1
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Jacque H, Knox JW, Gush M, Holman IP. Modelling the potential of rainwater harvesting to improve the sustainability of landscape and public garden irrigation. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 348:119167. [PMID: 37837766 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/16/2023]
Abstract
Access to water for irrigating amenity landscape and public gardens is under intense pressure due to the rising competition for water between different sectors, exacerbated by increased drought risk and climate change. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) has the potential to reduce the economic impacts of restrictions on irrigation abstraction in dry years and to build resilience to future water shortages. This study investigated the hydrological viability of RWH for the landscape and public garden sector based on an analysis of five Royal Horticultural Society gardens. A RWH model was developed and combined with on-site observations, key informant interviews and GIS analyses, to estimate irrigation demands and the volumes of harvested rainfall for contrasting agroclimatic years. The results showed that gardens located in wetter regions and with low irrigation water demand to harvestable area ratio had a higher RWH potential and could almost exclusively rely on rainwater to meet irrigation demand, even in dry years. RWH potential is more limited for gardens in drier regions where they would require larger areas to harvest rainwater and for storage. Appropriately designed rainwater harvesting systems offer the potential to remove most of the risk of irrigation abstraction restrictions during dry years and associated impacts on amenity planting quality and visitor experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Jacque
- School of Civil Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - J W Knox
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, Bedfordshire, MK43 0AL, UK.
| | - M Gush
- Science & Collections Division, Royal Horticultural Society, Wisley, Woking, GU23 6QB, UK
| | - I P Holman
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, Bedfordshire, MK43 0AL, UK
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2
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Gholami M, O'Sullivan AD, Mackey HR. Nutrient treatment of greywater in green wall systems: A critical review of removal mechanisms, performance efficiencies and system design parameters. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 345:118917. [PMID: 37688961 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/11/2023]
Abstract
Greywater has lower pathogen and nutrient levels than other mixed wastewaters, making it easier to treat and to reuse in nature-based wastewater treatment systems. Green walls (GWs) are one type of nature-based solutions (NBS) that are evolving in design to support on-site and low-cost greywater treatment. Greywater treatment in GWs involves interacting and complex physical, chemical, and biological processes. Design and operational considerations of such green technologies must facilitate these pivotal processes to achieve effective greywater treatment. This critical review comprehensively analyses the scientific literature on nutrient removal from greywater in GWs. It discusses nutrient removal efficiency in different GW types. Total nitrogen removal ranges from 7 to 91% in indirect green facades (IGF), 48-93% for modular living walls (MLW), and 8-26% for continuous living walls (CLW). Total phosphorus removal ranges from 7 to 67% for IGF and 2-53% for MLW. The review also discusses the specific nutrient removal mechanisms orchestrated by vegetation, substrates, and biofilms to understand their role in nitrogen and phosphorus removal within GWs. The effects of key GW design parameters on nutrient removal, including substrate characteristics, vegetation species, biodegradation, temperature, and operating parameters such as irrigation cycle and hydraulic loading rate, are assessed. Results show that greater substrate depth enhances nutrient removal efficiency in GWs by facilitating efficient filtration, straining, adsorption, and various biological processes at varying depths. Particle size and pore size are critical substrate characteristics in GWs. They can significantly impact the effectiveness of physicochemical and biological removal processes by providing sufficient pollutant contact time, active surface area, and by influencing saturation and redox conditions. Hydraulic loading rate (HLR) also impacts the contact time and redox conditions. An HLR between 50 and 60 mm/d during the vegetation growing season provides optimal nutrient removal. Furthermore, nutrient removal was higher when watering cycles were customized to specific vegetation types and their drought tolerances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moeen Gholami
- Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand
| | - Aisling D O'Sullivan
- Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand; Centre for Ecological Technical Solutions (CELTS.org.nz), University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand.
| | - Hamish R Mackey
- Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand.
