cancer 2024; 12:e008334. [PMID: 38621815 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2023-008334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cancer immunotherapy including immune checkpoint inhibitors is only effective for a limited population of patients with cancer. Therefore, the development of novel cancer immunotherapy is anticipated. In preliminary studies, we demonstrated that tetracyclines enhanced T-cell responses. Therefore, we herein investigated the efficacy of tetracyclines on antitumor T-cell responses by human peripheral T cells, murine models, and the lung tumor tissues of patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), with a focus on signaling pathways in T cells. METHODS The cytotoxicity of peripheral and lung tumor-infiltrated human T cells against tumor cells was assessed by using bispecific T-cell engager (BiTE) technology (BiTE-assay system). The effects of tetracyclines on T cells in the peripheral blood of healthy donors and the tumor tissues of patients with NSCLC were examined using the BiTE-assay system in comparison with anti-programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) antibody, nivolumab. T-cell signaling molecules were analyzed by flow cytometry, ELISA, and qRT-PCR. To investigate the in vivo antitumor effects of tetracyclines, tetracyclines were administered orally to BALB/c mice engrafted with murine tumor cell lines, either in the presence or absence of anti-mouse CD8 inhibitors. RESULTS The results obtained revealed that tetracyclines enhanced antitumor T-cell cytotoxicity with the upregulation of granzyme B and increased secretion of interferon-γ in human peripheral T cells and the lung tumor tissues of patients with NSCLC. The analysis of T-cell signaling showed that CD69 in both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells was upregulated by minocycline. Downstream of T-cell receptor signaling, Zap70 phosphorylation and Nur77 were also upregulated by minocycline in the early phase after T-cell activation. These changes were not observed in T cells treated with anti-PD-1 antibodies under the same conditions. The administration of tetracyclines exhibited antitumor efficacy with the upregulation of CD69 and increases in tumor antigen-specific T cells in murine tumor models. These changes were canceled by the administration of anti-mouse CD8 inhibitors. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, tetracyclines enhanced antitumor T-cell immunity via Zap70 signaling. These results will contribute to the development of novel cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mari Tone
- Department of Clinical Research in Tumor Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kota Iwahori
- Department of Clinical Research in Tumor Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Michinari Hirata
- Department of Clinical Research in Tumor Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Biopharmaceutical Research Division, Shionogi & Co., Ltd, Osaka, Japan
| | - Azumi Ueyama
- Department of Clinical Research in Tumor Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Biopharmaceutical Research Division, Shionogi & Co., Ltd, Osaka, Japan
| | - Akiyoshi Tani
- Compound Library Screening Center, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Jun-Ichi Haruta
- Lead Explorating Units, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yoshito Takeda
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yasushi Shintani
- Department of General Thoracic Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Atsushi Kumanogoh
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Immunopathology, World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI), Immunology Frontier Research Center (IFReC), Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Integrated Frontier Research for Medical Science Division, Institute for Open and Transdisciplinary Research Initiatives (OTRI), Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Center for Infectious Diseases for Education and Research (CiDER), Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development - Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (AMED-CREST), Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Center for Advanced Modalities and DDS (CAMaD), Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hisashi Wada
- Department of Clinical Research in Tumor Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
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Iglesias LP, Soares N, Asth L, Moreira FA, Aguiar DC. Minocycline as a potential anxiolytic drug: systematic review and meta-analysis of evidence in murine models. Behav Pharmacol 2024; 35:4-13. [PMID: 38375658 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
Minocycline is a tetracycline antibiotic with off-label use as an anti-inflammatory drug. Because it can cross the blood-brain barrier, minocycline has been proposed as an alternative treatment for psychiatric disorders, in which inflammation plays an important role. However, its beneficial effects on anxiety disorders are unclear. Therefore, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the efficacy of minocycline as an anxiolytic drug in preclinical models. We performed a PubMed search according to the PRISMA guidelines and PICOS strategy. The risk of bias was evaluated using the SYRCLE tool. We included studies that determined the efficacy of minocycline in animal models of anxiety that may involve exposures (e.g. stressors, immunomodulators, injury). Data extracted included treatment effect, dose range, route of administration, and potential mechanisms for the anxiolytic effect. Meta-analysis of twenty studies showed that minocycline reduced anxiety-like behavior in rodents previously exposed to stress or immunostimulants but not in exposure-naïve animals. This effect was not associated with the dose administered or treatment duration. The mechanism for the anxiolytic activity of minocycline may depend on its anti-inflammatory effects in the brain regions involving anxiety. These suggest that minocycline could be repurposed as a treatment for anxiety and related disorders and warrants further evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lia P Iglesias
- Graduate School in Neuroscience, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG)
| | - Nicia Soares
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Laila Asth
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Fabricio A Moreira
- Graduate School in Neuroscience, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG)
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Daniele C Aguiar
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
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Ye M, Yu X, Yuan Y, He M, Zhuang J, Xiong S, Li J, Wang Y, Li C, Xiong X, Deng H. Design a dual-response two-photon fluorescent probe for simultaneous imaging of mitochondrial viscosity and peroxynitrite in a thrombosis model. Anal Chim Acta 2024; 1287:342088. [PMID: 38182381 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2023.342088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/07/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Venous thromboembolism is a sudden cardiovascular disease that can lead to death, and its pathologic development is closely related to vascular viscosity and inflammation. However, direct evidence from in vivo is really scarce. The key limitation is that the combined probes cannot detect multiple markers simultaneously, which may lead to unreliable results. Therefore, to develop a single probe that can simultaneously monitor the variations of viscosity in the vascular microenvironment as well as inflammation level during venous thrombosis. RESULTS A dual-responsive two-photon fluorescent probe, Cou-ONOO, was designed and synthesized. Cou-ONOO provides a visualization tool for monitoring the viscosity of the vascular as well as the inflammatory marker ONOO‾ during thromboembolism via dual-channel simultaneous imaging. As a single probe that can recognize dual targets, Cou-ONOO effectively avoids the problems from unreliable results caused by complex synthesis and differences in intracellular localization, diffusion, and metabolism of different dyes as using combinatorial probes. Using Cou-ONOO, simultaneous imaging the variations of viscosity and ONOO‾at the cellular and tissue levels was successfully performed. In addition, Cou-ONOO also successfully visualized and tracked the viscosity of the vascular microenvironment and ONOO‾ during venous embolism in mice. SIGNIFICANCE Experimental results show that both viscosity and inflammation are abnormally overexpressed in the microenvironment at the thrombus site during venous thrombosis. An intuitive visualization tool to elucidate the variations of viscosity as well as inflammation level in the vascular microenvironment during thrombosis was provided, which will facilitate a better clinical understanding of the pathological process of thrombosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miantai Ye
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, China; Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission, College of Chemistry and Material Science, South-central Minzu University, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Xiaohui Yu
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, China
| | - Yan Yuan
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, China
| | - Meng He
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission, College of Chemistry and Material Science, South-central Minzu University, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Junli Zhuang
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, China
| | - Sizheng Xiong
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, China
| | - Jie Li
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, China
| | - Yanying Wang
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission, College of Chemistry and Material Science, South-central Minzu University, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Chunya Li
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission, College of Chemistry and Material Science, South-central Minzu University, Wuhan, 430074, China.
| | - Xiaoxing Xiong
- Department of Neurosurgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, China.
| | - Hongping Deng
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, China.
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Moqadami A, Khalaj-Kondori M, Hosseinpour Feizi MA, Baradaran B. Minocycline declines interleukin-1ß-induced apoptosis and matrix metalloproteinase expression in C28/I2 chondrocyte cells: an in vitro study on osteoarthritis. EXCLI JOURNAL 2024; 23:114-129. [PMID: 38487083 PMCID: PMC10938238 DOI: 10.17179/excli2023-6710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease that occurs with aging. In its late phases, it is determined by the loss of chondrocytes and the breakdown of the extracellular matrix, resulting in pain and functional impairment. Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) is increased in the injured joints and contributes to the OA pathobiology by inducing chondrocyte apoptosis and up-regulation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Here, we aimed to understand whether minocycline could protect chondrocytes against the IL-1β-induced effects. The human C28/I2 chondrocyte cell line was treated with IL-1β or IL-1β plus minocycline. Cell viability/toxicity, cell cycle progression, and apoptosis were assessed with MMT assay and flow cytometry. Expression of apoptotic genes and MMPs were evaluated with qRT-PCR and western blotting. IL-1β showed a significant cytotoxic effect on the C28/I2 chondrocyte cells. The minocycline effective concentration (EC50) significantly protected the C28/I2 cells against the IL-1β-induced cytotoxic effect. Besides, minocycline effectively lowered IL-1β-induced sub-G1 cell population increase, indicating the minocycline anti-apoptotic effect. When assessed by real-time PCR and western blotting, the minocycline treatment group showed an elevated level of Bcl-2 and a significant decrease in the mRNA and protein expression of the apoptotic markers Bax and Caspase-3 and Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) such as MMP-3 and MMP-13. In conclusion, IL-1β promotes OA by inducing chondrocyte death and MMPs overexpression. Treatment with minocycline reduces these effects and decreases the production of apoptotic factors as well as the MMP-3 and MMP-13. Minocycline might be considered as an anti-IL-1β therapeutic supplement in the treatment of osteoarthritis. See also the graphical abstract(Fig. 1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Amin Moqadami
- Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Khalaj-Kondori
- Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | | | - Behzad Baradaran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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Fesharaki-Zadeh A. Navigating the Complexities of Traumatic Encephalopathy Syndrome (TES): Current State and Future Challenges. Biomedicines 2023; 11:3158. [PMID: 38137378 PMCID: PMC10740836 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11123158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a unique neurodegenerative disease that is associated with repetitive head impacts (RHI) in both civilian and military settings. In 2014, the research criteria for the clinical manifestation of CTE, traumatic encephalopathy syndrome (TES), were proposed to improve the clinical identification and understanding of the complex neuropathological phenomena underlying CTE. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current understanding of the neuropathological and clinical features of CTE, proposed biomarkers of traumatic brain injury (TBI) in both research and clinical settings, and a range of treatments based on previous preclinical and clinical research studies. Due to the heterogeneity of TBI, there is no universally agreed-upon serum, CSF, or neuroimaging marker for its diagnosis. However, as our understanding of this complex disease continues to evolve, it is likely that there will be more robust, early diagnostic methods and effective clinical treatments. This is especially important given the increasing evidence of a correlation between TBI and neurodegenerative conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease and CTE. As public awareness of these conditions grows, it is imperative to prioritize both basic and clinical research, as well as the implementation of necessary safe and preventative measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arman Fesharaki-Zadeh
- Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
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10
