Preventive health care and owner-reported disease prevalence of horses and ponies in Great Britain

Survey-based investigation of sports and leisure horse owners' approaches to, and expectations of, equine veterinary care

BACKGROUND

Client satisfaction depends on the balance between expectations and service experience. Previous research identified seven aspects of equine veterinary professional conduct that are important for client satisfaction: quality of care, quality of service, horsemanship, transfer of knowledge, financial aspects, interpersonal skills and professionalism.

METHODS

By employing a cross-sectional study design through a survey-based investigation, horse owners' initial contact preferences and their perceptions of the importance of various aspects of veterinary care in different scenarios were explored. Categories included professional versus amateur and competitive versus non-competitive horse owners. Quantitative data analysis was performed.

RESULTS

Data from 1153 participants revealed that horse owners promptly contacted veterinarians for colic (92.7%) but delayed for lameness (51.8%) and pre-purchase examinations (63.0%). Overall, quality of care emerged as the most important aspect of veterinary care for horse owners, with financial aspects considered least important. Competitive and professional horse owners prioritised financial aspects and professionalism, whereas non-professional and non-competitive horse owners prioritised quality of care and interpersonal skills (p < 0.005).

LIMITATIONS

Survey distribution relied on a snowball effect, internet access was necessary and the study exclusively represents the Western equine community. Potential bias should be acknowledged.

CONCLUSION

The perceived importance of various aspects of veterinary care varies depending on the nature of the consultation and the horse owner type. Tailoring veterinary services can improve client satisfaction by aligning with diverse expectations.

BEVA primary care clinical guidelines: Equine parasite control

BACKGROUND

There is a lack of consensus on how best to balance our need to minimise the risk of parasite-associated disease in the individual horse, with the need to limit the use of anthelmintics in the population to preserve their efficacy through delaying further development of resistance.

OBJECTIVES

To develop evidence-based guidelines utilising a modified GRADE framework.

METHODS

A panel of veterinary scientists with relevant expertise and experience was convened. Relevant research questions were identified and developed with associated search terms being defined. Evidence in the veterinary literature was evaluated using the GRADE evidence-to-decision framework. Literature searches were performed utilising CAB abstracts and PubMed. Where there was insufficient evidence to answer the research question the panel developed practical guidance based on their collective knowledge and experience.

RESULTS

Search results are presented, and recommendation or practical guidance were made in response to 37 clinically relevant questions relating to the use of anthelmintics in horses.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

There was insufficient evidence to answer many of the questions with any degree of certainty and practical guidance frequently had to be based upon extrapolation of relevant information and the panel members' collective experience and opinions.

CONCLUSIONS

Equine parasite control practices and current recommendations have a weak evidence base. These guidelines highlight changes in equine parasite control that should be considered to reduce the threat of parasite-associated disease and delay the development of further anthelmintic resistance.

Use of human behaviour change models to investigate horse owner intention to adopt emergency colic recommendations

BACKGROUND

Behavioural models are widely used within human medicine to understand beliefs and intention associated with major health interventions.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate horse-owner beliefs and practices associated with emergency colic planning.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

METHODS

An online survey incorporating the Trans-Theoretical Model of behaviour change and the Theory of Planned Behaviour was developed to assess owner intention to adopt three areas of emergency colic planning: (1) prevention/recognition, (2) involvement of others and (3) personal preparation. Participants were recruited using a snowball sampling strategy; multivariable logistic regression of data was performed.

RESULTS

There were 701 horse-owners who completed the survey. Respondents fell into one of two categories: no intention to adopt or already implementing emergency planning recommendations. Most agreed that emergency colic plans would improve their horse's welfare (68%) and aid in decision making (78%). Most disagreed that colic was inevitable (66%) and that treatment options were not within their control (69%). Multivariable analysis showed that those who believed emergency plans were worth creating were more likely to adopt preventive (OR: 2.33, 95% CI: 1.27-4.30, p = 0.007) and personal preparation (OR: 1.61, 95% CI: 1.31-1.97, p < 0.001) recommendations. Preventive recommendations were also associated with 'REACT' campaign awareness (OR 2.36, 95% CI: 1.40-3.97, p = 0.001). Favourable behavioural beliefs, such as the acknowledgement of welfare and decision-making benefits, were linked to the involvement of others in planning (OR: 2.93, 95% CI: 1.78-4.81, p < 0.001).

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Potential response bias and small sample size.

CONCLUSIONS

The majority of owners were either unwilling to adopt suggested recommendations or believed that their approach was currently sufficient. Most owners perceived veterinary professionals as most influential on their decision to plan for a colic emergency, highlighting their importance in any educational campaign.

Treatment of equine sarcoids: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

The sarcoid is the most common equine cutaneous neoplasm. Evidence-based treatment of this condition is often lacking, and selection of treatment modality based on clinical experience or anecdotal evidence.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the quality of the currently available best evidence regarding the treatment of the equine sarcoid.

STUDY DESIGN

Systematic review.

METHODS

In compliance with PRISMA guidelines, literature searches were performed in PUBMED, Web of Science, CAB Abstracts, EMBASE (Ovid) and Scopus in April 2021. Included papers were required to describe an interventional study examining sarcoid treatment strategy, of level 4 evidence or greater. The case definition required confirmation of at least some included lesions on histopathology, and a minimum of 6 months of follow-up was required on treated cases. Studies were assessed by two independent reviewers (KO, CD). Data extraction was performed manually, followed by risk of bias assessment. Methodological quality was assessed using the GRADE system.

RESULTS

In total, 10 studies were included in the review. Case definition was confirmed via histopathology in all included lesions in 60% of papers. Time to follow-up was variably reported. Overall risk of bias ranged from 'some concerns' to 'critical'. Reported sarcoid regression rate ranged from 28% to 100% on an individual sarcoid level, and 9%-100% on a whole horse level. Transient local inflammation was reported following most treatment strategies, with further adverse events reported infrequently.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Review methodology excluded a large proportion of available literature regarding the equine sarcoid. Significant heterogeneity between included studies prevented quantitative synthesis and most included papers were at significant risk of bias, indirectness, and imprecision.

CONCLUSIONS

There is insufficient evidence currently available to recommend one sarcoid treatment over another. There is an urgent need for sufficiently powered, randomised, placebo-controlled trials in order to allow more definitive comparison of the efficacy of different treatment strategies.

