Accumulation and trophic transfer of organotins in a marine food web from the Danish coastal waters

Sulforaphane modulates some stress parameters in TPT-exposed Cyprinus carpio in relation to liver metabolome

This study aimed to investigate the protective effect of sulforaphane (SFN) on liver injury induced by triphenyltin (TPT) in Cyprinus carpio (C. carpio). The fish (average weight of 56.9±0.4 g) were divided into 4 groups with four replicates: the control, TPT, SFN+TPT and SFN groups. Twenty fish were selected from each tank and cultured for 8 weeks. Then, serum and liver samples were collected for physiological, biochemical and metabolomic analyses. In the present study, TPT downregulated the expression of the lysozyme gene, upregulated HSP70 and Hsp90 gene expression, and decreased the activities of serum antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, and GPX). However, dietary SFN alleviated oxidative stress, and prevented changes in immune genes. Metabolomic analysis revealed that TPT exposure changed key metabolites in the main phenylalanine, fatty acid and glycerophosphatide metabolic pathways, which are related to inflammation, oxidative stress and immunity and might also lead to an imbalance of liver energy and lipid metabolism. Dietary SFN promoted amino acid metabolism and increased metabolites related to immunity, anti-inflammation, antioxidation, and protein synthesis in liver of C. carpio. In summary, dietary SFN supplementation reversed TPT-induced decreases in immunity and oxidative stress and regulated amino acid metabolism, lipid metabolism, inflammation and immunity-related metabolic pathways.

Evaluation of Lipids and Lipid-Related Transcripts in Human and Ovine Theca Cells and an in Vitro Mouse Model Exposed to the Obesogen Chemical Tributyltin

BACKGROUND

Exposure to obesogenic chemicals has been reported to result in enhanced adipogenesis, higher adipose tissue accumulation, and reduced ovarian hormonal synthesis and follicular function. We have reported that organotins [tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin (TPT)] dysregulate cholesterol trafficking in ovarian theca cells, but, whether organotins also exert lipogenic effects on ovarian cells remains unexplored.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated if environmentally relevant exposures to organotins [TBT, TPT, or dibutyltin (DBT)] induce lipid dysregulation in ovarian theca cells and the role of the liver X receptor (LXR) in this effect. We also tested the effect of TBT on oocyte maturation and neutral lipid accumulation, and lipid-related transcript expression in cumulus cells and preimplantation embryos.

METHODS

Primary theca cell cultures derived from human and ovine ovaries were exposed to TBT, TPT, or DBT (1, 10, or 50   ng / ml ). The effect of these chemical exposures on neutral lipid accumulation, lipid abundance and composition, lipid homeostasis-related gene expression, and cytokine secretion was evaluated using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), inhibitor-based methods, cytokine secretion, and lipid ontology analyses. We also exposed murine cumulus-oocyte complexes to TBT and evaluated oocyte maturation, embryo development, and lipid homeostasis-related mRNA expression in cumulus cells and blastocysts.

RESULTS

Exposure to TBT resulted in higher intracellular neutral lipids in human and ovine primary theca cells. In ovine theca cells, this effect was dose-dependent, independent of cell stage, and partially mediated by LXR. DBT and TPT resulted in higher intracellular neutral lipids but to a lesser extent in comparison with TBT. More than 140 lipids and 9 cytokines were dysregulated in TBT-exposed human theca cells. Expression of genes involved in lipogenesis and fatty acid synthesis were higher in theca cells, as well as in cumulus cells and blastocysts exposed to TBT. However, TBT did not impact the rates of oocyte maturation or blastocyst development.

DISCUSSION

TBT induced dyslipidemia in primary human and ovine theca cells, which may be responsible for some of the TBT-induced fertility dysregulations reported in rodent models of TBT exposure. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13955.

Fecal transplantation of young mouse donors effectively improves enterotoxicity in elderly recipients exposed to triphenyltin

Triphenyltin (TPT) is a widely used biocide known for its high toxicity to various organisms, including humans, and its potential contribution to environmental pollution. The aging process leads to progressive deterioration of physiological functions in the elderly, making them more susceptible to the toxic effects of environmental pollutants. This study aimed to investigate the mitigating effect of fecal transplantation in young mice on the toxicological impairment caused by TPT exposure. For the study, 18-month-old mice were divided into four groups with six replicates each. The control group was fed a basal diet, the TPT group was exposed to 3.75 mg/Kg TPT, the feces group received fecal transplantation from 8-week-old young mice, and the combined group was exposed to 3.75 mg/Kg TPT after receiving fecal transplantation. Compared with the elderly control group, TPT induced significant upregulation of mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory factors (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α), while the anti-inflammatory factor gene IL-10 was significantly suppressed. The mRNA expression of intestinal barrier proteins (Claudin, Occludin, Muc2) was also significantly downregulated. However, fecal transplantation in young mice alleviated TPT-induced changes in inflammatory factors, ameliorated oxidative stress, and increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes (including SOD, CAT, GSH-Px). Further analysis using 16 s RNA showed that exposure to TPT led to changes in the composition of the intestinal flora. Untargeted metabolomics observations of feces from older mice revealed that exposure to TPT resulted in altered fecal metabolites. Fecal transplantation in young mice altered the microbiota of TPT-exposed older mice, especially by enhancing the levels of core probiotics. Similar beneficial effects were observed through untargeted metabolomics. Overall, this study highlights the potential benefits of young fecal transplantation in protecting the elderly from the toxicity of TPT, offering a promising approach to improve healthy aging.

Exposure to triphenyltin impairs gut integrity, disturbs gut microbiota, and alters fecal metabolites

Triphenyltin is an environmental contaminant widely used in antifouling paints and can cause toxicity in various organs in living organisms. However, its effects on intestinal function and the microbiome of the gut remain unknown. The objective of this study was to explore the intestinal toxicity of triphenyltin in mice by orally administering 0, 1.875, 3.75, and 7.5 mg/Kg to adult male mice for 8 weeks. Results showed that triphenyltin caused ileum tissue damage, induced oxidative stress, upregulated inflammation-related gene expression and increased serum tumor-necrosis factor α (TNF-α) levels in mice. Triphenyltin impaired ileum barrier function by downregulating Muc2, ZO-1, Occludin and their protein levels at 3.75 and 7.5 mg/Kg. TPT exposure led to partial inflammation and decreased mucin mRNA expression in the colon. Triphenyltin altered intestinal micro-ecological balance and fecal metabolome in mice. In conclusion, triphenyltin alters the mouse gut microbiota and fecal metabolome.