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Ciapała K, Mika J. Advances in Neuropathic Pain Research: Selected Intracellular Factors as Potential Targets for Multidirectional Analgesics. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:1624. [PMID: 38004489 PMCID: PMC10675751 DOI: 10.3390/ph16111624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuropathic pain is a complex and debilitating condition that affects millions of people worldwide. Unlike acute pain, which is short-term and starts suddenly in response to an injury, neuropathic pain arises from somatosensory nervous system damage or disease, is usually chronic, and makes every day functioning difficult, substantially reducing quality of life. The main reason for the lack of effective pharmacotherapies for neuropathic pain is its diverse etiology and the complex, still poorly understood, pathophysiological mechanism of its progression. Numerous experimental studies, including ours, conducted over the last several decades have shown that the development of neuropathic pain is based on disturbances in cell activity, imbalances in the production of pronociceptive factors, and changes in signaling pathways such as p38MAPK, ERK, JNK, NF-κB, PI3K, and NRF2, which could become important targets for pharmacotherapy in the future. Despite the availability of many different analgesics, relieving neuropathic pain is still extremely difficult and requires a multidirectional, individual approach. We would like to point out that an increasing amount of data indicates that nonselective compounds directed at more than one molecular target exert promising analgesic effects. In our review, we characterize four substances (minocycline, astaxanthin, fisetin, and peimine) with analgesic properties that result from a wide spectrum of actions, including the modulation of MAPKs and other factors. We would like to draw attention to these selected substances since, in preclinical studies, they show suitable analgesic properties in models of neuropathy of various etiologies, and, importantly, some are already used as dietary supplements; for example, astaxanthin and fisetin protect against oxidative stress and have anti-inflammatory properties. It is worth emphasizing that the results of behavioral tests also indicate their usefulness when combined with opioids, the effectiveness of which decreases when neuropathy develops. Moreover, these substances appear to have additional, beneficial properties for the treatment of diseases that frequently co-occur with neuropathic pain. Therefore, these substances provide hope for the development of modern pharmacological tools to not only treat symptoms but also restore the proper functioning of the human body.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joanna Mika
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Str., 31-343 Kraków, Poland;
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11
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Shamim MA, Manna S, Dwivedi P, Swami MK, Sahoo S, Shukla R, Srivastav S, Thaper K, Saravanan A, Anil A, Varthya SB, Singh S, Shamim MA, Satapathy P, Chattu SK, Chattu VK, Padhi BK, Sah R. Minocycline in depression not responding to first-line therapy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2023; 102:e35937. [PMID: 37960804 PMCID: PMC10637431 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000035937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Major depressive disorder is often resistant to first-line treatment, with around 30% failing to respond to traditional therapy. Treatment-resistant depression results in prolonged hospitalization and healthcare costs. Anti-inflammatory drugs have shown promising results in depression not responding to initial therapy. Minocycline has anti-inflammatory properties and crosses the blood-brain barrier. It has demonstrated varied results in several randomized controlled trials (RCTs). METHODS We assessed the efficacy of minocycline compared to placebo in depression not responding to one first-line antidepressant via a systematic review and meta-analysis. We performed a comprehensive literature search across PubMed, Cochrane, and Scopus for RCTs. We visualized the results using forest plots and drapery plots. We assessed and explored heterogeneity using I2, prediction interval, and meta-regression. Then, we rated the certainty of the evidence. RESULTS Four RCTs revealed a non-significant difference in depression severity [-3.93; 95% CI: -16.14 to 8.28], rate of response [1.15; 0.33-4.01], and rate of remission [0.94; 0.44-2.01]. However, the reduction in depression severity is significant at a trend of P < .1. The high between-study heterogeneity (I2 = 78%) for depression severity could be answered by meta-regression (P = .02) for the duration of therapy. CONCLUSION There is no significant difference with minocycline compared to placebo for depression not responding to first-line antidepressant therapy. However, the treatment response varies with treatment duration and patients' neuroinflammatory state. Thus, larger and longer RCTs, especially in diverse disease subgroups, are needed for further insight. This is needed to allow greater precision medicine in depression and avoid elevated healthcare expenditure associated with hit-and-trial regimens. REGISTRATION CRD42023398476 (PROSPERO).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Pradeep Dwivedi
- Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India
- Centre of Excellence for Tribal Health, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India
| | - Mukesh Kumar Swami
- Department of Psychiatry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India
| | - Swapnajeet Sahoo
- Department of Psychiatry, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Ravindra Shukla
- Department of Endocrinology & Metabolism, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India
| | - Shival Srivastav
- Department of Physiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India
| | - Kashish Thaper
- Department of Psychiatry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India
| | - Aswini Saravanan
- Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India
| | - Abhishek Anil
- Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India
| | - Shoban Babu Varthya
- Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India
| | - Surjit Singh
- Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India
| | - Muhammad Aasim Shamim
- Department of Hospital Administration, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Prakisini Satapathy
- Center for Global Health Research, Saveetha Medical College and Hospital, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Saveetha University, Chennai, India
- School of Pharmacy, Graphic Era Hill University, Dehradun, India
| | - Soosanna Kumary Chattu
- Center for Evidence-Based Research, Global Health Research and Innovations Canada Inc. (GHRIC), Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Vijay Kumar Chattu
- ReSTORE Lab, Department of Occupational Science & Occupational Therapy, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Center for Transdisciplinary Research, Saveetha Dental College, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technological Sciences, Saveetha University, Chennai, India
- Department of Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences, Wardha, India
| | - Bijaya K. Padhi
- Department of Community Medicine and School of Public Health, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Ranjit Sah
- Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital, Kathmandu, Nepal
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, DY Patil Medical College, Hospital and Research Centre, DY Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India
- Department of Public Health Dentistry, Dr. D.Y. Patil Dental College and Hospital, Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India
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12
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Wan Y, Holste KG, Ye F, Hua Y, Keep RF, Xi G. Minocycline attenuates hydrocephalus and inhibits iron accumulation, ependymal damage and epiplexus cell activation after intraventricular hemorrhage in aged rats. Exp Neurol 2023; 369:114523. [PMID: 37652293 PMCID: PMC10642526 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2023.114523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage is primarily a disease of the elderly and it is frequently accompanied by intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) which can lead to posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus and poor prognosis. Red blood cell iron has been implicated in brain injury after cerebral hemorrhage. The current study examined using T2* magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to detect periventricular iron deposition after IVH and investigated the effects of minocycline on hydrocephalus in an aged rat IVH model. It had three parts. In part 1, male aged rats received a 200 μl injection of saline or autologous blood into the lateral ventricle and were euthanized at day 14. In parts 2 and 3, aged IVH rats were treated with vehicle or minocycline and euthanized at day 7 or 14. Rats underwent MRI to quantify hydrocephalus and iron deposition followed by brain histology and immunohistochemistry. Periventricular iron overload was found after IVH using T2* MRI and confirmed by histology. IVH also caused ventricular wall damage and increased the number of CD68(+) choroid plexus epiplexus cells. Minocycline administration reduced iron deposition and ventricular volume at days 7 and 14 after IVH, as well as ventricle wall damage and epiplexus cell activation. In summary, IVH-induced hydrocephalus is associated with periventricular iron deposition, ependymal damage and choroid plexus epiplexus cell activation in aged rats. Minocycline attenuated those effects and might be a potential treatment for posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus in the elderly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingfeng Wan
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | - Fenghui Ye
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Ya Hua
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Richard F Keep
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Guohua Xi
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
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13
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Gaston-Breton R, Maïza Letrou A, Hamoudi R, Stonestreet BS, Mabondzo A. Brain organoids for hypoxic-ischemic studies: from bench to bedside. Cell Mol Life Sci 2023; 80:318. [PMID: 37804439 PMCID: PMC10560197 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-023-04951-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023]
Abstract
Our current knowledge regarding the development of the human brain mostly derives from experimental studies on non-human primates, sheep, and rodents. However, these studies may not completely simulate all the features of human brain development as a result of species differences and variations in pre- and postnatal brain maturation. Therefore, it is important to supplement the in vivo animal models to increase the possibility that preclinical studies have appropriate relevance for potential future human trials. Three-dimensional brain organoid culture technology could complement in vivo animal studies to enhance the translatability of the preclinical animal studies and the understanding of brain-related disorders. In this review, we focus on the development of a model of hypoxic-ischemic (HI) brain injury using human brain organoids to complement the translation from animal experiments to human pathophysiology. We also discuss how the development of these tools provides potential opportunities to study fundamental aspects of the pathophysiology of HI-related brain injury including differences in the responses between males and females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romane Gaston-Breton
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), Laboratoire d'Etude de l'Unité Neurovasculaire & Innovation Thérapeutique, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Auriane Maïza Letrou
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), Laboratoire d'Etude de l'Unité Neurovasculaire & Innovation Thérapeutique, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Rifat Hamoudi
- Research Institute for Medical and Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, P. O. 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
- College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, P. O. 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
- Division of Surgery and Interventional Science, University College London, London, UK
- ASPIRE Precision Medicine Research Institute Abu Dhabi, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Barbara S Stonestreet
- Departments of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and Biochemistry and Department of Pediatrics, Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, 101 Dudley Street, Providence, RI, 02905, USA
| | - Aloïse Mabondzo
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), Laboratoire d'Etude de l'Unité Neurovasculaire & Innovation Thérapeutique, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France.
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14
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Bergold PJ, Furhang R, Lawless S. Treating Traumatic Brain Injury with Minocycline. Neurotherapeutics 2023; 20:1546-1564. [PMID: 37721647 PMCID: PMC10684850 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-023-01426-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) results in both rapid and delayed brain damage. The speed, complexity, and persistence of TBI present large obstacles to drug development. Preclinical studies from multiple laboratories have tested the FDA-approved anti-microbial drug minocycline (MINO) to treat traumatic brain injury. At concentrations greater than needed for anti-microbial action, MINO readily inhibits microglial activation. MINO has additional pleotropic effects including anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-apoptotic activities. MINO inhibits multiple proteins that promote brain injury including metalloproteases, caspases, calpain, and polyADP-ribose-polymerase-1. At these elevated doses, MINO is well tolerated and enters the brain even when the blood-brain barrier is intact. Most preclinical studies with a first dose of MINO at less than 1 h after injury have shown improved multiple outcomes after TBI. Fewer studies with more delayed dosing have yielded similar results. A small number of clinical trials for TBI have established the safety of MINO and suggested some drug efficacy. Studies are also ongoing that either improve MINO pharmacology or combine MINO with other drugs to increase its therapeutic efficacy against TBI. This review builds upon a previous, recent review by some of the authors (Lawless and Bergold, Neural Regen Res 17:2589-92, 2022). The present review includes the additional preclinical studies examining the efficacy of minocycline in preclinical TBI models. This review also includes recommendations for a clinical trial to test MINO to treat TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Bergold
- Graduate Programs in Neural and Behavioral Sciences, State University of New York Downstate Health Sciences University, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brooklyn, New York, NY, 11203, USA.
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, State University of New York Downstate Health Sciences University, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brooklyn, New York, NY, 11203, USA.