Orthopedic Diseases in the Pura Raza Española Horse: The Prevalence and Genetic Parameters of Angular Hoof Deviations

Abnormalities in hoof shape are usually connected with limb conformation defects. The role of angular hoof deviations is important for longevity in sports competitions and is increasingly recognized as a factor associated with lameness in performance horses. In this paper, we measured the prevalence of four defects related to the angulation of the hoof in the Pura Raza Española horse (PRE): splay-footed forelimb (SFF), pigeon-toed forelimb (PTF), splay-footed rear limb (SFR), and pigeon-toed rear limb (PTR). A total of 51,134 animals were studied, of which only 15.75% did not have any of the four angular hoof defects investigated, while 26.61%, 23.76%, 79.53%, and 3.86% presented SFF, PTF, SFR, and PTR, respectively. Angular defects were evaluated using two different models; model A was a linear scale composed of three categories, where 0 corresponded to the absence of defects, 1 to a minor presence of the defect and 2 to the highest degree of the defect. Model B was composed of two categories, where 0 corresponded to the absence of defects and 1 to the presence of defects, joining classes 1 and 2. We measured the factors influencing the appearance of these defects: age, inbreeding coefficient, sex, and birth stud size. The heritability of each defect was also estimated using a multivariate animal model, using the Gibbsf90+ software from the BLUPF90 family, resulting in heritability estimates of 0.18 (s.d. = 0.009), 0.20 (s.d. = 0.010), 0.11 (s.d. = 0.009), and 0.31 (s.d. = 0.010) for SFF, PTF, SFR, and PTR defects, respectively, for model A, and 0.17 (s.d. = 0.008), 0.19 (s.d. = 0.009), 0.11 (s.d. = 0.009), and 0.29 (s.d. = 0.009) for SFF, PTF, SFR, and PTR defects, respectively, for model B. Finally, the genetic correlation between the diameter of the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) and the proportionality index (PI) in relation to the higher or lower prevalence of the defects was analyzed. We concluded that diameter of SDFT development is strongly correlated with inward toe conditions (PTF, PTR; P≠0 ≥ 0.95), while PI is associated with outward toe defects (SFF, SFR; P≠0 ≥ 0.95).

UK-based multicentre cross-sectional study assessing advice requests veterinary dermatologists received from general practitioners

BACKGROUND

There is little currently little information available regarding the nature of the advice requests veterinary dermatologists receive from general practitioners. Collation of such data could direct continuing veterinary development in the future.

METHODS

Dermatologists completed hand-written recording sheets during or after enquiries. Information recorded included the route of enquiry, nature of advice, material provided, practice type and location, animal signalment, presenting signs, diagnosis/differential diagnosis, treatment and referral recommendations, time taken and if charges were made.

RESULTS

Twelve dermatology services recorded 768 advice requests over a 6-month period. Most requests were submitted via email and related to canine dermatology (81%). An average of 9.5 minutes was spent replying to requests. Charges were made in 2% of cases. Advice regarding otitis was most commonly sought, followed by pruritus, alopecia and crusting. The most frequently discussed diagnoses included allergy, otitis, pyoderma, demodicosis, dermatophytosis and neoplasia. Antibiotics, anti-pruritics and topical otic medications were the most commonly discussed therapeutics.

LIMITATIONS

This is an initial study and therefore there are limitations involving the depth of the data. Additional studies should be completed which identify why advice is sought, decision-making regarding referral, and if advice should be charged similarly to other disciplines.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight that veterinarians mostly frequently seek advice on management of common dermatological problems, including allergy, otitis and pyoderma.

Concurrent versus delayed exposure to corticosteroids in equine articular tissues cultured with local anesthetic

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effect of concurrent versus delayed treatment with corticosteroid on equine articular tissues also treated with local anesthetic in vitro in the presence of inflammatory mediators.

STUDY DESIGN

Controlled laboratory study.

ANIMALS

Five geldings, one mare (aged 3-18 years).

METHODS

From each horse, 24 synovial and 12 osteochondral explants were cultured in a 12-well plate (2 wells/group, 2 synovial and 1 osteochondral explant/well, total 216 explants in the study). Explants were stimulated in culture medium with 10 μg/ml recombinant equine interleukin-1β and 10 μg/ml tumor necrosis factor-α for 48 hours, then randomly assigned to six treatments: unstimulated control, stimulated control, triamcinolone acetonide (TA, 10^-6  M), mepivacaine hydrochloride (MH, 4.4 mg/ml), MH + TA (concurrent) and MH + TA (delayed). The delayed group was treated with MH and, 6 days later, treated with TA. Every 3 days for 9 days total, medium levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂ ), matrix metalloproteinase 13 (MMP-13) and glycosaminoglycan (GAG) were quantified via ELISA. Data were analyzed with mixed-effects models with Tukey's multiple comparisons.

RESULTS

Stimulation increased medium PGE₂ and MMP-13 and had no effect on LDH or GAG. Treatment with MH increased LDH and decreased PGE₂ and MMP-13. Treatment with TA decreased PGE₂ and MMP-13.

CONCLUSION

There were no differences in cytotoxicity, inflammation or matrix degradation for delayed or concurrent MH and TA treatment groups up to 9 days in culture.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

The lack of an effect of concurrent versus delayed treatment might indicate that concurrent therapy is acceptable.

An epidemiological overview of the equine influenza epidemic in Great Britain during 2019

BACKGROUND

During 2019, an epidemic of equine influenza (EI) occurred in Europe.

OBJECTIVES

To describe the epidemiology of the 2019 EI epidemic within Great Britain (GB).

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective descriptive study of laboratory confirmed EI cases.

METHODS

Epidemiological data were obtained from veterinary surgeons referring samples for EI virus testing. Where available, data on confirmed cases and their wider resident population on EI-infected premises were collated and described. On a national level, spatial and temporal representations, consisting of choropleth maps and epidemic curves, described the spread of EI. EI-infected premises-level factors associated with the first of two epidemic phases were investigated using ordinary logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

There were 412 confirmed cases and 234 EI-infected premises, with the first of two epidemic phases occurring between January and April, followed by a second phase through to August. The median age of confirmed cases was 5 years and Sports horses (24%) and Cobs (16%) made up the highest proportions by general horse type and breed. Among confirmed cases 72% were unvaccinated and 18% were vaccinated against EI. New horses arriving within 2 weeks of a confirmed case were reported by 42% of EI-infected premises. Investigation of EI-infected premises biosecurity measures indicated that 23% quarantined new arrivals, 37% had isolation facilities and 57% of resident horses were vaccinated. EI-infected premises were more likely in the first than second epidemic phase to be classified as professional, have a vaccinated confirmed case and EI confirmed in a newly arrived animal.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Data were collected at a single time point for each EI-infected premises with no follow ups performed.

CONCLUSIONS

During 2019, EI-infected premises generally had low levels of population vaccine coverage and implemented limited preventive biosecurity measures, particularly linked to horse movements. Without substantial improvements in infectious disease prevention and control, the GB equine population remains at risk of future EI epidemics.

Management of equine sarcoids

Sarcoids are the most common cutaneous neoplasm of the horse, arising as a result of a neoplastic proliferation of fibroblasts associated with infection with bovine papillomavirus, most notably types 1 and 2. Although they do not metastasise, they are locally invasive and aggressive, and can lead to important welfare concerns, interfere with tack and therefore impede athleticism, and undoubtedly lead to a reduction in the value of affected horses. This review discusses the evidence behind the most commonly used treatments for equine sarcoids. The most commonly used treatments are discussed. No one treatment is universally successful, and there are many treatments with varying level of scientific evaluation and reported success rates.