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3
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Gräf M, Pucher B, Hietz P, Hofbauer K, Allabashi R, Pitha U, Hood-Nowotny R, Stangl R. Application of leaf analysis in addition to growth assessment to evaluate the suitability of greywater for irrigation of Tilia cordata and Acer pseudoplatanus. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 836:155745. [PMID: 35525344 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Water is the key resource in fulfilling the cooling function of plants in urban environments and needs to be supplied reliably and adequately, especially during dry periods. To avoid an unsustainable use of high-quality drinking water for irrigation, the reuse of greywater should be implemented for Green Infrastructure irrigation in the sense of the circular economy. In this study, the influence of greywater irrigation on vitality of two trees species, Tilia cordata and Acer pseudoplatanus, was determined by investigating the effect of irrigation with raw or treated greywater in comparison to municipal tap water. Plant growth parameters were measured, including leaf area, number of leaves, average leaf area and annual growth. In addition, the relative chlorophyll content was determined and image analysis was used to identify vital and necrotic leaf parts. While treatment did not affect growth after one growing season A. pseudoplatanus had significantly higher leaf necrosis (34.8%) when irrigated with raw greywater compared to treated greywater (15.5%) and tap water (5.8%). Relative chlorophyll content of T. cordata irrigated with tap water decreased over time until it was significantly lower (28.5) then the greywater treatments (34.5 and 35). Image analysis of leaves to quantify necrosis proved to be a sensitive method to quantify plant health and showed negative effects earlier than an analysis of growth. Anionic surfactants and electrical conductivity had a significant influence on plant vitality. Therefore, plant selection should take these parameters into account, when planning green infrastructure irrigated with greywater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Gräf
- Institute of Soil Bioengineering and Landscape Construction, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Bernhard Pucher
- Institute of Sanitary Engineering and Water Pollution Control, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Peter Hietz
- Institute of Botany, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Katharina Hofbauer
- Institute of Soil Bioengineering and Landscape Construction, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Roza Allabashi
- Institute of Sanitary Engineering and Water Pollution Control, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ulrike Pitha
- Institute of Soil Bioengineering and Landscape Construction, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Rebecca Hood-Nowotny
- Institute of Soil Research, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Rosemarie Stangl
- Institute of Soil Bioengineering and Landscape Construction, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
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4
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Morvannou A, Masson M, Gautier M, Bisone S, Richard L, Boutin C, Forquet N. Fate of phosphorus from treated wastewater in soil-based constructed wetlands. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 816:151589. [PMID: 34774936 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In France, soil-based constructed wetlands for the discharge of treated wastewater have become a popular technique to both reduce flow to surface receiving water bodies and perform complementary treatments. This study focuses on the fate of phosphorus in three different soils, as well as its assimilation by Phragmites australis. The experimental set-up consisted of three lysimeters containing three soils selected to be representative of those typically found near wastewater treatment plants (i.e. a silt loam Fluvisol, a sandy loam Fluvisol and a sandy-clay loam Technosol). Lysimeters are undisturbed soil monoliths (1.5 m3 in volume), whose masses are continuously monitored in order to obtain an accurate water mass balance. The lysimeters here were intermittently fed for 3.5 days and then left to rest for 3.5 days. The experiment lasted 26 months, including 18 months of feeding with phosphorus (PO4-P, TP) fluxes in and out being monitored along with water content, oxygen content and redox potential at various depths. The quantities of phosphorus stored in the soils and assimilated in the Phragmites australis were measured. Phosphorus fractionation in soils was performed to better understand its distribution and potential remobilization. Low phosphate concentrations were measured at the outlets of all three lysimeters, thereby highlighting satisfactory phosphorus retention in the three soils (removal efficiencies >90%). A significant amount of phosphorus can be exported by harvesting Phragmites australis aerial parts (26%, 17% and 13% of the yearly incoming phosphorus mass for the silt loam Fluvisol, sandy loam Fluvisol and sandy-clay loam Technosol, respectively). The fractionation step served to determine that the phosphorus retained in the soil was primarily bound to iron oxides/hydroxides, calcium and clay. Moreover, it was found to be preferable to hold oxidizing (aerobic) conditions and pH close to neutral in order to maintain conditions under which the complexes formed with phosphorus remain stable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ania Morvannou
- INRAE, REVERSAAL, 5 rue de la Doua, CS 20244, 69100 Villeurbanne, France.