| | - Rachel Furhang
- Graduate Programs in Neural and Behavioral Sciences, State University of New York Downstate Health Sciences University, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brooklyn, New York, NY, 11203, USA
| | - Siobhán Lawless
- Graduate Programs in Neural and Behavioral Sciences, State University of New York Downstate Health Sciences University, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brooklyn, New York, NY, 11203, USA
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15
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Orbe EB, Benros ME. Immunological Biomarkers as Predictors of Treatment Response in Psychotic Disorders. J Pers Med 2023; 13:1382. [PMID: 37763150 PMCID: PMC10532612 DOI: 10.3390/jpm13091382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Psychotic disorders, notably schizophrenia, impose a detrimental burden on both an individual and a societal level. The mechanisms leading to psychotic disorders are multifaceted, with genetics and environmental factors playing major roles. Increasing evidence additionally implicates neuro-inflammatory processes within at least a subgroup of patients with psychosis. While numerous studies have investigated anti-inflammatory add-on treatments to current antipsychotics, the exploration of immunological biomarkers as a predictor of treatment response remains limited. This review outlines the current evidence from trials exploring the potential of baseline inflammatory biomarkers as predictors of the treatment effect of anti-inflammatory drugs as add-ons to antipsychotics and of antipsychotics alone. Several of the studies have found correlations between baseline immunological biomarkers and treatment response; however, only a few studies incorporated baseline biomarkers as a primary endpoint, and the findings thus need to be interpreted with caution. Our review emphasizes the need for additional research on the potential of repurposing anti-inflammatory drugs while utilizing baseline inflammatory biomarkers as a predictor of treatment response and to identify subgroups of individuals with psychotic disorders where add-on treatment with immunomodulating agents would be warranted. Future studies investigating the correlation between baseline inflammatory markers and treatment responses can pave the way for personalized medicine approaches in psychiatry centred around biomarkers such as specific baseline inflammatory biomarkers in psychotic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elif Bayram Orbe
- Copenhagen Research Centre for Biological and Precision Psychiatry, Mental Health Centre Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital, 2900 Hellerup, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1172 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Michael Eriksen Benros
- Copenhagen Research Centre for Biological and Precision Psychiatry, Mental Health Centre Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital, 2900 Hellerup, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1172 Copenhagen, Denmark
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16
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Shakya AK, Al-Sulaibi M, Naik RR, Nsairat H, Suboh S, Abulaila A. Review on PLGA Polymer Based Nanoparticles with Antimicrobial Properties and Their Application in Various Medical Conditions or Infections. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:3597. [PMID: 37688223 PMCID: PMC10490122 DOI: 10.3390/polym15173597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 08/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The rise in the resistance to antibiotics is due to their inappropriate use and the use of a broad spectrum of antibiotics. This has also contributed to the development of multidrug-resistant microorganisms, and due to the unavailability of suitable new drugs for treatments, it is difficult to control. Hence, there is a need for the development of new novel, target-specific antimicrobials. Nanotechnology, involving the synthesis of nanoparticles, may be one of the best options, as it can be manipulated by using physicochemical properties to develop intelligent NPs with desired properties. NPs, because of their unique properties, can deliver drugs to specific targets and release them in a sustained fashion. The chance of developing resistance is very low. Polymeric nanoparticles are solid colloids synthesized using either natural or synthetic polymers. These polymers are used as carriers of drugs to deliver them to the targets. NPs, synthesized using poly-lactic acid (PLA) or the copolymer of lactic and glycolic acid (PLGA), are used in the delivery of controlled drug release, as they are biodegradable, biocompatible and have been approved by the USFDA. In this article, we will be reviewing the synthesis of PLGA-based nanoparticles encapsulated or loaded with antibiotics, natural products, or metal ions and their antibacterial potential in various medical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashok K. Shakya
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman 19328, Jordan
- Pharmacological and Diagnostic Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy and Allied Medical Sciences, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman 19328, Jordan
| | - Mazen Al-Sulaibi
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman 19328, Jordan
- Pharmacological and Diagnostic Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy and Allied Medical Sciences, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman 19328, Jordan
| | - Rajashri R. Naik
- Pharmacological and Diagnostic Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy and Allied Medical Sciences, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman 19328, Jordan
- Faculty of Allied Medical Sciences, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman 19328, Jordan
| | - Hamdi Nsairat
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman 19328, Jordan
- Pharmacological and Diagnostic Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy and Allied Medical Sciences, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman 19328, Jordan
| | - Sara Suboh
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman 19328, Jordan
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17
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Han X, Wei Q, Xu RX, Wang S, Liu XY, Guo C, Gao Q, Zhou X, Chen LP, Li ZF. Minocycline induces tolerance to dendritic cell production probably by targeting the SOCS1/ TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. Transpl Immunol 2023; 79:101856. [PMID: 37196867 DOI: 10.1016/j.trim.2023.101856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Dendritic cells (DCs) are professional antigen-presenting cells that play a key role in maintaining peripheral immune tolerance. The use of tolerogenic DCs (tolDCs), i.e., semi-mature DCs that express co-stimulatory molecules but not pro-inflammatory cytokines, has been proposed. However, the mechanism of tolDCs induced by minocycline is still unclear. Our previous bioinformatics analyses based on multiple databases suggested that the suppressor of cytokine signaling 1/Toll-like receptor 4/NF-κB (SOCS1/TLR4/NF-κB) signal pathway was associated with DCs maturation. Thus, we studied whether minocycline could induce DC tolerance through this pathway. METHODS A search for potential targets was carried out through public databases, and pathway analysis was performed on these potential targets to obtain pathways relevant to the experiment. Flow cytometry was used to detect the expression of DC surface markers CD11c, CD86, and CD80, and major histocompatibility complex II. The secretion of interleukin (IL)-12p70, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF- α), and IL-10 in the DC supernatant was detected by enzyme-linked immunoassay. The ability of three groups (Ctrl-DCs, Mino-DCs, and LPS-DCs) of DCs to stimulate allogeneic CD4+ T cells was analyzed using a mixed lymphocyte reaction assay. Western blotting was used to detect the expression of TLR4, NF-κB-p65, NF-κB-p-p65, IκB-α, and SOCS1 proteins. RESULTS The hub gene plays a vital role in biological processes; in related pathways, the regulation of other genes is often affected by it. The SOCS1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway was further validated by searching for potential targets through public databases to obtain relevant pathways. The minocycline-induced tolDCs showed characteristics of semi-mature DCs. Moreover, the IL-12p70 and TNF-α levels in the minocycline-stimulated DC group (Mino-DC group) were lower than those in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-DC group, and the IL-10 levels were higher in the Mino-DC group than in the LPS-DC and control DC groups. In addition, the Mino-DC group had decreased protein expression levels of TLR4 and NF-κB-p65 and upregulated protein levels of NF-κB-p-p65, IκB-α, and SOCS1 compared with the other groups. CONCLUSION The results of this study indicate that minocycline could improve the tolerance of DCs probably by blocking the SOCS1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Han
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurology of Hebei Province, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiao Wei
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurology of Hebei Province, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, People's Republic of China
| | - Rui-Xue Xu
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurology of Hebei Province, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, People's Republic of China
| | - Shi Wang
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurology of Hebei Province, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, People's Republic of China
| | - Xue-Yu Liu
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurology of Hebei Province, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, People's Republic of China
| | - Cong Guo
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurology of Hebei Province, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, People's Republic of China
| | - Qian Gao
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurology of Hebei Province, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuan Zhou
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurology of Hebei Province, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, People's Republic of China
| | - Li-Ping Chen
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurology of Hebei Province, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zhen-Fei Li
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurology of Hebei Province, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, People's Republic of China
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18
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Guillemot-Legris O, Girmahun G, Shipley RJ, Phillips JB. Local Administration of Minocycline Improves Nerve Regeneration in Two Rat Nerve Injury Models. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12085. [PMID: 37569473 PMCID: PMC10418394 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241512085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 07/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Peripheral nerve injuries are quite common and often require a surgical intervention. However, even after surgery, patients do not often regain satisfactory sensory and motor functions. This, in turn, results in a heavy socioeconomic burden. To some extent, neurons can regenerate from the proximal nerve stump and try to reconnect to the distal stump. However, this regenerating capacity is limited, and depending on the type and size of peripheral nerve injury, this process may not lead to a positive outcome. To date, no pharmacological approach has been used to improve nerve regeneration following repair surgery. We elected to investigate the effects of local delivery of minocycline on nerve regeneration. This molecule has been studied in the central nervous system and was shown to improve the outcome in many disease models. In this study, we first tested the effects of minocycline on SCL 4.1/F7 Schwann cells in vitro and on sciatic nerve explants. We specifically focused on the Schwann cell repair phenotype, as these cells play a central role in orchestrating nerve regeneration. Finally, we delivered minocycline locally in two different rat models of nerve injury, a sciatic nerve transection and a sciatic nerve autograft, demonstrating the capacity of local minocycline treatment to improve nerve regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Owein Guillemot-Legris
- UCL Centre for Nerve Engineering, London WC1N 1AX, UK; (G.G.); (R.J.S.); (J.B.P.)
- UCL School of Pharmacy, London WC1N 1AX, UK
- UCL Mechanical Engineering, London WC1E 7JE, UK
| | - Gedion Girmahun
- UCL Centre for Nerve Engineering, London WC1N 1AX, UK; (G.G.); (R.J.S.); (J.B.P.)
- UCL School of Pharmacy, London WC1N 1AX, UK
| | - Rebecca J. Shipley
- UCL Centre for Nerve Engineering, London WC1N 1AX, UK; (G.G.); (R.J.S.); (J.B.P.)
- UCL Mechanical Engineering, London WC1E 7JE, UK
| | - James B. Phillips
- UCL Centre for Nerve Engineering, London WC1N 1AX, UK; (G.G.); (R.J.S.); (J.B.P.)
- UCL School of Pharmacy, London WC1N 1AX, UK
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Tone M, Iwahori K, Shiroyama T, Futami S, Naito Y, Fukushima K, Miyake K, Koyama S, Hirata H, Nagatomo I, Wada H, Takeda Y, Kumanogoh A. Impact of minocycline on outcomes of EGFR-mutant non-small cell lung cancer patients treated with EGFR-TKIs. Sci Rep 2023; 13:8313. [PMID: 37221285 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-35519-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Minocycline is often administered prophylactically or therapeutically to non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients receiving epidermal growth factor receptor-tyrosine kinase inhibitors (EGFR-TKIs) for skin rash as an adverse event. We examined the effects of minocycline on the outcomes of EGFR-mutant NSCLC treated with first-line EGFR-TKIs based on a single-center retrospective analysis. In this retrospective cohort study, data were collected on NSCLC patients treated with first-line EGFR-TKIs between January 2010 and June 2021. The treatment efficacy of first-line EGFR-TKIs was compared between patients who received minocycline and those who did not. Median progression-free survival (PFS) with first-line EGFR-TKIs was significantly longer in the minocycline group (N = 32) than in the control group (N = 106); 714 (95% confidence interval CI 411-1247) days vs. 420 (95% CI 343-626) days, p = 0.019. A multivariate analysis including skin rash as a variable confirmed that the administration of minocycline for 30 days or longer correlated with good PFS and overall survival (OS) with first-line EGFR-TKIs (HR 0.44 [95% CI 0.27-0.73], p = 0.0014 and HR 0.50 [95% CI 0.27-0.92], p = 0.027, respectively). The administration of minocycline influenced good treatment efficacy with first-line EGFR-TKIs independently of skin rash.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mari Tone
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kota Iwahori
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan.
- Department of Clinical Research in Tumor Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan.
| | - Takayuki Shiroyama
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shinji Futami
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yujiro Naito
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kiyoharu Fukushima
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kotaro Miyake
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shohei Koyama
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Haruhiko Hirata
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Izumi Nagatomo
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hisashi Wada
- Department of Clinical Research in Tumor Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yoshito Takeda
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Atsushi Kumanogoh
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Immunopathology, World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI), Immunology Frontier Research Center (IFReC), Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Integrated Frontier Research for Medical Science Division, Institute for Open and Transdisciplinary Research Initiatives (OTRI), Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Center for Infectious Diseases for Education and Research (CiDER), Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development - Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (AMED-CREST), Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Center for Advanced Modalities and DDS (CAMaD), Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
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20
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Martin V, Grenho L, Fernandes MH, Gomes PS. Repurposing sarecycline for osteoinductive therapies: an in vitro and ex vivo assessment. J Bone Miner Metab 2023:10.1007/s00774-023-01428-9. [PMID: 37036531 DOI: 10.1007/s00774-023-01428-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 04/11/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Tetracyclines (TCs) embrace a class of broad-spectrum antibiotics with unrelated effects at sub-antimicrobial levels, including an effective anti-inflammatory activity and stimulation of osteogenesis, allowing their repurposing for different clinical applications. Recently, sarecycline (SA)-a new-generation molecule with a narrower antimicrobial spectrum-was clinically approved due to its anti-inflammatory profile and reduced adverse effects verified with prolonged use. Notwithstanding, little is known about its osteogenic potential, previously verified for early generation TCs. MATERIALS AND METHODS Accordingly, the present study is focused on the assessment of the response of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (hBMSCs) to a concentration range of SA, addressing the metabolic activity, morphology and osteoblastic differentiation capability, further detailing the modulation of Wnt, Hedgehog, and Notch signaling pathways. In addition, an ex vivo organotypic bone development system was established in the presence of SA and characterized by microtomographic and histochemical analysis. RESULTS hBMSCs cultured with SA presented a significantly increased metabolic activity compared to control, with an indistinguishable cell morphology. Moreover, RUNX2 expression was upregulated 2.5-fold, and ALP expression was increased around sevenfold in the presence of SA. Further, GLI2 expression was significantly upregulated, while HEY1 and HNF1A were downregulated, substantiating Hedgehog and Notch signaling pathways' modulation. The ex vivo model developed in the presence of SA presented a significantly enhanced collagen deposition, extended migration areas of osteogenesis, and an increased bone mineral content, substantiating an increased osteogenic development. CONCLUSION Summarizing, SA is a promising candidate for drug repurposing within therapies envisaging the enhancement of bone healing/regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Martin
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, U. Porto, 4160-007, Porto, Portugal
- BoneLab - Laboratory for Bone Metabolism and Regeneration - Faculty of Dental Medicine, U. Porto, Rua Dr. Manuel Pereira da Silva, 4200-393, Porto, Portugal
| | - Liliana Grenho
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, U. Porto, 4160-007, Porto, Portugal
- BoneLab - Laboratory for Bone Metabolism and Regeneration - Faculty of Dental Medicine, U. Porto, Rua Dr. Manuel Pereira da Silva, 4200-393, Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria H Fernandes
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, U. Porto, 4160-007, Porto, Portugal
- BoneLab - Laboratory for Bone Metabolism and Regeneration - Faculty of Dental Medicine, U. Porto, Rua Dr. Manuel Pereira da Silva, 4200-393, Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro S Gomes
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, U. Porto, 4160-007, Porto, Portugal.