Prevalence and Factors Associated with Working Equid Lameness in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Lameness is an important concern in working equids of low- and middle-income communities (LMICs) with significant One Welfare implications. This study aims to determine the prevalence and influencing factors of lameness in working equids of LMICs. A systematic review and meta-analysis were performed to investigate pooled outcome prevalence using a random intercept regression model. Subgroup and sensitivity analysis were performed through meta-regression. A meta-analysis of study factors for lameness prevalence was performed. Sixty-four studies were included in the review. The pooled prevalence of lameness was 29.9% (n = 42, 95% CI 17-47%), while the pooled prevalence of gait abnormality was 62.9% (n = 12; 95% CI 31-87%). When considering both outcomes together, the pooled prevalence was 38.4% (n = 46; 95% CI 23-57%) with a significant (p = 0.02) difference between lameness (29.5%; 95% CI 16-48%) and gait abnormality (78.8%; 95% CI 40-95%). Species, country income level, gait assessed, and risk of bias did not significantly affect the pooled prevalence. Lower body condition scores, unresponsive attitudes, and old age were the most frequently reported factors positively associated with lameness-related outcomes. Working 7 days per week was positively associated with lameness. The standardization of outcome terminology, grading systems, and study factor categorization is recommended to enable more accurate interpretation and comparison between studies.

Champing at the Bit for Improvements: A Review of Equine Welfare in Equestrian Sports in the United Kingdom

Equestrian sports, including racing (e.g., flat, steeple-chasing, harness or donkey derby); show-jumping; cross-country; dressage; polo; polocrosse; endurance; carriage driving; vaulting and hunting; are hugely popular in the UK, and they involve a significant number of people, both as participants and spectators, and tens of thousands of equids. In this paper, we discuss animal welfare as a complex and disputed issue, clarifying what the term means and how it can be measured. We review many aspects of welfare risk to equids used for sport, addressing issues encountered throughout their lives, including housing, feeding, veterinary intervention, shoeing, handling, training, breeding and equipment. This is followed by a unique exploration of the institutions and social processes influencing equine welfare. The institutional components comprise the rules of competition, the equids, attributes of the stakeholders and the space where participants strive to achieve a common purpose. We endeavour to untangle the most significant elements that create barriers or provide opportunities for equine welfare improvement. We expose the challenges faced by a broad range of stakeholders with differing ethics, attitudes and values. Evidently, there are many welfare risks to which equids used in sports continue to be exposed. It is also evident that significant improvements have occurred in recent times, but there remains a barrier to reducing the risks to an acceptable level. We conclude with recommendations regarding a process for change, involvement of stakeholders and management of knowledge to improve equine welfare that involves identifying and prioritising the risk factors and ultimately leading to interventions, further research and/or education.

An analysis of risk factors for a fracture or luxation in recovery from general anaesthesia in horses: a single centre study

Catastrophic fractures or luxations (FoL) sustained during recovery from general anaesthesia are a significant cause of mortality during equine anaesthesia. There is a lack of evidence regarding potential risk factors for a FoL occurring in the immediate anaesthetic recovery period. A single centre, retrospective, case-matched study was performed to identify risk factors for sustaining a catastrophic FoL during recovery from general anaesthesia. Clinical data were obtained for horses which sustained a catastrophic FoL when recovering from general anaesthesia from January 2011- June 2020 in a single centre referral population. Multivariable logistical regression analysis was performed to identify risk factors which were significant in horses where a FoL occurred. Statistically significant risk factors in our population of horses of sustaining a FoL in recovery included intra-operative administration of intra-tracheal salbutamol, intra-operative administration of ketamine and increasing age. Further research in this area, particularly with regards to salbutamol administration, is required.

Potential and Challenges of Community-Based Surveillance in Animal Health: A Pilot Study Among Equine Owners in Switzerland

Animal owners' potential to observe and report clinical signs, as the persons with the closest contact to their animals, is an often neglected source of information in surveillance. Allowing community members other than health care professionals, such as animal owners, to report health events can contribute to close current surveillance gaps and enhance early detection. In the present study, we tested a community-based surveillance (CBS) approach in the equine community in Switzerland. We aimed at revealing the attitudes and intentions of equine owners toward reporting clinical signs by making use of an online questionnaire. We further set up and operated an online CBS tool, named Equi-Commun. Finally, we investigated potential reasons for the lack of its use by applying qualitative telephone interviews. The majority of the respondents of the online questionnaire (65.5%, 707/1,078) answered that they could see themselves reporting clinical observations of their equine. The multivariate logistic regression analysis indicated that French-speaking equine owners and those belonging to the positive attitude cluster are more likely to report to a CBS tool. Equi-Commun operated between October 2018 and December 2019 yet received only four reports. With the addition of qualitative interviews, we identified three critical, interlinked issues that may have led to the non-use of Equi-Commun within the Swiss equine community: (1) for successfully implementing CBS, the need for surveillance within the community of interest must be given; (2) the respective population under surveillance, here the equine, needs to show enough clinical cases for owners to be able to maintain the memory of an existing tool and its possible use; and (3) targeted and high effort communication of the system is key for its success. While CBS relying only on lay animal owners, complementary to existing surveillance systems, could potentially provide a good proxy of timely surveillance data, it is questionable whether the added value of generated surveillance knowledge is in balance with efforts necessary to implement a successful system. With this study, we showcased both the potential and challenges of CBS in animal health, as this may be of relevance and guidance for future initiatives.

Equine influenza vaccination in the UK: Current practices may leave horses with suboptimal immunity

BACKGROUND

Vaccination is integral to preventive healthcare. Despite numerous guidelines on equine vaccination, evidence of current vaccination practices is lacking.

OBJECTIVES

To describe current vaccination practices advised by vets treating horses in the United Kingdom (UK) and compare practices with manufacturer datasheets and current guidelines.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional survey.

METHODS

An online questionnaire was distributed using email addresses acquired through professional registration listings and social media, targeting vets who treat horses in the UK. The questionnaire collected demographic data and information regarding vaccination practices and vaccine hesitancy. Descriptive statistical analysis was performed.

RESULTS

Questionnaires were completed by 304 UK vets working with horses used for leisure (97.4%, n = 296/304), competition (86.2%, n = 262/304), stud-work (47.7%, n = 145/304) and racing (40.5%, n = 123/304). Variation was identified in vaccine protocols for competition and noncompetition horses. Fifty-seven per cent (n = 170/298) of respondents reported variation in advised 'booster' frequency; most commonly (n = 118) advising a 6-monthly vaccination in competition horses and annual vaccination in noncompetition horses. Most common vaccination guidelines volunteered were British Horseracing Authority (68.8%, n = 172/250) and Federation Equestre Internationale (66.4%, n = 166/250). Most vaccination practices were not consistent with datasheet guidance. Only 7.7% (n = 23/300) of respondents complied with datasheet timeframes between the second and third vaccination. Adverse events following vaccination in the previous year were encountered by 66% (n = 199/304) of respondents, representing 2760 adverse events; but only 526 (19.1%) cases were reported to the Veterinary Medicines Directorate. Most common reactions were transient, including stiffness (931), localised swelling (835), lethargy (559) and pyrexia (355). 86.4% respondents reported vaccine hesitancy from horse owners, most commonly due to perception of over-vaccination, cost and concern regarding adverse events.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Potential selection, respondent and recall bias. The recent Equine Influenza (EI) and Equine Herpes Virus (EHV) outbreaks in the UK may have altered responses.