Research Progress on Low-Surface-Energy Antifouling Coatings for Ship Hulls: A Review

The adhesion of marine-fouling organisms to ships significantly increases the hull surface resistance and expedites hull material corrosion. This review delves into the marine biofouling mechanism on marine material surfaces, analyzing the fouling organism adhesion process on hull surfaces and common desorption methods. It highlights the crucial role played by surface energy in antifouling and drag reduction on hulls. The paper primarily concentrates on low-surface-energy antifouling coatings, such as organic silicon and organic fluorine, for ship hull antifouling and drag reduction. Furthermore, it explores the antifouling mechanisms of silicon-based and fluorine-based low-surface-energy antifouling coatings, elucidating their respective advantages and limitations in real-world applications. This review also investigates the antifouling effectiveness of bionic microstructures based on the self-cleaning abilities of natural organisms. It provides a thorough analysis of antifouling and drag reduction theories and preparation methods linked to marine organism surface microstructures, while also clarifying the relationship between microstructure surface antifouling and surface hydrophobicity. Furthermore, it reviews the impact of antibacterial agents, especially antibacterial peptides, on fouling organisms' adhesion to substrate surfaces and compares the differing effects of surface structure and substances on ship surface antifouling. The paper outlines the potential applications and future directions for low-surface-energy antifouling coating technology.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Autophagy Are Involved in Hepatotoxicity Induced by Tributyltin

Tributyltin (TBT), a common contaminant in aquatic ecosystems, has severe toxic effects on multiple tissues and organs, especially the liver. Previous toxicogenomic analysis has indicated that the main mechanism of TBT-induced hepatotoxicity is related to the activation of the apoptotic pathway. However, the mechanism of action occurring before the activation of apoptosis is still unclear. Herein, we applied proteomic technology to explore the protein expression profile of TBT-treated HL7702 normal human liver cells. The ultrastructural changes in cells were observed by transmission electron microscopy. After low dose (2 μΜ) TBT treatment, activation of the unfolded protein response and endoplasmic reticulum stress were observed; the expression levels of PERK, ATF6, BiP, and CHOP were significantly elevated, and splicing of XBP1 mRNA was initiated. When the TBT concentration increased to 4 μΜ, the protein levels of Beclin1, Atg3, Atg5, Atg7, and Atg12-Atg5 were significantly elevated, and the protein level of LC3Ⅰ decreased while that of LC3Ⅱ increased, suggesting the activation of autophagy. As the TBT concentration continued to increase, autophagy could not eliminate the damage, and apoptosis eventually occurred. These results indicate novel pathways of hepatotoxicity induced by TBT and provide insights for future studies.

Spray-Drying Hydrophobic Cellulose Nanocrystal Coatings with Degradable Biocide Release for Marine Antifouling

With increasing awareness about the ecological environment, increased attention has been paid to the application of eco-friendly materials in the field of marine antifouling. In this work, a novel coating having good mechanical strength and static marine antifouling characteristics was fabricated using cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) as the skeleton material, with in situ growth of SiO₂ as the basic superhydrophobic material and introducing hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) and 4-bromo2-(4-chlorophenyl)-5-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrrole-3-carbonitrile (Econea) into the coating. Due to the high strength and rod structure of CNCs, the coating maintained super-hydrophobicity after 50 cycles of abrasion tests. Moreover, the addition of CTAB during the synthesis of SiO₂ led to the hydrolysis and polycondensation of tetraethyl orthosilicate at the micellar interface. Econea was fully mixed with SiO₂ nanoparticles, thus slowing down the rate of release of Econea. Meanwhile, the adhesion between the coating and the substrate reached 1.9 MPa, which can meet the application requirements for marine environments. The bioassay using bacteria (Escherichia coli) and diatoms (Nitzschia closterium) showed that the rate of inhibition of the coating on bacteria and diatoms could reach 99 and 90%, respectively, after immersion in artificial seawater for 28 days. This research provides a facile and promising fabricating solution of an eco-friendly CNC-based coating having strong antifouling characteristics suitable for marine environments.

Characterization of oxidative damage induced by nanoparticles via mechanism-driven machine learning approaches

The wide application of TiO₂-based engineered nanoparticles (nTiO₂) inevitably led to release into aquatic ecosystems. Importantly, increasing studies have emphasized the high risks of nTiO₂ to coastal environments. Bivalves, the representative benthic filter feeders in coastal zones, acted as important roles to assess and monitor the toxic effects of nanoparticles. Oxidative damage was one of the main toxic mechanisms of nTiO₂ on bivalves, but the experimental variables/nanomaterial characteristics were diverse and the toxicity mechanism was complex. Therefore, it was very necessary to develop machine learning model to characterize and predict the potential toxicity. In this study, thirty-six machine learning models were built by nanodescriptors combined with six machine learning algorithms. Among them, random forest (RF) - catalase (CAT), k-neighbors classifier (KNN) - glutathione peroxidase (GPx), neural networks - multilayer perceptron (ANN) - glutathione s-transferase (GST), random forest (RF) - malondialdehyde (MDA), random forest (RF) - reactive oxygen species (ROS), and extreme gradient boosting decision tree (XGB) - superoxide dismutase (SOD) models performed good with high accuracy and balanced accuracy for both training sets and external validation sets. Furthermore, the best model revealed the predominant factors (exposure concentration, exposure periods, and exposure matrix) influencing the oxidative stress induced by nTiO₂. These results showed that high exposure concentrations and short exposure-intervals tended to cause oxidative damage to bivalves. In addition, gills and digestive glands could be vulnerable to nTiO₂-induced oxidative damage as tissues/organs differences were the important factors controlling MDA activity. This study provided insights into important nano-features responsible for the different indicators of oxidative stress and thereby extended the application of machine learning approaches in toxicological assessment for nanoparticles.

Toxic effects of triphenyltin on the silkworm Bombyx mori as a lepidopterous insect model

Triphenyltin (TPT) is a widely used reagent in various industries and agriculture, but is also known to accumulate in natural ecosystems and animal tissues. Hence, the aim of this study was to comprehensively assess the toxicity of TPT in the silkworm Bombyx mori as a model insect. The results showed that TPT exposure for the entire 5th instar larval stage significantly reduced the weight of silkworm pupa and inhibited development of the silkworm midgut. Following exposure to 2 μg/kg of TPT for 4 days, differentially expressed genes in midgut were associated with enriched pathways involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids, as determined by RNA sequencing. Furthermore, the metabolic profiles of the intestinal content of silkworms exposed to 2 μg/kg of TPT for 4 days were markedly altered and differential metabolites produced by metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids were enriched as determined by non-targeted GC-MS/MS metabolomics. This study provides novel insights into the mechanisms underlying the toxicity of TPT and emphasizes the risks posed by such pollutants released into the environment.

Organotins in a food web from the Three Gorges Reservoir, China: Trophic enrichment and potential health risk

Triphenyltin (TPhT) and tributyltin (TBT) remain widely present in various aquatic environments despite restrictions on their use in many countries for many years. The biomagnification of these compounds in the aquatic food web remains controversial. This study reports the bioaccumulation of TPhT and TBT in aquatic animals in the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR), a deep-water river channel-type reservoir and the largest reservoir in China. We measured TPhT, TBT and their metabolites in 2 invertebrates, 27 fish and the aquatic environment. The logarithmic bioaccumulation factors of TPhT and TBT were 4.37 and 3.77, respectively, indicating that TPhT and TBT were enriched in organisms of the TGR. Both TPhT and TBT concentrations were significantly and positively correlated with trophic level, with trophic magnification factors of 3.71 and 3.63, respectively, indicating that TPhT and TBT exhibited similar trophic enrichment in the freshwater food web of the TGR. The results of health risk assessment showed that although all hazard index (HI) values were <1, more attention should be paid to the health risk to children associated with consumption of aquatic products (HI = 0.67). This study provides powerful evidence of trophic enrichment of TPhT and TBT in a freshwater food web in a deep-water river channel-type reservoir and provides valuable data regarding organotins in aquatic animals in the TGR.