- BoneLab - Laboratory for Bone Metabolism and Regeneration - Faculty of Dental Medicine, U. Porto, Rua Dr. Manuel Pereira da Silva, 4200-393, Porto, Portugal.
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21
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Vicente MC, Paneghini JL, Stabile AM, Amorim M, Anibal Silva CE, Patrone LGA, Cunha TM, Bícego KC, Almeida MC, Carrettiero DC, Gargaglioni LH. Inhibition of Pro-Inflammatory Microglia with Minocycline Improves Cognitive and Sleep-Wake Dysfunction Under Respiratory Stress in a Sporadic Model for Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2023; 95:317-337. [PMID: 37522205 DOI: 10.3233/jad-230151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease (AD) can occur due to excessive activation of microglia in response to the accumulation of amyloid-β peptide (Aβ). Previously, we demonstrated an increased expression of this peptide in the locus coeruleus (LC) in a sporadic model for AD (streptozotocin, STZ; 2 mg/kg, ICV). We hypothesized that the STZ-AD model exhibits neuroinflammation, and treatment with an inhibitor of microglia (minocycline) can reverse the cognitive, respiratory, sleep, and molecular disorders of this model. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effect of minocycline treatment in STZ model disorders. METHODS We treated control and STZ-treated rats for five days with minocycline (30 mg/kg, IP) and evaluated cognitive performance, chemoreflex response to hypercapnia and hypoxia, and total sleep time. Additionally, quantification of Aβ, microglia analyses, and relative expression of cytokines in the LC were performed. RESULTS Minocycline treatment improved learning and memory, which was concomitant with a decrease in microglial cell density and re-establishment of morphological changes induced by STZ in the LC region. Minocycline did not reverse the STZ-induced increase in CO2 sensitivity during wakefulness. However, it restored the daytime sleep-wake cycle in STZ-treated animals to the same levels as those observed in control animals. In the LC, levels of A and expression of Il10, Il1b, and Mcp1 mRNA remained unaffected by minocycline, but we found a strong trend of minocycline effect on Tnf- α. CONCLUSION Our findings suggest that minocycline effectively reduces microglial recruitment and the inflammatory morphological profile in the LC, while it recovers cognitive performance and restores the sleep-wake pattern impaired by STZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariane C Vicente
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, Sao Paulo State University - UNESP/FCAV, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
- Mary S. Easton Center for Alzheimer's Research and Care, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Julia L Paneghini
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, Sao Paulo State University - UNESP/FCAV, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
| | - Angelita M Stabile
- Department of General and Specialized Nursing, School of Nursing of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Mateus Amorim
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Conceição E Anibal Silva
- Department of Pharmachology, Medicine School of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Luis Gustavo A Patrone
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, Sao Paulo State University - UNESP/FCAV, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
| | - Thiago M Cunha
- Department of Pharmachology, Medicine School of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Kênia C Bícego
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, Sao Paulo State University - UNESP/FCAV, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
| | - Maria C Almeida
- Center for Natural and Human Sciences, Federal University of ABC, São Bernardo do Campo, Brazil
| | - Daniel C Carrettiero
- Center for Natural and Human Sciences, Federal University of ABC, São Bernardo do Campo, Brazil
| | - Luciane H Gargaglioni
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, Sao Paulo State University - UNESP/FCAV, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
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22
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Zheng Q, Lin R, Chen Y, Lv Q, Zhang J, Zhai J, Xu W, Wang W. SARS-CoV-2 induces "cytokine storm" hyperinflammatory responses in RA patients through pyroptosis. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1058884. [PMID: 36532040 PMCID: PMC9751040 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1058884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is a pandemic disease that threatens worldwide public health, and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is the most common autoimmune disease. COVID-19 and RA are each strong risk factors for the other, but their molecular mechanisms are unclear. This study aims to investigate the biomarkers between COVID-19 and RA from the mechanism of pyroptosis and find effective disease-targeting drugs. Methods We obtained the common gene shared by COVID-19, RA (GSE55235), and pyroptosis using bioinformatics analysis and then did the principal component analysis(PCA). The Co-genes were evaluated by Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and ClueGO for functional enrichment, the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was built by STRING, and the k-means machine learning algorithm was employed for cluster analysis. Modular analysis utilizing Cytoscape to identify hub genes, functional enrichment analysis with Metascape and GeneMANIA, and NetworkAnalyst for gene-drug prediction. Network pharmacology analysis was performed to identify target drug-related genes intersecting with COVID-19, RA, and pyroptosis to acquire Co-hub genes and construct transcription factor (TF)-hub genes and miRNA-hub genes networks by NetworkAnalyst. The Co-hub genes were validated using GSE55457 and GSE93272 to acquire the Key gene, and their efficacy was assessed using receiver operating curves (ROC); SPEED2 was then used to determine the upstream pathway. Immune cell infiltration was analyzed using CIBERSORT and validated by the HPA database. Molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation, and molecular mechanics-generalized born surface area (MM-GBSA) were used to explore and validate drug-gene relationships through computer-aided drug design. Results COVID-19, RA, and pyroptosis-related genes were enriched in pyroptosis and pro-inflammatory pathways(the NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome complex, death-inducing signaling complex, regulation of interleukin production), natural immune pathways (Network map of SARS-CoV-2 signaling pathway, activation of NLRP3 inflammasome by SARS-CoV-2) and COVID-19-and RA-related cytokine storm pathways (IL, nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), TNF signaling pathway and regulation of cytokine-mediated signaling). Of these, CASP1 is the most involved pathway and is closely related to minocycline. YY1, hsa-mir-429, and hsa-mir-34a-5p play an important role in the expression of CASP1. Monocytes are high-caspase-1-expressing sentinel cells. Minocycline can generate a highly stable state for biochemical activity by docking closely with the active region of caspase-1. Conclusions Caspase-1 is a common biomarker for COVID-19, RA, and pyroptosis, and it may be an important mediator of the excessive inflammatory response induced by SARS-CoV-2 in RA patients through pyroptosis. Minocycline may counteract cytokine storm inflammation in patients with COVID-19 combined with RA by inhibiting caspase-1 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingcong Zheng
- Department of Orthopedics, 900th Hospital of Joint Logistics Support Force, Fuzhou, China
| | - Rongjie Lin
- Department of Orthopedics, 900th Hospital of Joint Logistics Support Force, Fuzhou, China
| | - Yuchao Chen
- Department of Paediatrics, Fujian Provincial Hospital South Branch, Fuzhou, China
| | - Qi Lv
- Department of Orthopedics, 900th Hospital of Joint Logistics Support Force, Fuzhou, China
| | - Jin Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, United States
| | - Jingbo Zhai
- Key Laboratory of Zoonose Prevention and Control at Universities of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Medical College, Inner Mongolia Minzu University, Tongliao, China
| | - Weihong Xu
- Department of Orthopedics, First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China,*Correspondence: Weihong Xu, ; Wanming Wang,
| | - Wanming Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, 900th Hospital of Joint Logistics Support Force, Fuzhou, China,*Correspondence: Weihong Xu, ; Wanming Wang,
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DiCarlo AL, Carnell LS, Rios CI, Prasanna PG. Inter-agency perspective: Translating advances in biomarker discovery and medical countermeasures development between terrestrial and space radiation environments. LIFE SCIENCES IN SPACE RESEARCH 2022; 35:9-19. [PMID: 36336375 PMCID: PMC9832585 DOI: 10.1016/j.lssr.2022.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/12/2022] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Over the past 20+ years, the U.S. Government has made significant strides in establishing research funding and initiating a portfolio consisting of subject matter experts on radiation-induced biological effects in normal tissues. Research supported by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) provided much of the early findings on identifying cellular pathways involved in radiation injuries, due to the need to push the boundaries to kill tumor cells while minimizing damage to intervening normal tissues. By protecting normal tissue surrounding the tumors, physicians can deliver a higher radiation dose to tumors and reduce adverse effects related to the treatment. Initially relying on this critical NCI research, the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), first tasked with developing radiation medical countermeasures in 2004, has provided bridge funding to move basic research toward advanced development and translation. The goal of the NIAID program is to fund approaches that can one day be employed to protect civilian populations during a radiological or nuclear incident. In addition, with the reality of long-term space flights and the possibility of radiation exposures to both acute, high-intensity, and chronic lower-dose levels, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has identified requirements to discover and develop radioprotectors and mitigators to protect their astronauts during space missions. In sustained partnership with sister agencies, these three organizations must continue to leverage funding and findings in their overlapping research areas to accelerate biomarker identification and product development to help safeguard these different and yet undeniably similar human populations - cancer patients, public citizens, and astronauts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea L DiCarlo
- Radiation and Nuclear Countermeasures Program (RNCP), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), 5601 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD, 20852 United States of America.
| | - Lisa S Carnell
- Biological and Physical Sciences Division, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 300 E Street SW, Washington, DC, 20546 United States of America
| | - Carmen I Rios
- Radiation and Nuclear Countermeasures Program (RNCP), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), 5601 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD, 20852 United States of America
| | - Pataje G Prasanna
- Radiation Research Program (RRP), National Cancer Institute (NCI), National Institutes of Health (NIH), 9609 Medical Center Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20892 United States of America
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24
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Hiskens MI. Targets of neuroprotection and review of pharmacological interventions in traumatic brain injury. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2022; 382:149-166. [DOI: 10.1124/jpet.121.001023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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25
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Single subcutaneous injection of the minocycline nanocomposite-loaded thermosensitive hydrogel for the effective attenuation of experimental autoimmune uveitis. Int J Pharm 2022; 622:121836. [PMID: 35597394 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2022.121836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Revised: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Autoimmune uveitis induces a serious pathological and inflammatory response in the retina/choroid and results in vision impairment and blindness. Here, we report a minocycline (Mino) nanocomposite-loaded hydrogel offering a high drug payload and sustained drug release for the effective control of ocular inflammation via a single subcutaneous injection. In the presence of divalent cations (i.e., Ca2+), Mino was found to co-assemble with a phosphorylated peptide (i.e., NapGFFpY) via electrostatic interaction and consequently generating Mino nanocomposite. The drug entrapment efficiency (EE) of the Mino nanocomposite varied from 29.93±0.76% to 67.90±6.57%, depending on different component concentrations. After incorporation into 30 wt% poly (D,L-lactide)-b-poly (ethylene glycol)-b-poly (D,L-lactide) (PDLLA-PEG-PDLLA) thermosensitive hydrogel, the resulting Mino nanocomposite-loaded hydrogel provided a sustained drug release over 21 days. In the experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU) rat model, a single subcutaneous injection of the Mino nanocomposite-loaded hydrogel effectively alleviated ocular inflammation in a dose-dependent manner. As indicated by optical coherence tomography (OCT) and electroretinogram (ERG) measurements, the Mino nanocomposite-loaded hydrogel treatment not only remarkably reduced destruction of the retina by EAU, but also greatly rescued retinal functions. Moreover, the proposed Mino nanocomposite-loaded hydrogel exerted its therapeutic effect on EAU primarily through a significant reduction of the influx of leukocytes and Th17 cells as well as suppression of microglia activation and apoptosis in the retina. Overall, the proposed Mino nanocomposite-loaded hydrogel might be a promising strategy for the clinical management of EAU.