CONCLUSIONS

Current equine vaccination practices, although complying with competition rules, are mostly noncompliant with datasheet guidelines, potentially risking suboptimal immunity.

Differential gene expression analysis reveals pathways important in early post-traumatic osteoarthritis in an equine model

Background

Post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA) is a common and significant problem in equine athletes. It is a disease of the entire joint, with the synovium thought to be a key player in disease onset and progression due to its role in inflammation. The development of effective tools for early diagnosis and treatment of PTOA remains an elusive goal. Altered gene expression represents the earliest discernable disease-related change, and can provide valuable information about disease pathogenesis and identify potential therapeutic targets. However, there is limited work examining global gene expression changes in early disease. In this study, we quantified gene expression changes in the synovium of osteoarthritis-affected joints using an equine metacarpophalangeal joint (MCPJ) chip model of early PTOA. Synovial samples were collected arthroscopically from the MCPJ of 11 adult horses before (preOA) and after (OA) surgical induction of osteoarthritis and from sham-operated joints. After sequencing synovial RNA, Salmon was used to quasi-map reads and quantify transcript abundances. Differential expression analysis with the limma-trend method used a fold-change cutoff of log2(1.1). Functional annotation was performed with PANTHER at FDR < 0.05. Pathway and network analyses were performed in Reactome and STRING, respectively.

Results

RNA was sequenced from 28 samples (6 preOA, 11 OA, 11 sham). “Sham” and “preOA” were not different and were grouped. Three hundred ninety-seven genes were upregulated and 365 downregulated in OA synovium compared to unaffected. Gene ontology (GO) terms related to extracellular matrix (ECM) organization, angiogenesis, and cell signaling were overrepresented. There were 17 enriched pathways, involved in ECM turnover, protein metabolism, and growth factor signaling. Network analysis revealed clusters of differentially expressed genes involved in ECM organization, endothelial regulation, and cellular metabolism.

Conclusions

Enriched pathways and overrepresented GO terms reflected a state of high metabolic activity and tissue turnover in OA-affected tissue, suggesting that the synovium may retain the capacity to support healing and homeostasis in early disease. Limitations of this study include small sample size and capture of one point post-injury. Differentially expressed genes within key pathways may represent potential diagnostic markers or therapeutic targets for PTOA. Mechanistic validation of these findings is an important next step.

Mixed methods investigation of the use of telephone triage within UK veterinary practices for horses with abdominal pain: A Participatory action research study

BACKGROUND

Telephone triage is an integral part of modern patient care systems in human medicine, and a key component of veterinary practice care systems. There is currently no published research on telephone triage within the veterinary profession.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate current approaches to telephone triage of horses with abdominal pain (colic) in veterinary practice and develop new resources to support decision-making.

STUDY DESIGN

Participatory action research using mixed-methods approach.

METHODS

An online survey assessed current approaches to telephone triage of horses with colic in UK veterinary practices. Structured group and individual interviews were conducted with four equine client care (reception) teams on their experiences around telephone triage of colic. Evidence-based resources, including an information pack, decision flow chart and recording form, were developed and implemented within the practices. Participant feedback was obtained through interviews six months after implementation of the resources.

RESULTS

There were 116 participants in the online survey. Management and client care staff (53/116) felt less confident giving owner advice (p<0.01) and recognising critical indicators (p = 0.03) compared to veterinary surgeons and nurses (63/116). Thirteen themes were identified in the survey relating to owner advice; exercise and owner safety were most frequently mentioned, but conflicting guidance was often given. Fourteen client care staff were interviewed. They were confident recognising colic during a telephone conversation with an owner and identified the most common signs of critical cases as sweating and recumbency. The new resources received positive feedback; the decision flow chart and information on critical indicators were identified as most useful. After resource implementation, there was an increase in confidence in recognising critical cases and giving owners advice.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Limited sample population.

CONCLUSIONS

This study described existing approaches to telephone triage, identified variations in advice given, and worked with client care teams to develop new resources to aid decision-making.

Equine influenza vaccination as reported by horse owners and factors influencing their decision to vaccinate or not

BACKGROUND

Equine influenza virus is a highly contagious respiratory pathogen that causes pyrexia, anorexia, lethargy and coughing in immunologically naïve horses. Vaccines against equine influenza are available and vaccination is mandatory for horses that participate in affiliated competitions, but this group forms a small proportion of the total horse population. The aims of this study were to: i) identify the equine influenza vaccination rate as reported in 2016 by horse owners in the United Kingdom (UK); ii) examine the demographics of owners and horses which were associated with significantly lower influenza vaccination rates and iii) explore factors that influence horse owners' decisions around influenza vaccine uptake.

RESULTS

Responses from 4837 UK horse owners who were responsible for 10,501 horses were analysed. An overall equine influenza vaccination rate of 80% (8385/10501) was reported. Several owner demographic characteristics were associated with significantly lower (p<0.05) reported equine influenza vaccination rates including: some geographical locations, increasing horse owner age, annual household income of less that £15,000 and owning more than one horse. Horse-related features which were associated with significantly lower reported equine influenza vaccination rates included age ranges of <4 years and > 20 years, use as a companion or breeding animal or leaving their home premises either never or at most once a year. The most common reasons cited for failing to vaccinate horses was no competition activity, lack of exposure to influenza and expense of vaccines. In contrast, the most common underlying reasons given by horse owners who vaccinated their horse were protection of the individual horse against disease, veterinary advice and to protect the national herd. Owners of vaccinated horses had less previous experience of an influenza outbreak or adverse reaction to vaccination compared with owners of unvaccinated horses.

CONCLUSIONS

This study documented a high rate of equine influenza vaccination as reported by owners in a substantial number of horses in the UK, but this does not reflect the level of protection. Sub-populations of horses which were less likely to be vaccinated and the factors that influence each owner's decision around vaccination of their horses against equine influenza were identified, but may alter following the 2019 European influenza outbreak. This information may nevertheless help veterinary surgeons identify "at-risk" patients and communicate more personalised advice to their horse-owning clients. It may also influence educational campaigns about equine influenza directed to horse owners, which aim to improve uptake of vaccination against this pathogen.

Undenatured Type II Collagen (UC-II) in Joint Health and Disease: A Review on the Current Knowledge of Companion Animals

OA is quite common in companion animals, especially in large breed dogs and horses. Collagen, the most abundant protein of mammals, has specific connective tissue types for skin, bones, reticulate, basal lamina, bones, cell surfaces, while type II collagen (UC-II) forms the main structure of cartilage tissue. Even at the smaller dosages, UC-II has also been reported to be more effective than the glucosamine and chondroitin sulfate supplements, which are the supplements most frequently used in the market. In this review, we summarize the effects of UC-II on joint health and function in health and disease conditions in companion animals.