Effects of plastic particles on aquatic invertebrates and fish - A review

This review summarises the current knowledge on the effects of microplastics and their additives on organisms living in the aquatic environment, particularly invertebrates and fish. To date, microplastics have been recognised to affect not only the behaviour of aquatic animals but also their proper development, causing variations in fertility, oxidative stress, inflammations and immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and changes in metabolic pathways and gene expression. The ability of microplastics to bind other xenobiotics and cause combined toxicity along side the effect of other agents is also discussed as well. Microplastics are highly recalcitrant materials in both freshwater and marine environments and should be considered extremely toxic to aquatic ecosystems. They are severely problematic from ecological, economic and toxicological standpoints.

Developing an Effective and Durable Film for Marine Fouling Prevention from PDMS/SiO2 and PDMS/PU with SiO2 Composites

Polymer film coating with a highly hydrophobic surface property is a practical approach to prevent fouling of any structures in the marine environment without affecting marine microorganisms. The preparation of a polymer coating, from a simple and easy method of solution blending of hydrophobic polydimethylsiloxane elastomer and hydrophilic polyurethane with SiO₂, was carried out in this study, with the aim of improving characteristics, and the coating demonstrated economic feasibility for antifouling application. Incorporation of SiO₂ particles into PDMS and PDMS/PU polymer film improved mechanical properties of the film and the support fabrication of micropatterns by means of a soft lithography process. Observations from field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) of the PDMS/SiO₂ composite film revealed a homogeneous morphology and even dispersion of the SiO₂ disperse phase between 1–5 wt.%. Moreover, the PDMS film with 3 wt.% loading of SiO₂ considerably increased WCA to 115.7° ± 2.5° and improved mechanical properties by increasing Young’s modulus by 128%, compared with neat PDMS film. Additionally, bonding strength between barnacles and the PDMS film with 3 wt.% of SiO₂ loading was 0.16 MPa, which was much lower than the bonding strength between barnacles and the reference carbon steel of 1.16 MPa. When compared to the previous study using PDMS/PU blend (95:5), the count of barnacles of PDMS with 3 wt.% SiO₂ loading was lower by 77% in the two-week field tests and up to 97% in the eight-week field tests. Subsequently, when PDMS with 3 wt.% SiO₂ was further blended with PU, and the surface modified by the soft lithography process, it was found that PDMS/PU (95:5) with 3 wt.% SiO₂ composite film with micropatterns increased WCA to 122.1° ± 2.9° and OCA 90.8 ± 3.6°, suggesting that the PDMS/PU (95:5) with 3 wt.% SiO₂ composite film with surface modified by the soft lithography process could be employed for antifouling application.

Diet variation in a critically endangered marine predator revealed with stable isotope analysis

Understanding the foraging ecology of animals gives insights into their trophic relationships and habitat use. We used stable isotope analysis to understand the foraging ecology of a critically endangered marine predator, the Māui dolphin. We analysed carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios of skin samples (n = 101) collected from 1993 to 2021 to investigate temporal changes in diet and niche space. Genetic monitoring associated each sample with a DNA profile which allowed us to assess individual and population level changes in diet. Potential prey and trophic level indicator samples were also collected (n = 166; 15 species) and incorporated in Bayesian mixing models to estimate importance of prey types to Māui dolphin diet. We found isotopic niche space had decreased over time, particularly since the 2008 implementation of a Marine Mammal Sanctuary. We observed a decreasing trend in ∂¹³C and ∂¹⁵N values, but this was not linear and several fluctuations in isotope values occurred over time. The largest variation in isotope values occurred during an El Niño event, suggesting that prey is influenced by climate-driven oceanographic variables. Mixing models indicated relative importance of prey remained constant since 2008. The isotopic variability observed here is not consistent with individual specialization, rather it occurs at the population level.

Anti-barnacle biofouling coatings for the protection of marine vessels: synthesis and progress

Marine biofouling has gnawed both mobile and non-mobile marine structures since time immemorial, leading to the deterioration of designed operational capabilities as well as a loss of valuable economic revenues. Mitigation of biofouling has been the primary focus of researchers and scientists from across the globe to save billions of dollars wasted due to the biological fouling of marine structures. The availability of an appropriate environment along with favorable substrata initiates biofilm formation within a few minutes. The crucial element in establishing a gelatinous biofilm is the excreted metabolites of destructive nature and exopolymeric substances (EPSs). These help in securing as well as signaling numerous foulants to establish themselves on this substrate. The larvae of various benthic invertebrates adhere to these suitable surfaces and transform from juveniles to adult barnacles depending upon the environment. Despite biofouling being characteristically witnessed for a month or lengthier timeframe, the preliminary phases of the fouling process typically transpire on a much lesser timescale. A few natural and synthetic additives had demonstrated excellent non-toxic anti barnacle establishment capability; however, further development into commercial products is still far-fetched. This review collates the specific anti-barnacle coatings, emphasizing natural additives, their sources of extraction, general life cycle analysis, and concluding future perspectives of this niche product.

Characterization of the trophic transfer and fate of methylmercury in the food web of Zhalong Wetland, Northeastern China

The transfer and fate of methylmercury (MeHg) in typical components, such as sediment, sediment-inhabiting animals, pelagic fish, and three large waterfowls, namely, red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis), mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), and oriental stork (Ciconia boyciana), of the ecosystem in China's Zhalong Wetland were examined using equivalence-based mass balance model. The biomagnification degree of MeHg increased on the species at the high trophic level of the system. Hence, elevated MeHg concentration (3.2 μg g^-1, dry weight) was detected in the endangered G. japonensis. The accumulation of the organometal generally followed the decreasing order of oriental stork (carnivore) > mallard (omnivore) > red-crowned crane (omnivore). The predicted results of MeHg at each node of the food web were generally in accordance with the measured values (F = 0.09, P = 0.78), implying that the model is suitable for the prediction of MeHg fate in the inland aquatic system. According to the model, the respiration for the species at low trophic strata was the key input source of MeHg, but ingestion played an important role for MeHg intake in the species at the high trophic position in the food web. Metabolism was a crucial pathway of MeHg loss for the top predators in the ecosystem.

Effects of chronic exposure to environmental levels of tributyltin on the lined seahorse (Hippocampus erectus) liver: Analysis of bioaccumulation, antioxidant defense, and immune gene expression

Tributyltin (TBT), an organotin compound frequently detected in the coastal environments, poses a threat to aquatic organisms. The lined seahorse (Hippocampus erectus) is a vulnerable species found in nearshore water habitats. The mechanisms by which this fish responds to TBT exposure are not yet fully understood. Histological, biochemical, and transcriptional analyses were conducted, and the results showed that 60 days of exposure to 50 and 500 ng/L TBT caused significant tin accumulation and liver damage to seahorses. Antioxidant defenses and immune responses to TBT exposure in the livers of seahorses were further investigated. The enzymatic activity of superoxide dismutase and malondialdehyde content increased, while catalase activity decreased. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that a series of genes involved in the antioxidant defense system were highly induced to protect the hepatic cells from oxidative damage. TBT exposure also resulted in the induction of genes associated with immune and inflammatory processes, representing a stress response to combat the adverse environmental conditions in the exposed seahorses. Furthermore, seahorses showed an increased health risk, according to the elevation of the expression of genes with tumor-promoting effects, when exposed to TBT. These findings contribute to our understanding of the adverse effects of TBT exposure on seahorses, and their potential defense mechanisms.