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26
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Song W, Zhu R, Gao W, Xing C, Yang L. Blue Light Induces RPE Cell Necroptosis, Which Can Be Inhibited by Minocycline. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:831463. [PMID: 35559340 PMCID: PMC9086715 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.831463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: Damage to and death of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) are closely related to retinal degeneration. Blue light is a high-energy light that causes RPE damage and triggers inflammatory responses. This study investigates whether blue light induces RPE necroptosis, explores pharmacologic therapy and specific mechanisms, and provides hints for research on retinal degeneration. Methods The human RPE cell line ARPE-19 was cultured and subjected to blue light insult in vitro. Annexin V/PI was used to evaluate RPE survival. Minocycline was applied to inhibit the death of RPE. Proteomic measurement was used to analyze protein expression. Inhibitors of necroptosis and apoptosis were applied to assess the death mode. Immunofluorescence of protein markers was detected to analyze the mechanism of cell death. Subcellular structural changes were detected by transmission electron microscopy. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) was tested by DCFH-DA. Mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) was detected by JC-1. BALB/c mice received bule light exposure, and RPE flatmounts were stained for verification in vivo. Results Blue light illumination induced RPE death, and minocycline significantly diminished RPE death. Proteomic measurement showed that minocycline effectively mitigated protein hydrolysis and protein synthesis disorders. Necroptosis inhibitors (Nec-1s, GSK-872) increased the survival of RPE cells, but apoptosis inhibitors (Z-VAD-FMK) did not. After blue light illumination, high-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) was released from the nucleus, receptor-interacting protein kinase 3 (RIPK3) aggregated, and mixed-lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL) increased in the RPE. The application of minocycline alleviated the above phenomena. After blue light illumination, RPE cells exhibited necrotic characteristics accompanied by destruction of cell membranes and vacuole formation, but nuclear membranes remained intact. Minocycline improved the morphology of RPE. Blue light increased ROS and decreased Δψm of RPE, minocycline did not reduce ROS but kept Δψm stable. In vivo, HMGB1 release and RIPK3 aggregation appeared in the RPE of BALB/c mice after blue light illumination, and minocycline alleviated this effect. Conclusions Blue light exposure causes RPE necroptosis. Minocycline reduces the death of RPE by keeping Δψm stable, inhibiting necroptosis, and preventing HMGB1 release. These results provide new ideas for the pathogenesis and treatment of retinal degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weilin Song
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Ruilin Zhu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Wenna Gao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Chen Xing
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Liu Yang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
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27
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Catale C, Lo Iacono L, Martini A, Heil C, Guatteo E, Mercuri NB, Viscomi MT, Palacios D, Carola V. Early Life Social Stress Causes Sex- and Region-Dependent Dopaminergic Changes that Are Prevented by Minocycline. Mol Neurobiol 2022; 59:3913-3932. [PMID: 35435618 PMCID: PMC9148283 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-022-02830-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Early life stress (ELS) is known to modify trajectories of brain dopaminergic development, but the mechanisms underlying have not been determined. ELS perturbs immune system and microglia reactivity, and inflammation and microglia influence dopaminergic transmission and development. Whether microglia mediate the effects of ELS on dopamine (DA) system development is still unknown. We explored the effects of repeated early social stress on development of the dopaminergic system in male and female mice through histological, electrophysiological, and transcriptomic analyses. Furthermore, we tested whether these effects could be mediated by ELS-induced altered microglia/immune activity through a pharmacological approach. We found that social stress in early life altered DA neurons morphology, reduced dopamine transporter (DAT) and tyrosine hydroxylase expression, and lowered DAT-mediated currents in the ventral tegmental area but not substantia nigra of male mice only. Notably, stress-induced DA alterations were prevented by minocycline, an inhibitor of microglia activation. Transcriptome analysis in the developing male ventral tegmental area revealed that ELS caused downregulation of dopaminergic transmission and alteration in hormonal and peptide signaling pathways. Results from this study offer new insight into the mechanisms of stress response and altered brain dopaminergic maturation after ELS, providing evidence of neuroimmune interaction, sex differences, and regional specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa Catale
- Division of Experimental Neuroscience, Neurobiology of Behavior Laboratory, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - Luisa Lo Iacono
- Department of Dynamic and Clinical Psychology, and Health Studies, Sapienza University of Rome, Via degli Apuli 1, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Martini
- Division of Experimental Neuroscience, Experimental Neurology Laboratory, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - Constantin Heil
- Division of Experimental Neuroscience, Epigenetics and Signal Transduction Laboratory, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - Ezia Guatteo
- Division of Experimental Neuroscience, Experimental Neurology Laboratory, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
- Department of Motor Science and Wellness, University of Naples Parthenope, Naples, Italy
| | - Nicola Biagio Mercuri
- Division of Experimental Neuroscience, Experimental Neurology Laboratory, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
- Department of Systems Medicine, Università Degli Studi Di Roma Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Teresa Viscomi
- Department of Life Science and Public Health, Section of Histology and Embryology, Università Cattolica Del S. Cuore, Rome, Italy
- IRCCS Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli, Rome, Italy
| | - Daniela Palacios
- Division of Experimental Neuroscience, Epigenetics and Signal Transduction Laboratory, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
- IRCCS Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli, Rome, Italy
- Department of Life Science and Public Health, Section of Biology, Università Cattolica Del S. Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Valeria Carola
- Division of Experimental Neuroscience, Neurobiology of Behavior Laboratory, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy.
- Department of Dynamic and Clinical Psychology, and Health Studies, Sapienza University of Rome, Via degli Apuli 1, Rome, Italy.
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Noguchi Y, Yamamoto Y, Iwahori K, Matsumoto M, Hirata M, Okuyama H, Shintani Y, Kumanogoh A, Wada H. Tetracyclines Enhance Anti-tumor T-Cell Responses Induced by a Bispecific T-Cell Engager. Biol Pharm Bull 2022; 45:429-437. [DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b21-00806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Noguchi
- Department of Clinical Research in Tumor Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University
| | - Yoko Yamamoto
- Department of Clinical Research in Tumor Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University
| | - Kota Iwahori
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University
| | - Mitsunobu Matsumoto
- Department of Clinical Research in Tumor Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University
| | - Michinari Hirata
- Department of Clinical Research in Tumor Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University
| | - Hiroomi Okuyama
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University
| | - Yasushi Shintani
- Department of General Thoracic Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University
| | - Atsushi Kumanogoh
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Clinical Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University
| | - Hisashi Wada
- Department of Clinical Research in Tumor Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University
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29
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Garrido-Mesa J, Adams K, Galvez J, Garrido-Mesa N. Repurposing tetracyclines for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and severe COVID-19: A critical discussion of recent publications. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2022; 31:475-482. [PMID: 35294307 PMCID: PMC9115781 DOI: 10.1080/13543784.2022.2054325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Introduction Drug repurposing can be a successful approach to deal with the scarcity of cost-effective therapies in situations such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Tetracyclines have previously shown efficacy in preclinical acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) models and initial predictions and experimental reports suggest a direct antiviral activity against SARS-CoV2. Furthermore, a few clinical reports indicate their potential in COVID-19 patients. In addition to the scarcity and limitations of the scientific evidence, the effectiveness of tetracyclines in experimental ARDS has been proven extensively, counteracting the overt inflammatory reaction and fibrosis sequelae due to a synergic combination of pharmacological activities. Areas covered This paper discusses the scientific evidence behind the application of tetracyclines for ARDS/COVID-19. Expert Opinion The benefits of their multi-target pharmacology and their safety profile overcome the limitations, such as antibiotic activity and low commercial interest. Immunomodulatory tetracyclines and novel chemically modified non-antibiotic tetracyclines have therapeutic potential. Further drug repurposing studies in ARDS and severe COVID-19 are necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Garrido-Mesa
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, London, UK
| | - Kate Adams
- Department of Bioscience, School of Health, Sport and Bioscience, University of East London, London, UK
| | - Julio Galvez
- Department of Pharmacology, Center for Biomedical Research (CIBM), University of Granada, AND Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria de Granada (ibs.GRANADA), Granada, Spain
| | - Natividad Garrido-Mesa
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry. Kingston University, London, UK
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30
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Shin HS, Zouboulis CC, Kim M, Lee DH, Chung JH. Minocycline Suppresses Lipogenesis via inhibition of p300 Histone Acetyltransferase Activity in Human SZ95 Sebocytes. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2022; 36:1325-1333. [DOI: 10.1111/jdv.18079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hye Sun Shin
- Department of Dermatology Seoul National University College of Medicine Seoul Korea
- Department of Biomedical Sciences Seoul National University Graduate School Seoul Korea
- Institute of Human‐Environment Interface Biology Medical Research Center Seoul National University Seoul Korea
| | - Christos C. Zouboulis
- Departments of Dermatology, Venereology, Allergology and Immunology Dessau Medical Center Brandenburg Medical School Theodor Fontane and Faculty of Health Sciences Brandenburg Dessau Germany
| | - Min‐Kyoung Kim
- Department of Dermatology Seoul National University College of Medicine Seoul Korea
- Institute of Human‐Environment Interface Biology Medical Research Center Seoul National University Seoul Korea
| | - Dong Hun Lee
- Department of Dermatology Seoul National University College of Medicine Seoul Korea
- Institute of Human‐Environment Interface Biology Medical Research Center Seoul National University Seoul Korea
| | - Jin Ho Chung
- Department of Dermatology Seoul National University College of Medicine Seoul Korea
- Department of Biomedical Sciences Seoul National University Graduate School Seoul Korea
- Institute of Human‐Environment Interface Biology Medical Research Center Seoul National University Seoul Korea
- Institute on Aging Seoul National University Seoul Korea
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Reconnoitering the transformative journey of minocycline from an antibiotic to an antiepileptic drug. Life Sci 2022; 293:120346. [PMID: 35065989 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2022.120346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Minocycline, a second-generation tetracycline antibiotic is being widely tested in animals as well as clinical settings for the management of multiple neurological disorders. The drug has shown to exert protective action in a multitude of neurological disorders including spinal-cord injury, stroke, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's disease, and Parkinson's disease. Being highly lipophilic, minocycline easily penetrates the blood brain barrier and is claimed to have excellent oral absorption (~100% bioavailability). Minocycline possesses anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and anti-apoptotic properties, thereby supporting its use in treating neurological disorders. The article henceforth reviews all the recent advances in the transformation of this antibiotic into a potential antiepileptic/antiepileptogenic agent. The article also gives an account of all the clinical trials undertaken till now validating the antiepileptic potential of minocycline. Based on the reported studies, minocycline seems to be an important molecule for treating epilepsy. However, the practical therapeutic implementations of this molecule require extensive mechanism-based in-vitro (cell culture) and in-vivo (animal models) studies followed by its testing in randomized, placebo controlled and double-blind clinical trials in large population as well as in different form of epilepsies.