| | - Matthieu Masson
- INRAE, RiverLy, 5 rue de la Doua, CS 20244, 69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Mathieu Gautier
- Univ Lyon, INSA Lyon, DEEP, EA7429, 69621 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Sara Bisone
- INRAE, REVERSAAL, 5 rue de la Doua, CS 20244, 69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Loïc Richard
- INRAE, RiverLy, 5 rue de la Doua, CS 20244, 69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Catherine Boutin
- INRAE, REVERSAAL, 5 rue de la Doua, CS 20244, 69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Nicolas Forquet
- INRAE, REVERSAAL, 5 rue de la Doua, CS 20244, 69100 Villeurbanne, France
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5
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Mahmoudi A, Mousavi SA, Darvishi P. Greywater as a sustainable source for development of green roofs: Characteristics, treatment technologies, reuse, case studies and future developments. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 295:112991. [PMID: 34346386 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Municipal activities are one of the most important water users worldwide; thus, the treatment and reuse of greywater for non-potable purposes helps to reduce a remarkable amount of consumed water within urban communities. To achieve greywater reuse standards, and remove surfactants, micropollutants, organic matters, microorganisms and other pollutants various methods including physical, chemical and biological processes have been used. Treated greywater can be used on site for different purposes: carwash, toilet flushing, fire protection, green roofs, green walls, non-food irrigation etc. Among them, the use of greywater is very important in the expansion of the green roofs. Green roofs offer many benefits to urban areas such as decreasing air pollution, reducing building cooling needs, promoting mental health of habitants, noise reduction and aesthetics improvement. Therefore, this article provides an overview mainly from two aspects, the possibilities of greywater reuse by studying the characteristics and available options for greywater treatment and its benefits toward the developing green roofs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arezoo Mahmoudi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Seyyed Alireza Mousavi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran; Research Center for Environmental Determinants of Health (RCEDH), Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran.
| | - Parastoo Darvishi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
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6
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Shaikh IN, Ahammed MM. Quantity and quality characteristics of greywater: A review. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2020; 261:110266. [PMID: 32148323 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Due to depletion of water resources and increased water demand, greywater reuse is gaining popularity as a means of water conservation all over the world. Availability of reliable data on greywater generation and quality characteristics is important in deciding the treatment system and the reuse option. This paper summarises quantity and quality characteristics of greywater reported from different parts of the world. Greywater generation from different countries is compared and its variability is discussed. Important pollutants of concern in greywater such as organic content, nutrients, microorganisms, metals and organic micropollutants from different greywater sources such as bathrooms, hand basins, kitchen and laundry are described. The review shows large variations in greywater quality and quantity with respect to time and source, and the selection of a treatment system would largely depend on this variability. The review also shows that at the levels found in greywater, heavy metals and organic micropollutants in recycled greywater generally do not pose a threat to human health if treated properly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irshad N Shaikh
- Civil Engineering Department, SV National Institute of Technology, Surat, 395007, India
| | - M Mansoor Ahammed
- Civil Engineering Department, SV National Institute of Technology, Surat, 395007, India.