An Overview of Antibiotics as Emerging Contaminants: Occurrence in Bivalves as Biomonitoring Organisms

Simple Summary

In recent years, the use of antibiotics has increased worldwide in both human and veterinary fields. This led to them accumulating in the environment to such an extent that they are actually included in the category of contaminants of emerging concern. For this reason, many of them have been included in monitoring lists of potential pollutants by competent authorities in order to limit their concentration in surface waters and to determine the risk to the aquatic environments. From this perspective, the aim of this review is to update and discuss the available data on antibiotic residues, using bivalves as biomonitoring organisms. Bivalves are good candidate for this purpose, being globally present in large and accessible populations, sedentary and able to accumulate several xenobiotics thanks to their large filtration capacity. The current research indicates that antibiotics’ presence in bivalves has been investigated along European, American and Asian coasts. Except for tetracycline, determined at high concentration in the North Adriatic Sea, all antibiotics residues in bivalves were under the maximum residual limit established by the competent authorities. Nevertheless, further investigations are necessary in order to prevent antimicrobial resistance, preserve the environment from antibiotic pollution and monitor the associated risk for animals and humans.

Abstract

Antibiotics are used for therapeutic and prophylactic purposes in both human and veterinary medicine and as growth promoting agents in farms and aquaculture. They can accumulate in environmental matrices and in the food chain, causing adverse effects in humans and animals including the development of antibiotic resistance. This review aims to update and discuss the available data on antibiotic residues, using bivalves as biomonitoring organisms. The current research indicates that antibiotics’ presence in bivalves has been investigated along European, American and Asian coasts, with the majority of studies reported for the last. Several classes of antibiotics have been detected, with a higher frequency of detection reported for macrolides, sulfonamides and quinolones. The highest concentration was instead reported for tetracyclines in bivalves collected in the North Adriatic Sea. Only oxytetracycline levels detected in this latter site exceeded the maximum residual limit established by the competent authorities. Moreover, the risk that can be derived from bivalve consumption, calculated considering the highest concentrations of antibiotics residues reported in the analyzed studies, is actually negligible. Nevertheless, further supervisions are needed in order to preserve the environment from antibiotic pollution, prevent the development of antimicrobial resistance and reduce the health risk derived from seafood consumption.

Triphenyltin exposure causes changes in health-associated gut microbiome and metabolites in marine medaka

Triphenyltin (TPT), an organic compound with a wide range of applications, is often detected in water bodies and aquatic animals. However, the mechanism underlying the biological metabolic health problems caused by long-term exposure to environment concentrations of TPT remains unclear. The morphology and gene expression in the gut and liver were investigated; and 16SrRNA gene amplification sequencing and non-targeted LC-MS/MS metabonomics were investigated after marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma) was treated with 1, 10, and 100 ng/L TPT for 21 days. During prolonged exposure to TPT, the adaptation mechanism maximized the energy of absorption, increased the length of intestinal microvilli, reduced the number of rough endoplasmic reticulum in the liver, and caused loss of weight. TPT exposure significantly changed the intestinal microbiome of marine medaka, thereby resulting in a significant decrease in microbial diversity. Following exposure to 100 ng/L TPT, the metabolic profiles were significantly changed and the altered metabolites were mainly concentrated in the lipid metabolic pathway. Finally, based on comprehensive network analysis, the association between the significantly changed bacteria and metabolites contributed further to the prediction of the impact of TPT on the host. This study provides a novel insight into the underlying mechanisms of host metabolic diseases caused by TPT and emphasizes the importance of monitoring pollutants in the environment.

Modified, optimized method of determination of Tributyltin (TBT) contamination in coastal water, sediment and biota in Sri Lanka

Tributyltin (TBT) is a toxic organotin compound that belongs to the group of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and it is documented to cause severe sexual disorders development in aquatic fauna. According to the present study, The TBT concentration in coastal water ranged from 303 ± 7.4 ngL^-1 to 25 ± 4.2 ngL^-1 wherein sediment was from 107 ± 4.1 ngKg^-1 to 17 ± 1.4 ngKg^-1. TBT in Perna viridis was found to range from 4 ± 1.2 ngKg^-1 to 42 ± 2.2 ngKg^-1 wet weight and in ascending order of the body weight. The highest TBT level in water and sediment was found in the Colombo port where the highest level of TBT in P. viridis (42 ± 2.2 ngKg^-1) was recorded from the Dikkowita fishery harbor. A positive correlation between the number of male P. viridis and TBT level (p < 0.05) suggests possible reproductive impairment in aquatic animals exposed continuously to a high concentration of TBT.

Synthesis and Characterization of Dendritic and Linear Glycol Methacrylates and Their Performance as Marine Antifouling Coatings

Dendritic polyglycerol (PG) was covalently coupled to 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) by an anionically catalyzed ring-opening polymerization generating a dendritic PG-HEMA with four PG repetition units (PG₄MA). Coatings of the methacrylate monomer were prepared by grafting-through and compared against commercially available hydrophilic monomers of HEMA, poly(ethylene) glycol methacrylate (PEGMA), and poly(propylene) glycol methacrylate (PPGMA). The obtained coatings were characterized by modern surface analytical techniques, including water contact angle goniometry (sessile and captive bubble), attenuated total internal reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy. The antifouling (AF) and fouling-release (FR) properties of the coatings were tested against the model organisms Cobetia marina and Navicula perminuta in laboratory-scale dynamic accumulation assays as well as in a dynamic short-term field exposure (DSFE) in the marine environment. In addition, the hydration of the coatings and their susceptibility toward silt uptake were evaluated, revealing a strong correlation between water uptake, silt incorporation, and field assay performance. While all glycol derivatives showed good resistance in laboratory settlement experiments, PPGMA turned out to be less susceptible to silt incorporation and outperformed PEGMA and PG₄MA in the DSFE assay.

Tissue distribution of triphenyltin compounds in marine teleost fishes

Continuous release of the highly toxic triphenyltin compounds (TPT) from antifouling paints and fungicides has caused serious pollution to urbanized coastal marine environments worldwide since the 1960s. Using gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry (GC-MS), this study investigated the distribution profile of TPT in 15 types of tissues of four marine teleost fish species collected from Hong Kong waters. Concentrations of TPT in various tissues had a significant positive correlation with protein contents in the tissues (r = 0.346, p < 0.001) and, to a lesser extent with lipid contents (r = 0.169, p =  0.020). Highest concentrations of TPT were consistently found in liver, ranging from 1074.9 to 3443.7 ng/g wet weight; whereas fish scales always contained the least concentration of TPT in all species, ranging from 10.4 to 48.5 ng/g wet weight. Through mass balance models and regression analyses, muscle tissues were found to contribute most to the total TPT body burden, and the average TPT concentration of both dorsal and ventral muscles was identified as the best predictor for estimating TPT burden in the entire fish. Hence, further investigations of bioaccumulation and biomagnification of TPT in fishes should adopt this modelling approach in estimating its total body burden in individual fish.