Information delivery and the veterinarian-horse owner relationship in the context of Hendra virus in Australia

Hendra virus (HeV) is an emerging bat-borne virus endemic in Australia that can be transmitted from horses to humans and has a high fatality rate for horses and people. Controversy surrounding HeV risk mitigation measures have strained the veterinarian-horse owner relationship. This study aimed to characterise the veterinarian-horse owner relationship in general and also in the context of HeV by analysing data derived from the 'Horse Owners and Hendra Virus: A Longitudinal Study to Evaluate Risk' (HHALTER) study. Australian horse owners were recruited via emails, social media and word-of-mouth for a series of five surveys that were administered online at six-monthly intervals over a two-year period to capture baseline knowledge, attitudes and practices of horse owners regarding HeV and any changes over time. In the current study, descriptive analyses of information sources were performed to understand the use of veterinarians as a HeV information source (Surveys 1 and 5; n = 1195 and n = 617). Ordinal logistic regression analyses were conducted to determine factors associated with the frequency of horse owner contact with a veterinarian (Survey 3; n = 636). This study found a relative increase over the study period in the proportion of horse owners who had used veterinarians as HeV information source in the last 12 months (from 51.9% to 88.3%). Owning more horses, being older, having a 'duty of care' for other people working with horses and deriving the main income from horse related business were factors associated with more frequent veterinary contact. Results suggest that traditional information sources such as workshops, information packs and risk training are likely to be used by horse owners. Smart phone applications should be considered for use in the future and require further investigation for horse health communication. The findings of this study may be helpful in optimising strategies for horse health information delivery.

Identification and Quantification of Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) in Equine Articular Tissue

Joint pain and osteoarthritis (OA) are some of the most common causes of lameness in horses, and most of the available treatments focus on symptomatic relief without a disease-modifying effect. TRPV1 is a potential target for treating joint diseases, including OA, and the present study aims to investigate if the TRPV1 receptor is present in equine articular tissue and determine whether the number of receptors is upregulated in joint inflammation. Metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal (MCP/MTP) joints from 15 horses euthanised for reasons unrelated to this study were included. Based on synovial fluid analysis, macroscopic evaluation, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), joints were divided into two groups: healthy joints and joints with pathology. ELISA analysis was performed on synovial tissue harvested from all joints. TPRV1 was found in all joints. The mean concentration of TRPV1 compared to total protein in healthy joints (8.4 × 10^-7 ng/mL) and joints with pathology (12.9 × 10^-7 ng/mL) differed significantly (p = 0.01, t-test with Welch correction). Quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase PCR analysis was performed on RNA isolates from synovial tissue from all joints. TRPV1 mRNA expression ratio normalized to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) in healthy joints (0.16 (SD: 0.19)) and joints with pathology (0.24 (SD: 0.14)) did not differ significantly (p = 0.43, t-test with Welch correction). mRNA expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-) was very low for both groups. In conclusion, TRPV1 was detected both on mRNA and the protein level, with a higher expression of TRPV1 in samples from joints with pathology. Future studies will determine the clinical potential of equine TRPV1 as a target in the management of joint pain and inflammation.

Success and Limitation of Equine Influenza Vaccination: The First Incursion in a Decade of a Florida Clade 1 Equine Influenza Virus that Shakes Protection Despite High Vaccine Coverage

Every year, several epizooties of equine influenza (EI) are reported worldwide. However, no EI case has been identified in France between 2015 and late 2018, despite an effective field surveillance of the pathogen and the disease. Vaccination against equine influenza virus (EIV) remains to this day one of the most effective methods to prevent or limit EI outbreaks and the lack of detection of the pathogen could be linked to vaccination coverage. The aim of this study was to evaluate EI immunity and vaccine coverage in France through a large-scale serological study. A total of 3004 archived surplus serums from French horses of all ages, breeds and sexes were selected from four different geographical regions and categories (i.e., sanitary check prior to exportation, sale, breeding protocol or illness diagnosis). EIV-specific antibody response was measured by single radial hemolysis (SRH) and an EIV-nucleoprotein (NP) ELISA (used as a DIVA test). Overall immunity coverage against EIV infection (i.e., titers induced by vaccination and/or natural infection above the clinical protection threshold) reached 87.6%. The EIV NP ELISA results showed that 83% of SRH positive serum samples from young horses (≤3 years old) did not have NP antibodies, which indicates that the SRH antibody response was likely induced by EI vaccination alone (the HA recombinant canarypoxvirus-based EI vaccine is mostly used in France) and supports the absence of EIV circulation in French horse populations between 2015 and late 2018, as reported by the French equine infectious diseases surveillance network (RESPE). Results from this study confirm a strong EI immunity in a large cohort of French horses, which provides an explanation to the lack of clinical EI in France in recent years and highlights the success of vaccination against this disease. However, such EI protection has been challenged since late 2018 by the incursion in the EU of a Florida Clade 1 sub-lineage EIV (undetected in France since 2009), which is also reported here.

MicroRNAs in equine veterinary science

MicroRNAs are small noncoding RNAs that play a pivotal role in diverse cellular processes through post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. The dysregulation of specific microRNAs is associated with disease development and progression. In this review, we summarise how microRNAs modulate gene expression, and explain microRNA nomenclature. We discuss the potential applications of microRNAs in equine disease diagnosis and treatment, in the context of the sum of current knowledge about microRNA expression in normal and diseased equine tissues.

Cytokine-induced interleukin-1 receptor antagonist protein expression in genetically engineered equine mesenchymal stem cells for osteoarthritis treatment

BACKGROUND

A combination of tissue engineering methods employing mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) together with gene transfer takes advantage of innovative strategies and highlights a new approach for targeting osteoarthritis (OA) and other cartilage defects. Furthermore, the development of systems allowing tunable transgene expression as regulated by natural disease-induced substances is highly desirable.

METHODS

Bone marrow-derived equine MSCs were transduced with a lentiviral vector expressing interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) gene under the control of an inducible nuclear factor-kappa B-responsive promoter and IL-1Ra production upon pro-inflammatory cytokine stimulation [tumor necrosis factor (TNF)α, interleukin (IL)-1β] was analysed. To assess the biological activity of the IL-1Ra protein that was produced and the therapeutic effect of IL-1Ra-expressing MSCs (MSC/IL-1Ra), cytokine-based two- and three-dimensional in vitro models of osteoarthritis using equine chondrocytes were established and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis was used to measure the gene expression of aggrecan, collagen IIA1, interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, interleukin-8, matrix metalloproteinase-1 and matrix metalloproteinase-13.

RESULTS

A dose-dependent increase in IL-1Ra expression was found in MSC/IL-1Ra cells upon TNFα administration, whereas stimulation using IL-1β did not lead to IL-1Ra production above the basal level observed in nonstimulated cells as a result of the existing feedback loop. Repeated cycles of induction allowed on/off modulation of transgene expression. In vitro analyses revealed that IL-1Ra protein present in the conditioned medium from MSC/IL-1Ra cells blocks OA onset in cytokine-treated equine chondrocytes and co-cultivation of MSC/IL-1Ra cells with osteoarthritic spheroids alleviates the severity of the osteoarthritic changes.