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Swanson BA, Carson MD, Hathaway-Schrader JD, Warner AJ, Kirkpatrick JE, Corker A, Alekseyenko AV, Westwater C, Aguirre JI, Novince CM. Antimicrobial-induced oral dysbiosis exacerbates naturally occurring alveolar bone loss. FASEB J 2021; 35:e22015. [PMID: 34699641 PMCID: PMC8732259 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202101169r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Periodontitis-mediated alveolar bone loss is caused by dysbiotic shifts in the commensal oral microbiota that upregulate proinflammatory osteoimmune responses. The study purpose was to determine whether antimicrobial-induced disruption of the commensal microbiota has deleterious effects on alveolar bone. We administered an antibiotic cocktail, minocycline, or vehicle-control to sex-matched C57BL/6T mice from age 6- to 12 weeks. Antibiotic cocktail and minocycline had catabolic effects on alveolar bone in specific-pathogen-free (SPF) mice. We then administered minocycline or vehicle-control to male mice reared under SPF and germ-free conditions, and we subjected minocycline-treated SPF mice to chlorhexidine oral antiseptic rinses. Alveolar bone loss was greater in vehicle-treated SPF versus germ-free mice, demonstrating that the commensal microbiota drives naturally occurring alveolar bone loss. Minocycline- versus vehicle-treated germ-free mice had similar alveolar bone loss outcomes, implying that antimicrobial-driven alveolar bone loss is microbiota dependent. Minocycline induced phylum-level shifts in the oral bacteriome and exacerbated naturally occurring alveolar bone loss in SPF mice. Chlorhexidine further disrupted the oral bacteriome and worsened alveolar bone loss in minocycline-treated SPF mice, validating that antimicrobial-induced oral dysbiosis has deleterious effects on alveolar bone. Minocycline enhanced osteoclast size and interface with alveolar bone in SPF mice. Neutrophils and plasmacytoid dendritic cells were upregulated in cervical lymph nodes of minocycline-treated SPF mice. Paralleling the upregulated proinflammatory innate immune cells, minocycline therapy increased TH 1 and TH 17 cells that have known pro-osteoclastic actions in the alveolar bone. This report reveals that antimicrobial perturbation of the commensal microbiota induces a proinflammatory oral dysbiotic state that exacerbates naturally occurring alveolar bone loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooks A. Swanson
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Stomatology-Division of Periodontics, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Pediatrics-Division of Endocrinology, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Matthew D. Carson
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Stomatology-Division of Periodontics, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Pediatrics-Division of Endocrinology, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Jessica D. Hathaway-Schrader
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Stomatology-Division of Periodontics, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Pediatrics-Division of Endocrinology, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Amy J. Warner
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Stomatology-Division of Periodontics, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Pediatrics-Division of Endocrinology, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Joy E. Kirkpatrick
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Stomatology-Division of Periodontics, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Pediatrics-Division of Endocrinology, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Drug Discovery & Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Alexa Corker
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Stomatology-Division of Periodontics, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Pediatrics-Division of Endocrinology, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Alexander V. Alekseyenko
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Biomedical Informatics Center, Program for Human Microbiome Research, Department of Public Health Sciences, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Healthcare Leadership and Management, College of Health Professions, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Caroline Westwater
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - J. Ignacio Aguirre
- Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Chad M. Novince
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Stomatology-Division of Periodontics, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Pediatrics-Division of Endocrinology, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
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Nettis MA. Minocycline in Major Depressive Disorder: And overview with considerations on treatment-resistance and comparisons with other psychiatric disorders. Brain Behav Immun Health 2021; 17:100335. [PMID: 34568852 PMCID: PMC7611693 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence on the link between the immune system and Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) has led to explore antidepressant properties of anti-inflammatory drugs. Among these, minocycline has been identified as a potential novel treatment for MDD, in particular for treatment-resistant depression. The aim of the current paper is to review current pre-clinical and clinical evidence on the antidepressant efficacy of minocycline. The review includes considerations on the role of both peripheral and central inflammation in the response to minocycline and comparisons of minocycline efficacy across different psychiatric disorders (i.e., unipolar depression, bipolar depression, and schizophrenia).
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Antonietta Nettis
- King's College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Department of Psychological Medicine, London, UK.,National Institute for Health Research Mental Health Biomedical Research Centre, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London, London, UK
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Prowse N, Hayley S. Microglia and BDNF at the crossroads of stressor related disorders: Towards a unique trophic phenotype. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 131:135-163. [PMID: 34537262 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Stressors ranging from psychogenic/social to neurogenic/injury to systemic/microbial can impact microglial inflammatory processes, but less is known regarding their effects on trophic properties of microglia. Recent studies do suggest that microglia can modulate neuronal plasticity, possibly through brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). This is particularly important given the link between BDNF and neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative pathology. We posit that certain activated states of microglia play a role in maintaining the delicate balance of BDNF release onto neuronal synapses. This focused review will address how different "activators" influence the expression and release of microglial BDNF and address the question of tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) expression on microglia. We will then assess sex-based differences in microglial function and BDNF expression, and how microglia are involved in the stress response and related disorders such as depression. Drawing on research from a variety of other disorders, we will highlight challenges and opportunities for modulators that can shift microglia to a "trophic" phenotype with a view to potential therapeutics relevant for stressor-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Prowse
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada.
| | - Shawn Hayley
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada.
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Abstract
Objective Central nervous system dysfunction associated with myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME) has been suggested to be the main cause of chronic fatigue syndrome. In animal models of chronic fatigue, minocycline was reported to act as a suppressor of neural inflammation. Minocycline may thus exert favorable therapeutic effects in patients with ME. Methods Oral minocycline (100 mg×2 on the first day, followed by 100 mg/day for 41 days) was administered to 100 patients with ME. The performance status score (0-9), orthostatic intolerance during the 10-min standing test, neurologic disequilibrium, and neuropathic pain were compared before and after treatment. Results After therapy completion, favorable effects were observed with a decrease in the performance status score of ≥2 points in 27 patients (27%). Before treatment, 6 of the 27 patients had orthostatic intolerance with an inability to complete the 10-min standing test; after treatment, this symptom resolved in 4 and improved in 2 patients. In addition, after treatment, postural orthostatic tachycardia resolved in five of eight patients, disequilibrium resolved in five of eight patients, and fibromyalgia or neuropathic pain was attenuated in four of five patients. The favorable effects appeared dependent on a shorter disease duration, primarily for a duration of less than three years and most frequently within six months of the disease onset. However, acute adverse effects with nausea and/or dizziness caused 38 patients (38%) to discontinue treatment in the first few days. Conclusion Oral minocycline therapy may be an effective treatment option for patients with ME, especially in the initial stage of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunihisa Miwa
- Department of Internal Medicine, Miwa Naika Clinic, Japan
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He J, Mao J, Hou L, Jin S, Wang X, Ding Z, Jin Z, Guo H, Dai R. Minocycline attenuates neuronal apoptosis and improves motor function after traumatic brain injury in rats. Exp Anim 2021; 70:563-569. [PMID: 34349080 PMCID: PMC8614018 DOI: 10.1538/expanim.21-0028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Minocycline is a type of tetracycline antibiotic with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity that has been demonstrated to protect the brain against a series of central nervous system
diseases. However, the precise mechanisms of these neuroprotective actions remain unknown. In the present study, we found that minocycline treatment significantly reduced HT22 cell apoptosis
in a mechanical cell injury model. In addition, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) staining confirmed the neuroprotective effects of minocycline in
vivo through the inhibition of apoptosis in a rat model of controlled cortical impact (CCI) brain injury. The western blotting analysis revealed that minocycline treatment
significantly downregulated the pro-apoptotic proteins BAX and cleaved caspase-3 and upregulated the anti-apoptotic protein BCL-2. Furthermore, the beam-walking test showed that the
administration of minocycline ameliorated traumatic brain injury (TBI)-induced deficits in motor function. Taken together, these findings suggested that minocycline attenuated neuronal
apoptosis and improved motor function following TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihong He
- Jiading District Central Hospital Affiliated Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences
| | | | - Lei Hou
- Jiading District Central Hospital Affiliated Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences
| | - Shimin Jin
- Jiading District Central Hospital Affiliated Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences
| | - Xiaodong Wang
- Jiading District Central Hospital Affiliated Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences
| | - Zhaoqi Ding
- Jiading District Central Hospital Affiliated Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences
| | - Zhene Jin
- Jiading District Central Hospital Affiliated Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences
| | - Hua Guo
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University
| | - Rongxiao Dai
- Jiading District Central Hospital Affiliated Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences
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Ghavimi H, Bayani Ershadi AS, Dastvar S, Hosseini MJ. The effects of minocycline in improving of methamphetamine withdrawal syndrome in male mice. Drug Chem Toxicol 2021; 45:2319-2327. [PMID: 34182834 DOI: 10.1080/01480545.2021.1942484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH) is a potent psychostimulant drug with an increasing rate of abuse over recent years. Depressive-like behaviors are one of the major symptoms patients in the METH withdrawal period experience. There is limited evidence regarding the METH withdrawal treatment, and conventional managements are not completely effective. Furthermore, extensive promising literature supports minocycline, a well-known antibiotic with anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory properties, to treat depressive-like behaviors. Therefore, we hypothesized that administration of minocycline might mitigate the methamphetamine (METH) induced depression in male mice. Administration of METH (2 mg/kg) to mice two times a day for 14 constitutive days was done to induce the METH-induced withdrawal syndrome model. Animals were divided into 10 groups (n = 10 in each group), and three doses of minocycline (2.5, 5 and 10 mg/kg) were daily administered to male albino mice for 10 days. Following the behavioral test, the animals were scarified, their hippocampus were dissected to measure oxidative stress parameters. Our data revealed that chronic administration of minocycline provoked antidepressant effects in behavioral tests, such as forced swim test (FST), tail suspension test (TST) and splash test. Additionally, minocycline was able to improve oxidative stresses and neuronal damage in the hippocampus and restore the body's antioxidant system by increasing glutathione (GSH) and the cellular energy (ATP) and reducing the malondialdehyde (MDA) level. According to our promising results of minocycline on targeting mitochondria and its performance, we suggest minocycline as a new therapeutic option in clinical trials of depression treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Ghavimi
- Zanjan Applied Pharmacology Research Center, Zanjan University of Medical sciences, Zanjan, Iran.,Departments of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - Amir Sasan Bayani Ershadi
- Zanjan Applied Pharmacology Research Center, Zanjan University of Medical sciences, Zanjan, Iran.,Departments of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - Samira Dastvar
- Zanjan Applied Pharmacology Research Center, Zanjan University of Medical sciences, Zanjan, Iran.,Departments of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - Mir-Jamal Hosseini
- Zanjan Applied Pharmacology Research Center, Zanjan University of Medical sciences, Zanjan, Iran.,Departments of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