Bioconcentration of Organotin Cations during Molting Inhibits Heterocypris incongruens Growth

The densely populated North Sea region encompasses catchments of rivers such as Scheldt and Meuse. Herein, agricultural, industrial, and household chemicals are emitted, transported by water, and deposited in sediments, posing ecological risks. Though sediment monitoring is often costly and time-intensive, modeling its toxicity to biota has received little attention. Due to high complexity of interacting variables that induce overall toxicity, monitoring data only sporadically validates current models. Via a range of concepts, we related bio-physicochemical constituents of sediment in Flanders to results from toxicity bioassays performed on the ostracod Heterocypris incongruens. Depending on the water body, we explain up to 90% of the variance in H. incongruens growth. Though variable across Flanders' main water bodies, organotin cations and ammonia dominate the observed toxicity according to toxic unit (TU) assessments. Approximately 10% relates to testing conditions/setups, species variabilities, incoherently documented pollutant concentrations, and/or bio-physicochemical sediment properties. We elucidated the influence of organotin cations and ammonia relative to other metal(oxides) and biocides. Surprisingly, the tributylin cation appeared ∼1000 times more toxic to H. incongruens as compared to "single-substance" bioassays for similar species. We inferred indirect mixture effects between organotin, ammonia, and phosphate. Via chemical speciation calculations, we observed strong physicochemical and biological interactions between phosphate and organotin cations. These interactions enhance bioconcentration and explain the elevated toxicity of organotin cations. Our study aids water managers and policy makers to interpret monitoring data on a mechanistic basis. As sampled sediments differ, future modeling requires more emphasis on characterizing and parametrizing the interactions between bioassay constituents. We envision that this will aid in bridging the gap between testing in the laboratory and field observations.

Gut microbiome alterations induced by tributyltin exposure are associated with increased body weight, impaired glucose and insulin homeostasis and endocrine disruption in mice

Tributyltin (TBT), an organotin compound once widely used in agriculture and industry, has been reported to induce obesity and endocrine disruption. Gut microbiota has a strong connection with the host's physiology. Nevertheless, the influences of TBT exposure on gut microbiota and whether TBT-influenced gut microbiota is related to TBT-induced toxicity remain unclear. To fill these gaps, ICR (CD-1) mice were respectively exposed to TBT at NOEL (L-TBT) and tenfold NOEL (H-TBT) daily by gavage for 8 weeks in the current study. The results showed that TBT exposure significantly increased body weight as well as epididymal fat, and led to adipocyte hypertrophy, dyslipidemia and impaired glucose and insulin homeostasis in mice. Additionally, TBT exposure significantly decreased the levels of T4, T3 and testosterone in serum. Also of note, TBT exposure changed gut microbiota composition mainly by decreasing Bacteroidetes and increasing Firmicutes proportions. To confirm the role of gut microbiota in TBT-induced overweight and hormonal disorders, fecal microbiota transplantation was performed and the mice receiving gut microbiota from H-TBT mice had similar phenotypes with their donor mice including significant body weight and epididymal fat gain, glucose and insulin dysbiosis and hormonal disorders. These results suggested that gut microbiome altered by TBT exposure was involved in the TBT-induced increased body weight, impaired glucose and insulin homeostasis and endocrine disruption in mice, providing significant evidence and a novel perspective for better understanding the mechanism by which TBT induces toxicity.

Total tin (TSn) biomagnification: Evaluating organotin trophic flow and dispersion using hepatic TSn concentrations and stable isotope (C, N) data of nektonic organisms from Brazil

A previous investigation of our research team has demonstrated the suitability of using hepatic total tin (ΣSn) concentrations for evaluating dolphin exposure to organotins (OTs). The present study develops the previous technique into three different approaches that comprise data: (1) on hepatic ΣSn concentrations of 121 Guiana dolphins (Sotalia guianensis) from five different coastal areas (CAs): (2) on ΣSn, δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N for 40 dolphins from Rio de Janeiro state (RJ), including ten different delphinid species; as well as (3) on hepatic ΣSn concentrations and δ¹⁵N values on 31 individuals from five different fish species from Sepetiba Bay (SB, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil). Hepatic ΣSn concentrations of Guiana dolphins from Guanabara Bay (GB, RJ) were significantly higher than those found in other four CAs from S and SE Brazilian regions. Significant positive correlations were found between ΣSn concentrations and δ¹³C data in delphinid species, demonstrating a coast-ocean gradient in dolphin exposure to OTs in RJ state. Significant and positive correlations were observed between ΣSn concentrations and both δ¹⁵N and Trophic Position (TP) values of fish, as well as high values were found for Trophic Magnification Factor (TMF = 3.03) and Trophic Magnification Slope (TMS = 0.14), demonstrating OT biomagnification in SB ichthyofauna.

Occurrence and trophic magnification profile of triphenyltin compounds in marine mammals and their corresponding food webs

The occurrence of triphenyltin (TPT) compounds, a highly toxic antifouling biocide, has been documented in marine environments and organisms all over the world. While some studies showed that marine mammals can be used as sentinel organisms to evaluate the pollution status of emerging contaminants in the environment because of their long lifespans and high trophic levels, information regarding the contamination status of TPT in marine mammal species has been limited over the past decade. More importantly, the primary bioaccumulation pathway of TPT in these long-lived apex predators and the corresponding marine food web is still uncertain. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the contamination statuses of TPT in two marine mammal species, namely the finless porpoise and the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin, and assess the trophic magnification potential of TPT along the food webs of these two species, using stable isotope analysis, and chemical analysis with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The results showed that TPT is the predominant residue in majority of the analyzed individuals of two marine mammals, with concentrations ranging from 426.2 to 3476.6 ng/g wet weight in their muscle tissues. Our results also demonstrated an exponential increase in the concentration of TPT along the marine food web, indicating that trophic magnification occurs in the respective food webs of the two marine mammals. The range of trophic magnification factors of TPT in the food webs of finless porpoise and Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin was 2.51-3.47 and 2.45-3.39, respectively. These results suggest that high trophic organisms may be more vulnerable to the exposure of TPT-contaminated environments due to the high trophic magnification potential, and thus ecological risk of these compounds ought to be assessed with the consideration of their bioaccumulation potentials in these marine mammals.

Assessing the Efficacy of a Sediment Remediation Program Using Benthic and Pelagic Copepod Bioassays

Tributyltin is an organotin chemical that has been commonly used in ship antifouling paints. Despite the global total prohibition of tributyltin-based paint in 2008, tributyltin continues to be found at toxic levels in areas of high maritime traffic such as ports and harbors. A remediation program was conducted at a New Zealand port to reduce tributyltin and copper concentrations to acceptable values. The present study assessed the efficacy of the program using a combination of chemical analyses and copepod bioassays. Sediment and water samples were collected at 3 locations along a spatial gradient within the port, and concentrations of various organotin compounds and trace metal levels were measured pre- and postremediation. The toxicity of sediment and elutriate samples was estimated by benthic and pelagic copepod bioassays. Although acute toxicity in sediment samples was reduced following remediation, reproductive success was still affected for the benthic copepod. This approach combining chemical analysis and bioassays is promising for assessing the efficacy of remediation processes at contaminated marine sites. Environ Toxicol Chem 2020;39:492-499. © 2019 SETAC.

Tributyltin and triphenyltin induce 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 2 expression and activity through activation of retinoid X receptor α

Exposure to the environmental pollutants organotins is of toxicological concern for the marine ecosystem and sensitive human populations, including pregnant women and their unborn children. Using a placenta cell model, we investigated whether organotins at nanomolar concentrations affect the expression and activity of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11β-HSD2). 11β-HSD2 represents a placental barrier controlling access of maternal glucocorticoids to the fetus. The organotins tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin (TPT) induced 11β-HSD2 expression and activity in JEG-3 placenta cells, an effect confirmed at the mRNA level in primary human trophoblast cells. Inhibition/knock-down of retinoid X receptor alpha (RXRα) in JEG-3 cells reduced the effect of organotins on 11β-HSD2 activity, mRNA and protein levels, revealing involvement of RXRα. Experiments using RNA and protein synthesis inhibitors indicated that the effect of organotins on 11β-HSD2 expression was direct and caused by increased transcription. Induction of placental 11β-HSD2 activity by TBT, TPT and other endocrine disrupting chemicals acting as RXRα agonists may affect placental barrier function by altering the expression of glucocorticoid-dependent genes and resulting in decreased availability of active glucocorticoids for the fetus, disturbing development and increasing the risk for metabolic and cardiovascular complications in later life.