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7
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Turner RDR, Warne MSJ, Dawes LA, Thompson K, Will GD. Greywater irrigation as a source of organic micro-pollutants to shallow groundwater and nearby surface water. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 669:570-578. [PMID: 30889446 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Increased water demands due to population growth and increased urbanisation have driven adoption of various water reuse practices. The irrigation of greywater (water from all household uses, except toilets) has been proposed as one potential sustainable practice. Research has clearly identified environmental harm from the presence of micro-pollutants in soils, groundwater and surface water. Greywater contains a range of micro pollutants yet very little is known about their potential environmental fate when greywater is irrigated to soil. Therefore, this study assessed whether organic micro-pollutants in irrigated greywater were transferred to shallow groundwater and an adjacent surface waterway. A total of 22 organic micro-pollutants were detected in greywater. Six of these (acesulfame, caffeine, DEET, paracetamol, salicylic acid and triclosan) were selected as potential tracers of greywater contamination. Three of these chemicals (acesulfame, caffeine, DEET) were detected in the groundwater, while salicylic acid was also detected in adjacent surface water. Caffeine and DEET in surface water were directly attributable to greywater irrigation. Thus the practice of greywater irrigation can act as a source of organic micro-pollutants to shallow groundwater and nearby surface water. The full list of micro-pollutants that could be introduced via greywater and the risk they pose to aquatic ecosystems is not yet known.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan D R Turner
- Water Quality and Investigations, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Science, Science Division, The State of Queensland, Department of Environment and Science, Dutton Park, Queensland, Australia; School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Australian Rivers Institute, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Michael St J Warne
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Centre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience, Coventry University, Coventry, West Midlands, United Kingdom; Water Quality and Investigations, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Science, Science Division, The State of Queensland, Department of Environment and Science, Dutton Park, Queensland, Australia; Australian Rivers Institute, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia
| | - Les A Dawes
- School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Kristie Thompson
- National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, University of Queensland, Robertson, Queensland, Australia
| | - Geoffrey D Will
- School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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8
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Pradhan S, Al-Ghamdi SG, Mackey HR. Greywater recycling in buildings using living walls and green roofs: A review of the applicability and challenges. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 652:330-344. [PMID: 30366334 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Living walls and green roofs offer numerous benefits to densely populated urban areas such as cooling, air filtering and improved aesthetics. However, plants in these two systems are high water consumers making such systems particularly unsuitable for water-scarce arid environments most at need of passive cooling and urban greening. Integrated greywater treatment in these structures provides a possible solution, providing plants not only with water but other required nutrients and organics. However, greywater treatment by living wall and green roof systems is still lacking. This review summarizes the few studies exploring this new integrated technology and provides an in-depth analysis of existing literature on vegetated building structures and greywater treatment to reveal benefits and potential pitfalls of this technology. Appropriate selection of plants and media are essential to successful system design and must meet competing demands compared to those used in existing vegetated building structures for cooling/greening and constructed wetlands for greywater treatment. A variety of operational and user-interaction issues are also explored and will be key areas of future research to enable full-scale implementation. Integrated greywater treatment using green building vegetated structures appears a promising method for dual purpose water recycling and urban cooling, and various future research needs are emphasized to realize this.
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Affiliation(s)
- Snigdhendubala Pradhan
- Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar.
| | - Sami G Al-Ghamdi
- Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar.
| | - Hamish R Mackey
- Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar.
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9
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Singh R, Bhunia P, Dash RR. Optimization of organics removal and understanding the impact of HRT on vermifiltration of brewery wastewater. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 651:1283-1293. [PMID: 30360260 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Revised: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 09/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The study was conducted with an aim to optimize the parameters involved in removing organics from brewery effluents using a newly developed horizontal subsurface flow vermifilter. It was also aimed at understanding the impact of hydraulic retention time (HRT) on the vermifiltration of brewery wastewater. With the help of Box-Behnken design (BBD) and response surface methodology, optimization of the COD removal from the vermifiltration was carried out. The parameters chosen for the optimization were hydraulic loading rate (HLR), organics strength and earthworm densities (EWDs). The model obtained from the response surface methodology (RSM) analysis was a quadratic polynomial model with R2 value of 0.99. The optimal conditions for achieving maximum chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal were at influent COD concentration of 3542.22 mg/L, EWD of 9661.33 earthworms/m3 and HLR of 1.84 m3/m2·d. At the optimum conditions, COD removal of 94.99% was obtained against the predicted value of 95.85%. Verification of the model on real brewery wastewater also showed minimal error against the predicted COD removal. The COD, total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorous (TP) removal at the HRT of 10.66 h were found to be 73.88%, 18.13% and 39.04%, respectively. Whereas, The COD, TN and TP removals at the HRT of 26.66 h were 96.24, 21.57 and 43.3%, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajneesh Singh
- School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Puspendu Bhunia
- School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar, India.