CONCLUSIONS

Thus, pro-inflammatory cytokine induced IL-1Ra protein expression from genetically modified MSCs might represent a promising strategy for osteoarthritis treatment.

Horse-keeping practices in Australia: findings from a national online survey of horse owners

OBJECTIVE

To gain an understanding of general horse-keeping practices in Australia, including shelter, social contact, exercise, watering and supplementary feeding.

METHODS

An online survey was conducted with 505 owners in relation to one 'representative' horse in their care.

RESULTS

The majority (83%) of horses were managed at pasture. Approximately one-quarter of those horses were housed alone (26%) or with one companion animal (27%). If horses were confined to a stable or small yard, the most recorded means of exercise was riding (65%) at a daily frequency (60%). Over half of the horse owners provided water in a trough or drinker with an automatic refill system (58%) and most horse owners supplied hay to their horses (82%), most commonly in combination with grazing. Areas of potential concern included one-quarter of stabled horses being prevented from unmediated social and physical contact with conspecifics and one-fifth of stabled horses being exercised less than daily.

CONCLUSION

The horse-keeping profile in this study should be considered in the public communication of guidelines as well as interactions between veterinarians and clients.

Epidemiology of pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction: A systematic literature review of clinical presentation, disease prevalence and risk factors

Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID) is caused by an age-related degenerative disease of dopaminergic neurones. Despite its importance in equine practice, available information regarding its epidemiology is limited. This systematic review aimed to assess published literature to evaluate available evidence regarding the clinical presentation, prevalence and risk factors for PPID in horses and ponies. Electronic database searches were undertaken using a range of terms, and English language publications published prior to August 2016 were included. Both authors independently reviewed screened papers for inclusion, extracted data, and assessed the quality of reporting using predefined criteria. Data were extracted using modified critically appraised topic data collection forms. Meta-analysis was not undertaken due to marked between-study variations. Following removal of duplicate records, of 358 published papers yielded by the search, 97 abstracts were screened for eligibility and 29 publications meeting inclusion criteria were included in the review. Most studies reviewed were case series or cross-sectional studies, with considerable variation in study populations and PPID case definition. Hypertrichosis and/or other hair coat abnormalities, laminitis and epaxial muscle wastage or muscle atrophy are the most frequently reported clinical signs, with prevalence of these signs increasing with increasing horse age. The most robust prevalence estimates for PPID were 21.2% in horses and ponies aged ≥15 years and 2.9% amongst the general equine population. Findings regarding breed and sex predispositions were equivocal and only increasing age has been identified as a significant risk factor for PPID.

Mouldable, thermoplastic, glue-on frog-supportive shoes change hoof kinetics in normal and obese Shetland ponies

Background

Obesity and hyperinsulinaemia are frequently encountered in the equine population and risk factors for the development of laminitis. There are many options for hoof support that claim a beneficial effect, but often the scientific evidence is scarce.

Objectives

To quantify the effect of frog‐supportive shoes on hoof kinetics in normal and obese ponies.

Study design

Controlled in vivo trial.

Methods

Ten Shetland mares (n = 10) with a normal (n = 5) or obese (n = 5) body condition were led over a dynamically calibrated pressure plate before (T0), immediately after (T1) and 72 h (T2) after application of the shoes. The following locomotor variables were measured: stance duration (StDur), vertical impulse (VI), peak vertical force (PVF), time to PVF and time from PVF to lift off. The hoof print was divided into a toe and heel region and the StDur toe–heel index was calculated. The toe–heel hoof balance curves of the vertical force were plotted throughout the stance phase.

Results

The VI and PVF increased significantly 72 h after application of the shoes, when compared with T0 and T1. The StDur toe–heel index and toe–heel balance curves were significantly different between the normal and obese ponies. These variables became more comparable between the groups after application of the frog‐supportive shoes.

Main limitations

It would have been interesting to measure the effect of the shoe in patients with acute laminitis. However, this would have had major welfare implications.

Conclusions

The obese ponies moved more carefully than the normal group, demonstrated by a decreased loading of the toe area. The data illustrate that the ponies became more comfortable 72 h after application of the shoes, with a pronounced effect in the obese group. Thus, these results suggest that frog‐supportive shoes could be beneficial, especially for obese ponies.

Tetanus in horses: an overview of 70 cases

ABSTRACT: Tetanus is characterized by high case fatality rates in horses. Comprehensive case series studies involving equine tetanus from different geographic areas enable the evaluation of prognosis, efficacy of treatment, and control measures. We retrospectively investigated some selected epidemiological data (breed, age, gender, use of the horses, history of vaccination, seasonality, presence of wound/history of surgical procedures, clinical outcomes) and main clinical aspects (clinical signs, incubation period, length of hospitalization, and period between onset signs and hospitalization) in 70 cases of equine tetanus over 1990-2015, with emphasis in the association between these data and the clinical outcomes. High mortality rate (72.9%) was observed in this study. Forty (57.1%) horses presented history of wounds or surgical procedures related with tetanus, represented mainly by lesions in the hind limbs (42.5%), front limbs (15.0%), umbilical infections (7.1%), castration (4.3%), and face wounds (4.3%). Hyperesthesia, limb spasticity, cervical stiffness, tetanic spasms, and restriction of jaw movement were the main consistent clinical signs. Besides no statistical association, all the horses with umbilical infections, wounds in face, prolonged recumbency, sweating, dysphagia/aphagia died, and together with delay between onset of first clinical signs and prompt veterinary assistance (< 5 days) were considered indicative of poor prognosis; whereas there was a significant association (p=0.001) between survival and length of hospitalization > 7 days, seemed as an evidence of good prognosis. The high mortality rate of tetanus, even in horses under specific treatment, highlight the need for early diagnosis, prompt veterinary assistance, and establishment of prophylatic measures in equine farms.

Maternal obesity increases insulin resistance, low-grade inflammation and osteochondrosis lesions in foals and yearlings until 18 months of age

INTRODUCTION

Obesity is a growing concern in horses. The effects of maternal obesity on maternal metabolism and low-grade inflammation during pregnancy, as well as offspring growth, metabolism, low-grade inflammation, testicular maturation and osteochondrotic lesions until 18 months of age were investigated.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Twenty-four mares were used and separated into two groups at insemination according to body condition score (BCS): Normal (N, n = 10, BCS ≤4) and Obese (O, n = 14, BCS ≥4.25). BCS and plasma glucose, insulin, triglyceride, urea, non-esterified fatty acid, serum amyloid A (SAA), leptin and adiponectin concentrations were monitored throughout gestation. At 300 days of gestation, a Frequently Sampled Intravenous Glucose Tolerance Test (FSIGT) was performed. After parturition, foals' weight and size were monitored until 18 months of age with plasma SAA, leptin, adiponectin, triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4) and cortisol concentrations measured at regular intervals. At 6, 12 and 18 months of age, FSIGT and osteoarticular examinations were performed. Males were gelded at one year and expression of genes involved in testicular maturation analysed by RT-qPCR.