Stress-localized durable anti-biofouling surfaces

Growing demands for bio-friendly antifouling surfaces have stimulated the development of new and ever-improving material paradigms. Despite notable progress in bio-friendly coatings, the biofouling problem remains a critical challenge. In addition to biofouling characteristics, mechanically stressed surfaces such as ship hulls, piping systems, and heat exchangers require long-term durability in marine environments. Here, we introduce a new generation of anti-biofouling coatings with superior characteristics and high mechanical, chemical and environmental durability. In these surfaces, we have implemented the new physics of stress localization to minimize the adhesion of bio-species on the coatings. This polymeric material contains dispersed organogels in a high shear modulus matrix. Interfacial cavitation induced at the interface of bio-species and organogel particles leads to stress localization and detachment of bio-species from these surfaces with minimal shear stress. In a comprehensive study, the performance of these surfaces is assessed for both soft and hard biofouling including Ulva, bacteria, diatoms, barnacles and mussels, and is compared with that of state-of-the-art surfaces. These surfaces show Ulva accumulation of less than 1%, minimal bacterial biofilm growth, diatom attachment of 2%, barnacle adhesion of 0.02 MPa and mussel adhesion of 7.5 N. These surfaces promise a new physics-based route to address the biofouling problem and avoid adverse effects of biofouling on the environment and relevant technologies.

Lymnaea stagnalis as a freshwater model invertebrate for ecotoxicological studies

Lymnaea stagnalis, also referred to as great or common pond snail, is an abundant and widespread invertebrate species colonizing temperate limnic systems. Given the species importance, studies involving L. stagnalis have the potential to produce scientifically relevant information, leading to a better understanding of the damage caused by aquatic contamination, as well as the modes of action of toxicants. Lymnaea stagnalis individuals are easily maintained in laboratory conditions, with a lifespan of about two years. The snails are hermaphrodites and sexual maturity occurs about three months after egg laying. Importantly, they can produce a high number of offspring all year round and are considered well suited for use in investigations targeting the identification of developmental and reproductive impairments. The primary aims of this review were two-fold: i) to provide an updated and insightful compilation of established toxicological measures determined in both chronic and acute toxicity assays, as useful tool to the design and development of future research; and ii) to provide a state of the art related to direct toxicant exposure and its potentially negative effects on this species. Relevant and informative studies were analysed and discussed. Knowledge gaps in need to be addressed in the near future were further identified.

Multispecies study: low-dose tributyltin impairs ovarian theca cell cholesterol homeostasis through the RXR pathway in five mammalian species including humans

Tributyltin (TBT), an organotin chemical used as a catalyst and biocide, can stimulate cholesterol efflux in non-steroidogenic cells. Since cholesterol is the first limiting step for sex hormone production, we hypothesized that TBT disrupts intracellular cholesterol transport and impairs steroidogenesis in ovarian theca cells. We investigated TBT's effect on cholesterol trafficking, luteinization, and steroidogenesis in theca cells of five species (human, sheep, cow, pig, and mice). Primary theca cells were exposed to an environmentally relevant dose of TBT (1 or 10 ng/ml) and/or retinoid X receptor (RXR) antagonist. The expression of RXRα in sheep theca cells was knocked down using shRNA. Steroidogenic enzymes, cholesterol transport factors, and nuclear receptors were measured by RT-qPCR and Western blotting, and intracellular cholesterol, progesterone, and testosterone secretion by ELISA. TBT upregulated StAR and ABCA1 in ovine cells, and SREBF1 mRNA in theca cells. TBT also reduced intracellular cholesterol and upregulated ABCA1 protein expression but did not alter testosterone or progesterone production. RXR antagonist and RXRα knockdown demonstrates that TBT's effect is partially through RXR. TBT's effect on ABCA1 and StAR expression was recapitulated in all five species. TBT, at an environmentally relevant dose, stimulates theca cell cholesterol extracellular efflux via the RXR pathway, triggers a compensatory upregulation of StAR that regulates cholesterol transfer into the mitochondria and SREBF1 for de novo cholesterol synthesis. Similar results were obtained in all five species evaluated (human, sheep, cow, pig, and mice) and are supportive of TBT's conserved mechanism of action across mammalian species.

Urgent caution to trace organometal pollution: Occurrence, distribution and sources of methyltins, butyltins and phenyltins in sediments from South Hangzhou Bay, China

The concentrations of seven organotin compounds (OTCs) were determined seasonally in 22 sediment samples (brackish, freshwater and shrimp pond sediments) in South Hangzhou Bay, China. For the brackish and freshwater sediments, methyltins of up to 43.0 ng Sn g^-1 dw showed no significant variation with seasons or locations (p > 0.05). However, butyltin levels in summer (44.0 ± 30.2 ng Sn g^-1 dw) were about two folds higher than those in spring (20.4 ± 18.7 ng Sn g^-1 dw) and four folds higher than in autumn or winter (both≈10 ng Sn g^-1 dw), which is mainly attributed to the heavy contamination near the shipyard, mariculture and textile plants in summer. Phenyltins in spring reached the peak level of 28.4 ng Sn g^-1 dw, about three times of other seasons. Meanwhile, there was a significant variation of phenyltins in summer with high-value sites also in the vicinity of mariculture. Thus, excepting the contribution of agricultural activities to phenyltins, mariculture is likely to be a potential source of butyltins and phenyltins into the marine environment (particularly in summer). This hypothesis has been partly validated by determining adjacent shrimp pond sediments, which showed ubiquitous contamination of butyltins and phenyltins in summer and spring (14.2-44.2 ng Sn g^-1 dw and 2.2-16.9 ng Sn g^-1 dw), but only one sample had the detectable methyltin levels with 8.8 ng Sn g^-1 dw of momomethyl-tin. On the other hand, seven OTCs showed a stronger affinity to brackish sediments than the adjacent freshwater sediments, probably owing to the differences of physicochemical parameters and microbial activities in sediments. Overall, OTC contaminants have become more diversified and complicated in coastal zones, suggesting that future studies should pay attention to other OTC species like phenyltins and methyltins, not only the butyltins.

Using mussel as a global bioindicator of coastal microplastic pollution

The ubiquity and high bioavailability of microplastics have an unknown risk on the marine environment. Biomonitoring should be used to investigate biotic impacts of microplastic exposure. While many studies have used mussels as indicators for marine microplastic pollution, a robust and clear justification for their selection as indicator species is still lacking. Here, we review published literature from field investigations and laboratory experiments on microplastics in mussels and critically discuss the suitability and challenges of mussels as bioindicator for microplastic pollution. Mussels are suitable bioindicator for microplastic pollution because of their wide distribution, vital ecological niches, susceptibility to microplastic uptake and close connection with marine predators and human health. Field investigations highlight a wide occurrence of microplastics in mussels from all over the world, yet their abundance varies enormously. Problematically, these studies are not comparable due to the lack of a standardized approach, as well as temporal and spatial variability. Interestingly, microplastic abundance in field-collected mussels is closely related to human activity, and there is evidence for a positive and quantitative correlation between microplastics in mussels and surrounding waters. Laboratory studies collectively demonstrate that mussels may be good model organisms in revealing microplastic uptake, accumulation and toxicity. Consequently, we propose the use of mussels as target species to monitor microplastics and call for a uniform, efficient and economical approach that is suitable for a future large-scale monitoring program.