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Romero-Miguel D, Casquero-Veiga M, MacDowell KS, Torres-Sanchez S, Garcia-Partida JA, Lamanna-Rama N, Romero-Miranda A, Berrocoso E, Leza JC, Desco M, Soto-Montenegro ML. A Characterization of the Effects of Minocycline Treatment During Adolescence on Structural, Metabolic, and Oxidative Stress Parameters in a Maternal Immune Stimulation Model of Neurodevelopmental Brain Disorders. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2021; 24:734-748. [PMID: 34165516 PMCID: PMC8453277 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyab036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Minocycline (MIN) is a tetracycline with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. Given the likely involvement of inflammation and oxidative stress (IOS) in schizophrenia, MIN has been proposed as a potential adjuvant treatment in this pathology. We tested an early therapeutic window, during adolescence, as prevention of the schizophrenia-related deficits in the maternal immune stimulation (MIS) animal model. METHODS On gestational day 15, Poly I:C or vehicle was injected in pregnant Wistar rats. A total 93 male offspring received MIN (30 mg/kg) or saline from postnatal day (PND) 35-49. At PND70, rats were submitted to the prepulse inhibition test. FDG-PET and T2-weighted MRI brain studies were performed at adulthood. IOS markers were evaluated in frozen brain tissue. RESULTS MIN treatment did not prevent prepulse inhibition test behavioral deficits in MIS offspring. However, MIN prevented morphometric abnormalities in the third ventricle but not in the hippocampus. Additionally, MIN reduced brain metabolism in cerebellum and increased it in nucleus accumbens. Finally, MIN reduced the expression of iNOS (prefrontal cortex, caudate-putamen) and increased the levels of KEAP1 (prefrontal cortex), HO1 and NQO1 (amygdala, hippocampus), and HO1 (caudate-putamen). CONCLUSIONS MIN treatment during adolescence partially counteracts volumetric abnormalities and IOS deficits in the MIS model, likely via iNOS and Nrf2-ARE pathways, also increasing the expression of cytoprotective enzymes. However, MIN treatment during this peripubertal stage does not prevent sensorimotor gating deficits. Therefore, even though it does not prevent all the MIS-derived abnormalities evaluated, our results suggest the potential utility of early treatment with MIN in other schizophrenia domains.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marta Casquero-Veiga
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain,CIBER de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Karina S MacDowell
- CIBER de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense (UCM), IIS Imas12, IUIN, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sonia Torres-Sanchez
- CIBER de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain,Neuropsychopharmacology and Psychobiology Research Group, Psychobiology Area, Department of Psychology, Universidad de Cádiz, Puerto Real (Cádiz), Spain,Instituto de Investigación e Innovación en Ciencias Biomédicas de Cádiz, INiBICA, Hospital Universitario Puerta del Mar, Cádiz, Spain
| | - José Antonio Garcia-Partida
- CIBER de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain,Neuropsychopharmacology and Psychobiology Research Group, Psychobiology Area, Department of Psychology, Universidad de Cádiz, Puerto Real (Cádiz), Spain,Instituto de Investigación e Innovación en Ciencias Biomédicas de Cádiz, INiBICA, Hospital Universitario Puerta del Mar, Cádiz, Spain
| | | | | | - Esther Berrocoso
- CIBER de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain,Neuropsychopharmacology and Psychobiology Research Group, Psychobiology Area, Department of Psychology, Universidad de Cádiz, Puerto Real (Cádiz), Spain,Instituto de Investigación e Innovación en Ciencias Biomédicas de Cádiz, INiBICA, Hospital Universitario Puerta del Mar, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Juan C Leza
- CIBER de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense (UCM), IIS Imas12, IUIN, Madrid, Spain
| | - Manuel Desco
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain,CIBER de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain,Departamento de Bioingeniería e Ingeniería Aeroespacial, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Leganés, Spain,Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, CNIC, Madrid, Spain,Correspondence: Manuel Desco, PhD, Laboratorio de Imagen Médica, Unidad de Medicina y Cirugía Experimental, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Dr. Esquerdo, 46. E-28007 Madrid, Spain ()
| | - María Luisa Soto-Montenegro
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain,CIBER de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain,High Performance Research Group in Physiopathology and Pharmacology of the Digestive System (NeuGut), University Rey Juan Carlos (URJC), Alcorcón, Spain
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Hiskens MI, Vella RK, Schneiders AG, Fenning AS. Minocycline improves cognition and molecular measures of inflammation and neurodegeneration following repetitive mTBI. Brain Inj 2021; 35:831-841. [PMID: 33818227 DOI: 10.1080/02699052.2021.1909139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare the neuroprotective effects of minocycline treatment in a murine model of mTBI on measures of spatial learning and memory, neuroinflammation, excitotoxicity, and neurodegeneration. DESIGN Adult male C57BL/6 J mice were randomly assigned into vehicle control, vehicle with repetitive mTBI, minocycline without mTBI, or minocycline with repetitive mTBI groups. METHODS A validated mouse model of repetitive impact-induced rotational acceleration was used to deliver 15 mTBIs across 23 days. Cognition was assessed via Morris water maze (MWM) testing, and mRNA analysis investigated MAPT, GFAP, AIF1, GRIA1, TARDBP, TNF, and NEFL genes. Assessment was undertaken 48 h and 3 months following final mTBI. RESULTS In the chronic phase of recovery, MWM testing revealed impairment in the vehicle mTBI group compared to unimpacted controls (p < .01) that was not present in the minocycline mTBI group, indicating chronic neuroprotection. mRNA analysis revealed AIF1 elevation in the acute cortex (p < .01) and chronic hippocampus (p < .01) of the vehicle mTBI group, with minocycline treatment leading to improved markers of microglial activation and inflammation in the chronic stage of recovery. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that minocycline treatment alleviated some mTBI pathophysiology and clinical features at chronic time-points.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew I Hiskens
- School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton 4701, Australia
| | - Rebecca K Vella
- School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton 4701, Australia
| | - Anthony G Schneiders
- School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton 4701, Australia
| | - Andrew S Fenning
- School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton 4701, Australia
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Molecular and Biochemical Basis of Minocycline-Induced Hyperpigmentation-The Study on Normal Human Melanocytes Exposed to UVA and UVB Radiation. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22073755. [PMID: 33916535 PMCID: PMC8038496 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22073755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Minocycline is a drug which induces skin hyperpigmentation. Its frequency reaches up to 50% of treated patients. The adverse effect diminishes the great therapeutic potential of minocycline, including antibacterial, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer actions. It is supposed that an elevated melanin level and drug accumulation in melanin-containing cells are related to skin hyperpigmentation. This study aimed to evaluate molecular and biochemical mechanism of minocycline-induced hyperpigmentation in human normal melanocytes, as well as the contribution of UV radiation to this side effect. The experiments involved the evaluation of cyto- and phototoxic potential of the drug using cell imaging with light and confocal microscopes as well as biochemical and molecular analysis of melanogenesis. We showed that minocycline induced melanin synthesis in epidermal melanocytes. The action was intensified by UV irradiation, especially with the UVB spectrum. Minocycline stimulated the expression of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) and tyrosinase (TYR) gene. Higher levels of melanin and increased activity of tyrosinase were also observed in treated cells. Moreover, minocycline triggered the supranuclear accumulation of tyrosinase, similar to UV radiation. The decreased level of premelanosome protein PMEL17 observed in all minocycline-treated cultures suggests disorder of the formation, maturation or distribution of melanosomes. The study revealed that minocycline itself was able to enhance melanin synthesis. The action was intensified by irradiation, especially with the UVB spectrum. Demonstrated results confirmed the potential role of melanin and UV radiation minocycline-induced skin hyperpigmentation.
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Rok J, Rzepka Z, Maszczyk M, Beberok A, Wrześniok D. Minocycline Impact on Redox Homeostasis of Normal Human Melanocytes HEMn-LP Exposed to UVA Radiation and Hydrogen Peroxide. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22041642. [PMID: 33561995 PMCID: PMC7914767 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22041642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Minocycline is a semisynthetic tetracycline antibiotic. In addition to its antibacterial activity, minocycline shows many non-antibiotic, beneficial effects, including antioxidative action. The property is responsible, e.g., for anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and cardioprotective effects of the drug. However, long-term pharmacotherapy with minocycline may lead to hyperpigmentation of the skin. The reasons for the pigmentation disorders include the deposition of the drug and its metabolites in melanin-containing cells and the stimulation of melanogenesis. The adverse drug reaction raises a question about the influence of the drug on melanocyte homeostasis. The study aimed to assess the effect of minocycline on redox balance in human normal melanocytes HEMn-LP exposed to hydrogen peroxide and UVA radiation. The obtained results indicate that minocycline induced oxidative stress in epidermal human melanocytes. The drug inhibited cell proliferation, decreased the level of reduced thiols, and stimulated the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). The described changes were accompanied by an increase in the intracellular level of ROS. On the other hand, pretreatment with minocycline at the same concentrations increased cell viability and significantly attenuated the oxidative stress in melanocytes exposed to hydrogen peroxide and UVA radiation. Moreover, the molecular docking analysis revealed that the different influence of minocycline and other tetracyclines on CAT activity can be related to the location of the binding site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Rok
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-32-364-10-50
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Romero-Miguel D, Lamanna-Rama N, Casquero-Veiga M, Gómez-Rangel V, Desco M, Soto-Montenegro ML. Minocycline in neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases: An update. Eur J Neurol 2020; 28:1056-1081. [PMID: 33180965 DOI: 10.1111/ene.14642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Minocycline is a broad-spectrum antibiotic, effective as a chronic treatment for recurrent bacterial infections. Beyond its antibiotic action, minocycline also has important anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antiapoptotic properties. Its efficacy has therefore been evaluated in many neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases that have an inflammatory basis. Our aim was to review preclinical and clinical studies performed in neurological and psychiatric diseases whose treatment involved the use of minocycline and thereby to discern the possible beneficial effect of minocycline in these disorders. METHODS Completed and ongoing preclinical studies and clinical trials of minocycline for both neurodegenerative diseases and psychiatric disorders, published from January 1995 to January 2020, were identified through searching relevant databases (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/, https://clinicaltrials.gov/). A total of 74 preclinical studies and 44 clinical trials and open-label studies were selected. RESULTS The results of the nearly 20 years of research identified are diverse. While minocycline mostly proved to be effective in animal models, clinical results showed divergent outcomes, with positive results in some studies counterbalanced by a number of cases with no significant improvements. Specific data for each disease are further individually described in this review. CONCLUSIONS Despite minocycline demonstrating antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, discrepancies between preclinical and clinical data indicate that we should be cautious in analyzing the outcomes. Improving and standardizing protocols and refining animal models could help us to determine if minocycline really is a useful drug in the treatment of these pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marta Casquero-Veiga
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain.,CIBER de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid
| | | | - Manuel Desco
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain.,CIBER de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid.,Departamento de Bioingeniería e Ingeniería Aeroespacial, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain.,Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Luisa Soto-Montenegro
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain.,CIBER de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid
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Park CS, Kim SH, Lee CK. Immunotherapy of Autoimmune Diseases with Nonantibiotic Properties of Tetracyclines. Immune Netw 2020; 20:e47. [PMID: 33425432 PMCID: PMC7779869 DOI: 10.4110/in.2020.20.e47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetracyclines, which have long been used as broad-spectrum antibiotics, also exhibit a variety of nonantibiotic activities including anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties. Tetracyclines bind to the 30S ribosome of the bacteria and inhibit protein synthesis. Unlike antimicrobial activity, the primary molecular target for the nonantibiotic activity of tetracycline remains to be clarified. Nonetheless, the therapeutic efficacies of tetracyclines, particularly minocycline and doxycycline, have been demonstrated in various animal models of autoimmune disorders, such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and asthma. In this study, we summarized the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities of tetracyclines, focusing on the mechanisms underlying these activities. In addition, we highlighted the on-going or completed clinical trials with reported outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan-Su Park
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Sang-Hyun Kim
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Korea
| | - Chong-Kil Lee
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Korea
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Effect of Subantimicrobial Dose Doxycycline Treatment on Gingival Crevicular Fluid Levels of MMP-9 and MMP-13 in Periodontitis Stage 2, Grade B in Subjects with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. J Immunol Res 2020; 2020:2807259. [PMID: 33294463 PMCID: PMC7700048 DOI: 10.1155/2020/2807259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of using subantimicrobial dose doxycycline as an adjunct in periodontitis stage 2, grade B in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus. A total of thirty patients were divided into the following two groups with reference to periodontitis, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and administration of the doxycycline drug: Group I: patients with periodontitis stage 2, grade B and type 2 diabetes mellitus who received SRP only. Group II: patients with periodontitis stage 2, grade B and type 2 diabetes mellitus who received SRP and doxycycline 20 mg. The following clinical measurements were recorded at baseline (prior to scaling and root planning) and after one and three months postoperatively: GI, PI, and PD with a periodontal calibrated probe. The levels of both MMP-9 and MMP-13, from 60 GCF samples, were analyzed by ELISA. Patients treated with SRP and doxycycline 20 mg showed a significant reduction of PD, PI, GI, MMP-9, and MMP-13 than patients who received SRP only. Improvements in parameters clinically and biochemically were observed following the adjunctive use of doxycycline subantimicrobial dose therapy for the management of stage 2, grade B periodontitis patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.