| | - Rajesh R Dash
- School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar, India
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10
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Arden S, Ma X. Constructed wetlands for greywater recycle and reuse: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 630:587-599. [PMID: 29494968 PMCID: PMC7362998 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Revised: 02/17/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Concern over dwindling water supplies for urban areas as well as environmental degradation from existing urban water systems has motivated research into more resilient and sustainable water supply strategies. Greywater reuse has been suggested as a way to diversify local water supply portfolios while at the same time lessening the burden on existing environments and infrastructure. Constructed wetlands have been proposed as an economically and energetically efficient unit process to treat greywater for reuse purposes, though their ability to consistently meet applicable water quality standards, microbiological in particular, is questionable. We therefore review the existing case study literature to summarize the treatment performance of greywater wetlands in the context of chemical, physical and microbiological water quality standards. Based on a cross-section of different types of wetlands, including surface flow, subsurface flow, vertical and recirculating vertical flow, across a range of operating conditions, we show that although microbiological standards cannot reliably be met, given either sufficient retention time or active recirculation, chemical and physical standards can. We then review existing case study literature for typical water supply disinfection unit processes including chlorination, ozonation and ultraviolet radiation treating either raw or treated greywater specifically. An evaluation of effluent water quality from published wetland case studies and the expected performance from disinfection processes shows that under appropriate conditions these two unit processes together can likely produce effluent of sufficient quality to meet all nonpotable reuse standards. Specifically, we suggest that recycling vertical flow wetlands combined with ultraviolet radiation disinfection and chlorine residual is the best combination to reliably meet the standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Arden
- University of Florida, 100 Phelps Lab, Gainesville, FL 32611, United States
| | - X Ma
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH 45268, United States.
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11
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Mekonnen KN, Seopela MP, Mokgalaka NS, McCrindle RI. Assessment of microbiological, physicochemical, water-soluble anions and elemental contents of water and sediments of Bon Accord Dam, South Africa. COGENT CHEMISTRY 2018; 4:1560858. [DOI: https:/doi.org/10.1080/23312009.2018.1560858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2017] [Accepted: 12/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kebede Nigussie Mekonnen
- Department of Chemistry, Tshwane University of Technology, P. O. Box 56208, Arcadia 0007, South Africa
- Department of Chemistry, Mekelle University, P. O. Box 231, Mekelle, Ethiopia
| | - Mathapelo Pearl Seopela
- Department of Chemistry, Tshwane University of Technology, P. O. Box 56208, Arcadia 0007, South Africa
| | | | - Robert Ian McCrindle
- Department of Chemistry, Tshwane University of Technology, P. O. Box 56208, Arcadia 0007, South Africa
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12
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Turner RDR, Warne MSJ, Dawes LA, Vardy S, Will GD. Irrigated greywater in an urban sub-division as a potential source of metals to soil, groundwater and surface water. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2016; 183:806-817. [PMID: 27658657 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2016] [Revised: 09/02/2016] [Accepted: 09/04/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Increased water demands in dry countries such as Australia, have led to increased adoption of various water reuse practices. Irrigation of greywater (all water discharged from the bathrooms, laundry and kitchen apart from toilet waste) is seen as a potential means of easing water demands; however, there is limited knowledge of how greywater irrigation impacts terrestrial and aquatic environments. This study compared four greywater irrigated residential lots to adjacent non-irrigated lots that acted as controls. Accumulation and potential impacts of metals in soil, groundwater and surface water, as a result of greywater irrigation, were assessed by comparing measured concentrations to national and international guidelines. Greywater increased concentrations of some metals in irrigated soil and resulted in As, B, Cr and Cu exceeding guidelines after only four years of irrigation. Movement of metals from the irrigation areas resulted in metal concentrations in groundwater (Al, As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni and Zn) and surface water (Cu, Fe and Zn) exceeding environmental quality guidelines again within four years. These results are unlikely to be universally applicable but indicate the need to consider metals in greywater in order to minimize potential adverse environmental effects from greywater irrigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan D R Turner