Obesogenic Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals: Identifying Knowledge Gaps

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are compounds that are part of everyday consumer products and industrial manufacturing processes. EDCs can interfere with the endocrine system, including the adipose tissue. Accumulating evidence from epidemiological, animal, and in vitro studies demonstrates that EDCs can alter body weight, adipose tissue expansion, circulating lipid profile, and adipogenesis, with some resulting in transgenerational effects. These outcomes appear to be mediated through multiple mechanisms, from nuclear receptor binding to epigenetic modifications. A better understanding of the signaling pathways via which these EDCs contribute to an obesogenic phenotype, the interaction amongst complex mixtures of obesogenic EDCs, and the risks they pose relative to the obesity epidemic are still needed for risk assessment and development of prevention strategies.

Plasma biomarkers in juvenile marine fish provide evidence for endocrine modulation potential of organotin compounds

Organotin compounds, such as tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin (TPT), have been widely used to control marine fouling. Here, we show that organotin stimulation reduces the hormone levels in the plasma of two economically important aquaculture fish. Blood plasma samples were collected from juvenile red seabream and black rockfish exposed to environmentally realistic concentrations of TBT and TPT for 14 days. The levels of two plasma biomarkers, namely the yolk protein precursor vitellogenin (VTG) and the sex steroid 17β-estradiol (E2), were measured to determine the endocrine disrupting potential of the organotin compounds. Both organotin compounds were dose-dependently accumulated in the blood of two fish. Exposure to waterborne TBT and TBT significantly decreased the plasma VTG levels in both the juvenile fish in a dose-dependent manner. In contrast, the treatment with E2, a well-known VTG inducer, significantly increased the plasma VTG levels in both the fish. In addition, the mRNA levels of vtg were also downregulated in the liver tissues of both the fish at 100 and/or 1000 ng L^-1 of TBT or TPT exposure. The plasma E2 titers were significantly suppressed at 100 and/or 1000 ng L^-1 of TBT or TPT exposure for 14 days compared to their titer in the control. Since estrogen directly regulates vtg gene expression and VTG synthesis, our results reveal the endocrine disrupting potential of organotin compounds, and subsequently the endocrine modulation at early stage of fish can trigger further fluctuations in sexual differentiation, maturation, sex ration or egg production. In addition, the results demonstrate their effects on non-target organisms, particularly on animals reared in aquaculture and fisheries.

Effects of triphenyltin on reproduction in Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) across two generations

Triphenyltin (TPT) is an organotin compound used in marine anti-fouling coatings to prevent the attachment and growth of marine organisms, and it has negative effects on aquatic organisms. TPT is still detected at low concentrations, although its use has been prohibited at least in the European Community and is restricted in Japan as well. Studies using Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) indicate that TPT has the potential to inhibit reproduction. Although TPT is detected in many aquatic ecosystems, the multi-generational impact of TPT remains unknown. We investigated the two-generational effects of TPT on Japanese medaka and examined the relationships of several such effects between the F0 and F1 generations. Suppression of fecundity was observed in both generations, and fertility and growth were inhibited in the F1 generation. Moreover, delayed hatching and lower hatchability were observed in F1 embryos. Importantly, the value of the lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC) for these influences in F1 was lower than that in F0: that is, the LOEC values of fecundity and mortality were 3.2μg/L in the F0 generation and 1.0μg/L in the F1 generation. Fertility was not affected by TPT in F0, whereas it was significantly suppressed in the 1.0μg/L-exposure group of the F1 generation. Our results provide the first evidence of the effects of TPT on reproduction in a teleost fish across two generations, highlighting the concern that TPT could affect reproduction and mortality at decreasing concentrations in temporally overlapping generations.

The Microbiology of Ruthenium Complexes

Ruthenium is seldom mentioned in microbiology texts, due to the fact that this metal has no known, essential roles in biological systems, nor is it generally considered toxic. Since the fortuitous discovery of cisplatin, first as an antimicrobial agent and then later employed widely as an anticancer agent, complexes of other platinum group metals, such as ruthenium, have attracted interest for their medicinal properties. Here, we review at length how ruthenium complexes have been investigated as potential antimicrobial, antiparasitic and chemotherapeutic agents, in addition to their long and well-established roles as biological stains and inhibitors of calcium channels. Ruthenium complexes are also employed in a surprising number of biotechnological roles. It is in the employment of ruthenium complexes as antimicrobial agents and alternatives or adjuvants to more traditional antibiotics, that we expect to see the most striking developments in the future. Such novel contributions from organometallic chemistry are undoubtedly sorely needed to address the antimicrobial resistance crisis and the slow appearance on the market of new antibiotics.

Health risk assessment of the intake of butyltin and phenyltin compounds from fish and seafood in Taiwanese population

Organotin compounds have been applied as stabilizers for PVCs, fungicides, and pesticides, those can enter water systems through antifouling paints on ships as well as from diverse industrial and agricultural processes. This study aims to monitor the background levels of six organotins in 200 fishery products. In the current study, the high organotin levels are over tolerable average residue levels in Taiwan. Phenyltins (PTs) levels in fish and seafood are higher than butyltins (BTs). Risk assessment showed that 95% upper confidence limits of the hazard index (HI) of organotins were almost all over 1, indicating that there are probability of health impacts for organotin consumption in Taiwanese consumers. Those who consume higher amounts of seafood and fishery may be at a higher risk of health issues, but the data indicate that organotin levels have become controlled in recent years as compared with health risk data published in 2006.

Organotins in fish muscle and liver from the Polish coast of the Baltic Sea: Is the total ban successful?

Muscle and liver tissues of nine fish species were analyzed to assess butyltin and phenyltin contamination. The samples were collected from three basins located in the Southern Baltic Sea coastal zone that each represent different potential for organotin pollution. Maximum total concentrations of butyltin compounds (BTs) in the fish muscles and livers were 715 and 1132ng Sn g(-1) d.w., respectively, whereas triphenyltin (TPhT) was not detected. In the muscle samples, the predominant compound in the sum of butyltins was tributyltin (TBT), while in the liver samples, tributyltin degradation products were found in the majority. The results demonstrate that 6-7years after the implementation of the total ban on harmful organotin use in antifouling paints, butyltins remain present in fishes from the Polish coast of the Baltic Sea. According to the HELCOM recommendation, eight samples exceeded the good environmental status boundary for tributyltin in seafood.

Distribution of butyltin compounds in Brazil's southern and southeastern estuarine ecosystems: assessment of spatial scale and compartments

Butyltin compounds (BTs), including tributyltin (TBT) and its degradation products, dibutyltin and monobutyltin, have been found in a diversity of aquatic systems and causing toxic effects in target and nontarget organisms. They enter in coastal systems through different sources (as antifouling paints, industrial effluents, etc.) where they interact with biotic and abiotic components, and their distribution is commonly determined by the morphological and hydrodynamic conditions of the coastal systems. In this study, we discuss the contamination by BTs on a spatial scale (eight estuaries with three subareas each) and in different compartments of the estuaries (sediments, suspended particulate matter (SPM), and estuarine catfish tissues (liver and gills). Lower concentrations of BTs were found in the sediments (n.d. to 338 ng g(-1)) in comparison to studies before a ban of TBT in antifouling paints was enacted, mostly indicating an old input or preservation related with sediment properties and composition. For SPM samples (n.d. to 175 ng L(-1)) as well as in fish tissues (n.d. to 1426 ng g(-1)), the presence of these compounds was frequent, especially in the fish due to their movement throughout the estuaries and the potential to assess point sources of BTs. These results indicate that BTs persist in the environment, with variation in amounts between investigated estuaries and even at locations inside the same estuary, because of ideal preservation conditions, transport to remote areas, and input from different sources.