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Jeppesen R, Christensen RHB, Pedersen EMJ, Nordentoft M, Hjorthøj C, Köhler-Forsberg O, Benros ME. Efficacy and safety of anti-inflammatory agents in treatment of psychotic disorders - A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain Behav Immun 2020; 90:364-380. [PMID: 32890697 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.08.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Antipsychotic effects of immunomodulating drugs have been suggested; however, a thorough, comprehensive meta-analysis on the effect and safety of anti-inflammatory add-on treatment on psychotic disorders is lacking. METHOD Multiple databases were searched up until February 2020. Only double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials (RCTs) were included. Primary outcomes were change in total psychopathology and adverse events. Secondary outcomes included, amongst others, positive and negative symptoms, general psychopathology and cognitive domains. We performed random-effects meta-analyses estimating mean differences (MD) and standardized mean differences (SMD) for effect sizes. RESULTS Seventy RCTs (N = 4104) were included, investigating either primarily anti-inflammatory drugs, i.e. drugs developed for immunomodulation, such as NSAIDs, minocycline and monoclonal antibodies (k = 15), or drugs with potential anti-inflammatory properties (k = 55), e.g. neurosteroids, N-acetyl cysteine, estrogens, fatty acids, statins, and glitazones. Antipsychotics plus anti-inflammatory treatment, compared to antipsychotics plus placebo, was associated with a PANSS scale MD improvement of -4.57 (95%CI = -5.93 to -3.20) points, corresponding to a SMD effect size of -0.29 (95%CI = -0.40 to -0.19). Trials on schizophrenia (MD = -6.80; 95%CI, -9.08 to -4.52) showed greater improvement (p < 0.01) than trials also including other psychotic disorders. However, primarily anti-inflammatory drugs (MD = 4.00; 95%CI = -7.19 to -0.80) were not superior (p = 0.69) to potential anti-inflammatory drugs (MD = 4.71; 95%CI = -6.26 to -3.17). Furthermore, meta-regression found that smaller studies showed significantly larger effect sizes than the larger studies (p = 0.0085), and only 2 studies had low risk of bias on all domains. Small but significant effects were found on negative symptoms (MD = -1.29), positive symptoms (MD = -0.53), general psychopathology (MD = -1.50) and working memory (SMD = 0.21). No differences were found regarding adverse events, but only 26 studies reported hereon. CONCLUSIONS Anti-inflammatory add-on treatment to antipsychotics showed improvement of psychotic disorders; however, no superiority was found in primarily anti-inflammatory drugs, raising the question of the mechanism behind the effect, and treatment effect might be overestimated due to the large number of small studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rose Jeppesen
- Copenhagen Research Center for Mental Health - CORE, Mental Health Centre Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Rune H B Christensen
- Copenhagen Research Center for Mental Health - CORE, Mental Health Centre Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Emilie M J Pedersen
- Copenhagen Research Center for Mental Health - CORE, Mental Health Centre Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Merete Nordentoft
- Copenhagen Research Center for Mental Health - CORE, Mental Health Centre Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark; iPSYCH The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, Denmark
| | - Carsten Hjorthøj
- Copenhagen Research Center for Mental Health - CORE, Mental Health Centre Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark; iPSYCH The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, Denmark; University of Copenhagen, Department of Public Health, Section of Epidemiology, Denmark
| | - Ole Köhler-Forsberg
- Copenhagen Research Center for Mental Health - CORE, Mental Health Centre Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark; Psychosis Research Unit, Aarhus University Hospital - Psychiatry, Denmark; Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Michael E Benros
- Copenhagen Research Center for Mental Health - CORE, Mental Health Centre Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark; Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Rok J, Rzepka Z, Beberok A, Pawlik J, Wrześniok D. Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Anti-Melanoma Effect of Minocycline-A Study of Cytotoxicity and Apoptosis on Human Melanotic Melanoma Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E6917. [PMID: 32967177 PMCID: PMC7555712 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21186917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Minocycline is a tetracycline compound with pleiotropic pharmacological properties. In addition to its antibacterial action, it shows many non-antimicrobial effects, including an anti-cancer activity. The anti-cancer action was confirmed in studies on ovarian carcinoma cells, hepatocellular carcinoma cells, glioma cells, or acute myeloid leukemia cells. Malignant melanoma remains a serious medical problem despite the extensive knowledge of the disease. The low effectiveness of the standard treatment, as well as the resistance to therapy, result in high mortality rates. This work aimed to investigate the potential and mechanisms of anti-melanoma action of minocycline. Human skin melanotic melanoma cell line COLO 829 was used in the study. The obtained results showed that minocycline decreased cell viability and inhibited the growth of melanoma cells, proportional to the drug concentration as well as to the time of incubation. The EC50 values were calculated to be 78.6 µM, 31.7 µM, and 13.9 µM for 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h, respectively. It was observed that treated cells had a disturbed cell cycle and significantly changed morphology. Moreover, minocycline caused a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential and an increase in cells with a low level of reduced thiols. Finally, it was found that the anti-melanoma effect of minocycline was related to the induction of apoptosis. The drug activated caspases 8, 9, and 3/7 as well as increased the number of annexin V-positive cells. The presented results show that minocycline possesses anti-melanoma potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Rok
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia, Katowice, Jagiellońska 4, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland; (Z.R.); (A.B.); (J.P.); (D.W.)
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Gough EK, Bourke CD, Berejena C, Shonhai A, Bwakura-Dangarembizi M, Prendergast AJ, Manges AR. Strain-level analysis of gut-resident pro-inflammatory viridans group Streptococci suppressed by long-term cotrimoxazole prophylaxis among HIV-positive children in Zimbabwe. Gut Microbes 2020; 11:1104-1115. [PMID: 32024435 PMCID: PMC7524282 DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2020.1717299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobials have become a mainstay of healthcare in the past century due to their activity against pathogens. More recently, it has become clear that they can also affect health via their impact on the microbiota and inflammation. This may explain some of their clinical benefits despite global increases in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and reduced antimicrobial effectiveness. We showed in a randomized controlled trial of stopping versus continuing cotrimoxazole prophylaxis among HIV-positive Zimbabwean children taking antiretroviral therapy (ART), that continuation of cotrimoxazole persistently suppressed gut-resident viridans group streptococcal species (VGS) that were associated with intestinal inflammation. In this addendum, we provide a broader overview of how antibiotics can shape the microbiota and use high read-depth whole metagenome sequencing data from our published study to investigate whether (i) the impact of cotrimoxazole on gut VGS and (ii) VGS associated inflammation, is attributable to strain-level variability. We focus on S. salivarius, the VGS species that was most prevalent in the cohort and for which there was sufficient genome coverage to differentiate strains. We demonstrate that suppression of S. salivarius by cotrimoxazole is not strain specific, nor did stool concentration of the pro-inflammatory mediator myeloperoxidase vary by S. salivarius strain. We also show that gut-resident S. salivarius strains present in this study population are distinct from common oral strains. This is the first analysis of how cotrimoxazole prophylaxis used according to international treatment guidelines for children living with HIV influences the gut microbiome at the strain-level. We also provide a detailed review of the literature on the mechanisms by which suppression of VGS may act synergistically with cotrimoxazole's anti-inflammatory effects to reduce gut inflammation. A greater understanding of the sub-clinical effects of antibiotics offers new insights into their responsible clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan K. Gough
- Department of International Health, Division of Human Nutrition, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA,CONTACT Ethan K. Gough Department of International Health, Division of Human Nutrition, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Claire D. Bourke
- Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK,Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Chipo Berejena
- College of Health Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Annie Shonhai
- College of Health Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | | | - Andrew J. Prendergast
- Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK,Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe,MRC Clinical Trials Unit at University College London, London, UK
| | - Amee R. Manges
- School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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In Vitro and In Vivo Study on the Synergistic Effect of Minocycline and Azoles against Pathogenic Fungi. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2020; 64:AAC.00290-20. [PMID: 32253207 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00290-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In vitro and in vivo interactions of minocycline and azoles, including itraconazole, voriconazole, and posaconazole, against filamentous pathogenic fungi were investigated. A total of 56 clinical isolates were studied in vitro via broth microdilution checkerboard technique, including 20 strains of Aspergillus fumigatus, 7 strains of Aspergillus flavus, 16 strains of Exophiala dermatitidis, 10 strains of Fusarium solani, and 3 strain s of Fusarium oxysporum The results revealed that minocycline did not exhibit any significant antifungal activity against any of the tested strains. However, favorable synergy of minocycline with itraconazole, voriconazole, or posaconazole was observed against 34 (61%), 28 (50%), and 38 (68%) isolates, respectively, including azole-resistant A. fumigatus and Fusarium spp. with inherently high MICs of azoles. Synergistic combinations resulted in 4-fold to 16-fold reduction of effective MICs of minocycline and azoles. No antagonism was observed. In vivo effects of minocycline-azole combinations were evaluated by survival assay in a Galleria mellonella model infected with E. dermatitidis strain BMU00034; F. solani strain FS9; and A. fumigatus strains AF293, AFR1, and AFR2. Minocycline acted synergistically with azoles and significantly increased larvae survival in all isolates (P < 0.001), including azole-resistant A. fumigatus and azole-inactive Fusarium spp. In conclusion, the results suggested that minocycline combined with azoles may help to enhance the antifungal susceptibilities of azoles against pathogenic fungi and had the potential to overcome azole resistance issues.
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Kirchberg M, Eick S, Buchholz M, Kiesow A, Sarembe S, Mäder K. Extrudates of lipophilic tetracycline complexes: A new option for periodontitis therapy. Int J Pharm 2019; 572:118794. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.118794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2019] [Revised: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Neuronal Death in the Contralateral Un-Injured Retina after Unilateral Axotomy: Role of Microglial Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20225733. [PMID: 31731684 PMCID: PMC6888632 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20225733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
For years it has been known that unilateral optic nerve lesions induce a bilateral response that causes an inflammatory and microglial response in the contralateral un-injured retinas. Whether this contralateral response involves retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss is still unknown. We have analyzed the population of RGCs and the expression of several genes in both retinas of pigmented mice after a unilateral axotomy performed close to the optic nerve head (0.5 mm), or the furthest away that the optic nerve can be accessed intraorbitally in mice (2 mm). In both retinas, RGC-specific genes were down-regulated, whereas caspase 3 was up-regulated. In the contralateral retinas, there was a significant loss of 15% of RGCs that did not progress further and that occurred earlier when the axotomy was performed at 2 mm, that is, closer to the contralateral retina. Finally, the systemic treatment with minocycline, a tetracycline antibiotic that selectively inhibits microglial cells, or with meloxicam, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, rescued RGCs in the contralateral but not in the injured retina. In conclusion, a unilateral optic nerve axotomy triggers a bilateral response that kills RGCs in the un-injured retina, a death that is controlled by anti-inflammatory and anti-microglial treatments. Thus, contralateral retinas should not be used as controls.
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