RESULTS

Throughout the experiment, maternal BCS was higher in O versus N mares. During gestation, plasma urea and adiponectin were decreased and SAA and leptin increased in O versus N mares. O mares were also more insulin resistant than N mares with a higher glucose effectiveness. Postnatally, there was no difference in offspring growth between groups. Nevertheless, plasma SAA concentrations were increased in O versus N foals until 6 months, with O foals being consistently more insulin resistant with a higher glucose effectiveness. At 12 months of age, O foals were significantly more affected by osteochondrosis than N foals. All other parameters were not different between groups.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, maternal obesity altered metabolism and increased low-grade inflammation in both dams and foals. The risk of developing osteochondrosis at 12 months of age was also higher in foals born to obese dams.

Retrospective evaluation of 155 adult equids and 21 foals with tetanus in Western, Northern, and Central Europe (2000-2014). Part 1: Description of history and clinical evolution

OBJECTIVE

To describe clinical data of hospitalized adult equids and foals with tetanus.

DESIGN

Multicenter retrospective study (2000-2014).

SETTING

Twenty Western, Northern, and Central European university teaching hospitals and private referral centers.

ANIMALS

One hundred fifty-five adult equids (>6 months) and 21 foals (<6 months) with tetanus.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Information on geographic, annual and seasonal data, demographic- and management-related data, clinical history, clinical examination and blood analysis on admission, complications, treatments, and outcomes were described and statistically compared between adults and foals. The described cases were often young horses. In 4 adult horses, tetanus developed despite appropriate vaccination and in 2 foals despite preventive tetanus antitoxin administration at birth. Castration, hoof abscesses, and wounds were the most common entry sites for adults; umbilical cord infections and wounds for foals. Stiffness was the commonest observed initial clinical sign. Blood analyses frequently revealed an inflammatory response, hemoconcentration, muscle damage, azotemia, negative energy balance, liver damage, and electrolyte and acid base disturbances. Common complications or clinical signs developing during hospitalization included dysphagia, dyspnea, recumbency, hyperthermia, seizures, hyperlipemia, gastrointestinal impactions, dysuria, and laryngeal spasms. Cases were supported with wound debridement, antimicrobial treatment, tetanus antitoxin, muscle spasm and seizure control, analgesia, anti-inflammatory drugs, fluid therapy, and nutritional support. Mortality rates were 68.4% in adult horses and 66.7% in foals. Foals differed from adult horses with respect to months of occurrence, signalment, management-related data, potential causative events, clinical signs on admission, blood analysis, complications, and severity grades.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study that rigorously describes a large population of equids affected by tetanus. The information provided is potentially useful to clinicians for early recognition and case management of tetanus in adult horses and foals. Tetanus affects multiple organ systems, requiring broad supportive and intensive care. Neonatal and adult tetanus in the horse should be considered as distinct syndromes, as in human medicine.

Cross-sectional study of the prevalence of and risk factors for hoof disorders in horses in The Netherlands

Information is scarce on the prevalence of hoof disorders in horses. In this study, we examined the prevalence of and risk factors for hoof disorders in a population of horses in The Netherlands. In a group of 942 randomly selected horses, hoof health was scored during regular foot trimming (one horse/farm). Hooves were assessed for the occurrence of one of 12 hoof disorders by a group of 21 certified farriers in two periods i.e. winter and summer of 2015. The mean age of the group of horses was 11.2±5.6years. They were mainly used for recreation (28.2%), dressage (26.8%), other disciplines (such as carriage driving and breeding) (18.7%), showjumping (17.6%) or combinations of these activities (8.6%). The horse farms studied were evenly distributed throughout the country. The horses were housed on different types of bedding, including straw (51.0%), shavings (17.5%), flax (16.1%) or other materials (11.0%), or were kept at pasture (4.4%). In 85% of the horses, at least one hoof disorder was observed during regular foot trimming. Most of the lesions were mild. The most frequently diagnosed hoof disorders were: thrush (T; 45.0%); superficial hoof wall cracks (SHWC; 30.4%); growth rings (GR; 26.3%); and sole bruises (SB; 24.7%). Less frequently observed hoof disorders included: perforating hoof wall cracks (PHWC; 16.4%); white line disease (WLD; 17.8%); and white line widening (WLW; 11.8%). Horizontal hoof cracks (5.2%), chronic laminitis (3.9%), quarter cracks (2.7%), keratoma (1.8%) and frog cancer (1.0%) were less frequently observed. Factors significantly associated with the occurrence of thrush comprised a wet stable floor (OR 1.6 and 2.9, for somewhat wet to wet respectively, compared to dry), the use of straw as bedding (OR=1.5, compared to flax), the housing strategy (e.g. permanent housing in contrast to permanent pasturing) (OR=1.7) and poor horn quality (OR=3.4). A higher prevalence of WLD was associated with less frequent hoof picking (OR=2.1 if performed weekly instead of daily), the use of flax bedding (OR=2.1, compared to straw) and poor horn quality (OR=8.1). A higher prevalence of SB was observed in horses used for multiple disciplines (OR=3.5, compared to dressage), with white-coloured hooves (OR=5.0, compared to black hooves), with longer intervals between trimming sessions (OR=4.8 in case of 8-10 weeks compared to weekly) and with poor horn quality (OR=5.4). A higher prevalence of WLW was observed in older horses (OR=15.5 for horses >19years, compared to <5years), in those with longer intervals between trimming sessions (OR=1.8 in case of 8-10 weeks compared to weekly), and in certain breeds (OR=3.2 for Friesian horses, 2.9 for Welsh ponies and 13.1 for Shetland ponies, all compared to Dutch Warmblood). In conclusion, although most of the hoof disorders identified were only in a mild stage, still an unexpectedly high prevalence of hoof disorders was observed during regular hoof trimming. Analysis of the data showed that some parameters, such as the use of flax bedding, may be protective for certain hoof disorders but a risk factor for others. This study provides useful guidelines for monitoring hoof health, reducing lameness and optimizing equine welfare.

Demographics, Management, Preventive Health Care and Disease in Aged Horses

Gerontology has become increasingly important in equine veterinary medicine, with aged animals representing a significant proportion of the equine population. Horses are defined as geriatric or aged from age 15 years onwards but can have a life span of more than 40 years. Despite a high level of owner concern for the well-being of their geriatric animal, provision of preventive health care may be suboptimal. Owners seem to under-recognize some of the most prevalent diseases identified in geriatric horses. This review focuses on the demographic characteristics of the equine geriatric population and management and preventive care practices of older horses.