Endocrine disruptors in blue mussels and sediments from the Gulf of Gdańsk (Southern Baltic)

Samples of blue mussel (Mytilus trossulus) and sediment were collected in the Gulf of Gdańsk (Southern Baltic Sea) to assess the extent of their contamination with two groups of endocrine disruptors: 4-nonylphenols and organotins (butyl- and phenyltins). Five sampling stations were chosen along the coastline of the Tricity Agglomeration (Gdańsk, Sopot, Gdynia) in 2008, 2012, and 2013. No evident differences between the three campaigns were found in either the mussel or the sediment samples. The mussels were moderately contaminated with 4-nonylphenols (30-111 ng g(-1) d.w.), whereas the levels of these compounds in the sediment samples were very low (0.8-2.7 ng g(-1) d.w.). Total concentrations of butyltin compounds in the mussels and sediments ranged between 41 and 164 ng Sn g(-1) d.w., and from below the limit of detection to 22 ng Sn g(-1) d.w., respectively, whereas phenyltins were not detected in any of the samples. Butyltin degradation indices indicate an old tributyltin input into the coastal environment, which is characterized by intense maritime activity. The results obtained from this work demonstrate that 5 years after the total ban on using organotin-based antifouling paints was imposed, butyltins are still present in mussels and sediments of the Gulf of Gdańsk.

Maritime pollutants in shipping and commercial European ports based on relevant physical and biogeochemical environmental parameters (IUPAC Technical Report)

Ports are closed or semi-closed coastal systems with limited water circulation, poor flushing and weak tidal exchange. They are characterized as pollution hotspots or areas of stagnation with a variety of maritime pollutants. Nowadays, shipping and port managers aim to address environmental risk in their operations, striving to achieve suitable environmental management systems and environmental policies. In that way, environmental impacts are thoroughly considered, actions to minimize and prevent these effects are identified while human activities for prevention, reduction and mitigation of harmful consequences are managed. The current project provides details of quality and performance indicators, based on physical and biogeochemical environmental parameters required to monitor and audit the effectiveness of environmental management system and environmental policy applied in ports. These indicators will be used as powerful tools strengthening sound decisions when developing, shaping and evaluating national and local environmental management systems and policies. The selected indicators are described and their monitoring processes are presented and discussed. Examples of selected best environmental practice from various port authorities are included.

Non-toxic, non-biocide-release antifouling coatings based on molecular structure design for marine applications

Antifouling (AF) coatings bring economic benefits but raise environmental and health concerns. Non-toxic, non-biocide-release AF strategies are reviewed according to “detachment of biofoulants” and “prevention of attachment” approaches. Chemical and physical aspects of AF mechanisms and new amphiphilic, superhydrophilic and topographic AF strategies are discussed.

Modulation of the DNA repair system and ATR-p53 mediated apoptosis is relevant for tributyltin-induced genotoxic effects in human hepatoma G2 cells

The toxic effects of tributyltin (TBT) have been extensively documented in several types of cells, but the molecular mechanisms related to the genotoxic effects of TBT have still not been fully elucidated. Our study showed that exposure of human hepatoma G2 cells to 1-4 μmol/L TBT for 3 hr caused severe DNA damage in a concentration-dependent manner. Moreover, the expression levels of key DNA damage sensor genes such as the replication factor C, proliferating cell nuclear antigen and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 were inhabited in a concentration-dependent manner. We further demonstrated that TBT induced cell apoptosis via the p53-mediated pathway, which was most likely activated by the ataxia telangiectasia mutated and rad-3 related (ATR) protein kinase. The results also showed that cytochrome c, caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9, and the B-cell lymphoma 2 were involved in this process. Taken together, we demonstrated for the first time that the inhibition of the DNA repair system might be more responsible for TBT-induced genotoxic effects in cells. Then the generated DNA damage induced by TBT initiated ATR-p53-mediated apoptosis.

Organotin compounds in surface sediments of the Southern Baltic coastal zone: a study on the main factors for their accumulation and degradation

Sediment samples were collected in the Gulf of Gdańsk, and the Vistula and Szczecin Lagoons-all located in the coastal zone of the Southern Baltic Sea-just after the total ban on using harmful organotins in antifouling paints on ships came into force, to assess their butyltin and phenyltin contamination extent. Altogether, 26 sampling stations were chosen to account for different potential exposure to organotin pollution and environmental conditions: from shallow and well-oxygenated waters, shipping routes and river mouths, to deep and anoxic sites. Additionally, the organic carbon content, pigment content, and grain size of all the sediment samples were determined, and some parameters of the near-bottom water (oxygen content, salinity, temperature) were measured as well. Total concentrations of butyltin compounds ranged between 2 and 182 ng Sn g(-1) d.w., whereas phenyltins were below the detection limit. Sediments from the Gulf of Gdańsk and Vistula Lagoon were found moderately contaminated with tributyltin, whereas those from the Szczecin Lagoon were ranked as highly contaminated. Butyltin degradation indices prove a recent tributyltin input into the sediments adjacent to sites used for dumping for dredged harbor materials and for anchorage in the Gulf of Gdańsk (where two big international ports are located), and into those collected in the Szczecin Lagoon. Essential factors affecting the degradation and distribution of organotins, based on significant correlations between butyltins and environmental variables, were found in the study area.

The obesogen tributyltin

The obesogen hypothesis postulates the role of environmental chemical pollutants that disrupt homeostatic controls and adaptive mechanisms to promote adipose-dependent weight gain leading to obesity and metabolic syndrome complications. One of the most direct molecular mechanisms for coupling environmental chemical exposures to perturbed physiology invokes pollutants mimicking endogenous endocrine hormones or bioactive dietary signaling metabolites that serve as nuclear receptor ligands. The organotin pollutant tributyltin can exert toxicity through multiple mechanisms but most recently has been shown to bind, activate, and mediate RXR-PPARγ transcriptional regulation central to lipid metabolism and adipocyte biology. Data in support of long-term obesogenic effects on whole body adipose tissue are also reported. Organotins represent an important model test system for evaluating the impact and epidemiological significance of chemical insults as contributing factors for obesity and human metabolic health.

Abnormalities in eelpout Zoarces viviparus upon chemical exposure

Elevated frequencies of abnormal embryos in female eelpout Zoarces viviparus have been demonstrated in Danish, Swedish and German monitoring programmes at certain geographic locations with high levels of anthropogenic input. Pollutants present in areas with high malformation frequencies were selected and tested in a controlled laboratory experiment for their potential to induce abnormalities among eelpout embryos upon injection into pregnant eelpout. Tributyltin, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, pyrene, nonylphenol, 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromophenylether and heptadecafluorooctanesulfonic acid were tested, either individually or combined. Generally, the chemicals were transferred to eggs and/or embryos. Some of the exposures increased the proportion of broods with more than 10% abnormal or 5% malformed embryos, although the average percentages of abnormal development were not affected. Spinal, cranial and eye deformities were evident, similarly to what is seen in nature. Some of the exposures resulted in increased percentages of females with as well a low reproductive capacity as embryos with a low condition index.