- Water Quality and Investigations, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Sciences, Science Division, The State of Queensland, Department of Science, Information Technology and Innovation, Dutton Park, Queensland, Australia; School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Australian Rivers Institute, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Michael St J Warne
- Water Quality and Investigations, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Sciences, Science Division, The State of Queensland, Department of Science, Information Technology and Innovation, Dutton Park, Queensland, Australia; National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, University of Queensland, Robertson, Queensland, Australia; Australian Rivers Institute, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia; Centre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience, University, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Les A Dawes
- School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Suzanne Vardy
- Water Quality and Investigations, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Sciences, Science Division, The State of Queensland, Department of Science, Information Technology and Innovation, Dutton Park, Queensland, Australia; Australian Rivers Institute, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia
| | - Geoffrey D Will
- School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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13
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Benami M, Gillor O, Gross A. Potential microbial hazards from graywater reuse and associated matrices: A review. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 106:183-195. [PMID: 27716468 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.09.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Revised: 09/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/27/2016] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Millions of decentralized graywater-reuse systems are operating worldwide. This water is directly accessible to household inhabitants, raising environmental and public health concerns. Graywater may contain a variety of harmful organisms, the types and numbers of which vary with source-type, storage time, and background levels of infection in the community source. In this review, we find that most studies indicate high amounts of microbial pathogens in raw graywater and therefore treatment and disinfection are recommended to lower possible health risks. Where these recommendations have been followed, epidemiological and quantitative microbial risk-assessment studies have found negligible health risks of bacterial pathogens in treated graywater. Chlorine is currently suggested as the most cost-effective disinfection agent for inactivating graywater bacterial pathogens and preventing regrowth. Various studies demonstrate that the introduction and diversity of pathogenic bacteria in the soil via irrigation can be affected by several factors, but treated graywater may not be a major contributor of bacterial contamination or antibiotic resistance. However, an accurate assessment of the infectious capabilities, exposure pathways, and resistance of specific pathogens, particularly viruses and antibiotic-resistant bacteria found in treated graywater after disinfection, as well as in the graywater piping, irrigated soils, plants, and associated aerosols is largely lacking in the literature. In addition, research shows that fecal bacterial indicators might not reliably indicate the presence or quantities of pathogens in graywater and thus, the indicator standard for graywater contamination should be revised.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Benami
- Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research, The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Sede Boqer Campus, Midreshet Ben Gurion, 84990, Israel
| | - Osnat Gillor
- Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research, The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Sede Boqer Campus, Midreshet Ben Gurion, 84990, Israel.
| | - Amit Gross
- Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research, The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Sede Boqer Campus, Midreshet Ben Gurion, 84990, Israel.