An epidemiological analysis of equine welfare data from regulatory inspections by the official competent authorities

Determining welfare status in a population is the first step in efforts to improve welfare. The primary objective of this study was to explore a new epidemiological approach for analysis of data from official competent authorities that pertain to compliance with animal welfare legislation. We reviewed data already routinely collected as part of Swedish official animal welfare inspections for 2010-13, using a checklist containing 45 checkpoints (CPs). These covered animal-, resource- and management-based measures of equine welfare. The animal-based CPs were measures that directly related to the animal and included social contact, body condition, hoof condition and cleanliness. Non-compliance with one or more of the animal-based CPs was used as a binary outcome of poor equine welfare; 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated using the exact binomial distribution. Associations were determined using multivariable logistic regression, adjusting for clustering on premises. Resource- and management-based CPs (model inputs) were reduced by principal component analysis. Other input factors included premises characteristics (e.g. size, location) and inspection characteristics (e.g. type of inspection). There were 30 053 premises with horses from 21 counties registered by the Swedish Board of Agriculture. In total 13 321 inspections of premises were conducted at 28.4% (n=8532) of all registered premises. For random inspections, the premises-prevalence of poor equine welfare was 9.5% (95% CI 7.5, 11.9). Factors associated with poor equine welfare were non-compliance with requirements for supervision, care or feeding of horses, facility design, personnel, stable hygiene, pasture and exercise area maintenance, as well as the owner not being notified of the inspection, a previous complaint or deficiency, spring compared with autumn, and not operating as a professional equine business. Horses at premises compliant with stabling and shelter requirements had significantly better welfare if they also complied with documentation requirements. We present a novel approach for analysis of equine welfare data from regulatory inspections by the official competent authorities, and propose on-going analyses and benchmarking of trends in animal-based measures over time. We also suggest how such a database could be further improved to facilitate future epidemiological analyses of risk factors associated with poor equine welfare. The study has implications for other competent authorities and researchers collaborating in the area of animal welfare epidemiology.

Prevalence and risk factors for overweight horses at premises in Sweden assessed using official animal welfare control data

BACKGROUND

There are Swedish animal welfare regulations concerning the body condition of horses and general advice on keeping horses including that horses should be fed so that they do not become over- or underweight relative to their use. Compliance is assessed by official animal welfare inspectors. The objective of this study was to determine whether the national animal welfare control database could be used to estimate the prevalence and risk factors for overweight horses in Sweden. The official animal welfare control checklist for horses contains 45 checkpoints (CP) of which CP-8 pertains to the acceptability of the horses' body condition including whether they were under- or overweight. Prevalence of non-compliance with CP-8, with 95 % confidence intervals (CI), were calculated for the years 2010-2013. Associations between risk factors and non-compliance for overweight body condition were estimated using logistic regression and expressed as odds ratios (OR) with 95 % CIs.

RESULTS

Of 7870 premises with registered horses that were inspected against CP-8, a total of 63 premises had non-compliant inspections due to overweight horses (0.80 %; CI 0.62, 1.02 %). In multivariable analyses, premises that were non-compliant with requirements for the care of sick or injured horses (OR 3.52; CI 1.51, 8.22) or with the requirements for feeding a balanced high-quality diet (OR 5.15; CI 2.49, 10.67) had greater odds of having overweight horses. Premises that also kept other species for meat production were more likely to have overweight horses (OR 2.12; CI 1.18, 3.81) whereas professional horse establishments were less likely (OR 0.09; 0.01, 0.64). Overweight horses were more likely in summer compared to winter (OR 2.18; CI 1.02, 4.70). Premises in regions of Sweden with more horses in relation to the human population were less likely to have overweight horses (OR 0.97; CI 0.95, 1.00).

CONCLUSIONS

Official animal welfare control data may be used to monitor the premises prevalence of overweight horses in Sweden. Strategies to reduce the prevalence of overweight horses should focus on education about equine care and nutrition, especially summer grazing.

Current Welfare Problems Facing Horses in Great Britain as Identified by Equine Stakeholders

Despite growing concerns about the welfare of horses in Great Britain (GB) there has been little surveillance of the welfare status of the horse population. Consequently we have limited knowledge of the range of welfare problems experienced by horses in GB and the situations in which poor welfare occurs. Thirty-one in-depth interviews were conducted with a cross -section of equine stakeholders, in order to explore their perceptions of the welfare problems faced by horses in GB. Welfare problems relating to health, management and riding and training were identified, including horses being under or over weight, stabling 24 hours a day and the inappropriate use of training aids. The interviewees also discussed broader contexts in which they perceived that welfare was compromised. The most commonly discussed context was where horses are kept in unsuitable environments, for example environments with poor grazing. The racing industry and travellers horses were identified as areas of the industry where horse welfare was particularly vulnerable to compromise. Lack of knowledge and financial constraints were perceived to be the root cause of poor welfare by many interviewees. The findings give insight into the range of welfare problems that may be faced by horses in GB, the contexts in which these may occur and their possible causes. Many of the problems identified by the interviewees have undergone limited scientific investigation pointing to areas where further research is likely to be necessary for welfare improvement. The large number of issues identified suggests that some form of prioritisation may be necessary to target research and resources effectively.

Prevalence, survival analysis and multimorbidity of chronic diseases in the general veterinarian-attended horse population of the UK

The average age of the global human population is increasing, leading to increased interest in the effects of chronic disease and multimorbidity on health resources and patient welfare. It has been posited that the average age of the general veterinarian-attended horse population of the UK is also increasing, and therefore it could be assumed that chronic diseases and multimorbidity would pose an increasing risk here also. However, evidence for this trend in ageing is very limited, and the current prevalence of many chronic diseases, and of multimorbidity, is unknown. Using text mining of first-opinion electronic medical records from seven veterinary practices around the UK, Kaplan-Meier and Cox proportional hazard modelling, we were able to estimate the apparent prevalence among veterinarian-attended horses of nine chronic diseases, and to assess their relative effects on median life expectancy following diagnosis. With these methods we found evidence of increasing population age. Multimorbidity affected 1.2% of the study population, and had a significant effect upon survival times, with co-occurrence of two diseases, and three or more diseases, leading to 6.6 and 21.3 times the hazard ratio compared to no chronic disease, respectively. Laminitis was involved in 74% of cases of multimorbidity. The population of horses attended by UK veterinarians appears to be aging, and chronic diseases and their co-occurrence are common features, and as such warrant further investigation.

In vitro models for the study of osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a prevalent disease of most mammalian species and is a significant cause of welfare and economic morbidity in affected individuals and populations. In vitro models of osteoarthritis are vital to advance research into the causes of the disease, and the subsequent design and testing of potential therapeutics. However, a plethora of in vitro models have been used by researchers but with no consensus on the most appropriate model. Models attempt to mimic factors and conditions which initiate OA, or dissect the pathways active in the disease. Underlying uncertainty as to the cause of OA and the different attributes of isolated cells and tissues used mean that similar models may produce differing results and can differ from the naturally occurring disease. This review article assesses a selection of the in vitro models currently used in OA research, and considers the merits of each. Particular focus is placed on the more prevalent cytokine stimulation and load-based models. A brief review of the mechanism of these models is given, with their relevance to the naturally occurring disease. Most in vitro models have used supraphysiological loads or cytokine concentrations (compared with the natural disease) in order to impart a timely response from the cells or tissue assessed. Whilst models inducing OA-like pathology with a single stimulus can answer important biological questions about the behaviour of cells and tissues, the development of combinatorial models encompassing different physiological and molecular aspects of the disease should more accurately reflect the pathogenesis of the naturally occurring disease.