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Siggins A, Burton V, Ross C, Lowe H, Horswell J. Effects of long-term greywater disposal on soil: A case study. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 557-558:627-635. [PMID: 27037884 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Revised: 03/11/2016] [Accepted: 03/11/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the environmental health risks to soil and potential risks to groundwater associated with long term (8-18years) greywater disposal practices. Land application of greywater is likely to have environmental impacts, which may be positive or negative. Greywater can contain plant macronutrients that may benefit plant growth. Conversely, high levels of surfactants, oils, grease, sodium and potentially pathogenic organisms may negatively impact environmental and human health. In this study, land disposal of untreated greywater was practiced at five coastal domestic properties. At each property, soil samples were collected at two depths from areas used for greywater disposal and from control areas that were not exposed to greywater. Soils were analysed for chemical and biological responses to greywater exposure. Generally, greywater irrigated soils had higher pH, Olsen P, base saturation, and increased soil microbial activity (as measured by biomass carbon, basal respiration and dehydrogenase activity). A pH of >9 was recorded for some greywater treated soil samples. Escherichia coli (E. coli) were detected at up to 10(3)MPN/g in the greywater exposed surface soils at some sites. Terminal Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (TRFLP) analysis revealed that greywater affected the soil microbial community structure, which may have implications for soil health and fertility. Overall, this study shows that the long-term application of greywater at the investigated sites had a moderate impact on the soil environment. This may have been due to the sandy soils and high rainfall that would flush the soil. Increases in microbial biomass and dehydrogenase indicate that greywater application may be beneficial for plant growth. However, high levels of E. coli in some soils may be a risk to human health and sub-surface irrigation should be the recommended application method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alma Siggins
- Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ESR) Ltd., Kenepuru Science Centre, Porirua, New Zealand.
| | - Vanessa Burton
- Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ESR) Ltd., Kenepuru Science Centre, Porirua, New Zealand
| | - Craig Ross
- Landcare Research, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Hamish Lowe
- Lowe Environmental Impact, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Jacqui Horswell
- Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ESR) Ltd., Kenepuru Science Centre, Porirua, New Zealand
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15
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Comparing Three Approaches of Evapotranspiration Estimation in Mixed Urban Vegetation: Field-Based, Remote Sensing-Based and Observational-Based Methods. REMOTE SENSING 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/rs8060492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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16
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Zhu SN, Wang C, Yip ACK, Tsang DCW. Highly effective degradation of sodium dodecylbenzene sulphonate and synthetic greywater by Fenton-like reaction over zerovalent iron-based catalyst. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2015; 36:1423-1432. [PMID: 25424128 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2014.992481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
There is an increasing interest to recycle greywater for meeting non-portable water demand. However, linear alkylbenzene sulphonates (a form of anionic surfactants) that are commonly found in greywater are less biodegradable at moderate to high concentrations. A fenton-like system is a relatively economic advanced oxidation process that can potentially be used for surfactant degradation in greywater treatment. This study investigated the feasibility of zerovalent iron (ZVI)-mediated Fenton's oxidation of sodium dodecylbenzene sulphonate (SDBS) using Fe0/H2O2 and Fe2+/Fe0/H2O2 systems under a range of operating conditions. For the Fe0/H2O2 binary system, the initial pH value and Fe0 dosage played important roles in final degradation efficiency. For the Fe2+/Fe0/H2O2 ternary systems, a small amount of Fe2+ (0.5-1.7 mM) contributed a synergistic effect to promote iron recycling and SDBS degradation. Approximately, 90% of SDBS mineralization efficiency was accomplished within 15 min at a pH range from 3.0 to 6.5, using 18 mM Fe0 and 15 mM H2O2. However, the removal kinetics was rate-limited by Fe2+ dissolution from the ZVI surfaces. The Fenton-like process of the Fe2+/Fe0/H2O2 ternary system also presents a promising treatment method for synthetic greywater, in which 90% TOC removal was achieved within the first 10 min; 78% COD and 91% BOD5 were achieved after 120 min of reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi-Ni Zhu
- a Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Hong Kong Polytechnic University , Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong , People's Republic of China
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17
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Etchepare R, van der Hoek JP. Health risk assessment of organic micropollutants in greywater for potable reuse. WATER RESEARCH 2015; 72:186-198. [PMID: 25472689 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.10.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2014] [Revised: 08/11/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
In light of the increasing interest in development of sustainable potable reuse systems, additional research is needed to elucidate the risks of producing drinking water from new raw water sources. This article investigates the presence and potential health risks of organic micropollutants in greywater, a potential new source for potable water production introduced in this work. An extensive literature survey reveals that almost 280 organic micropollutants have been detected in greywater. A three-tiered approach is applied for the preliminary health risk assessment of these chemicals. Benchmark values are derived from established drinking water standards for compounds grouped in Tier 1, from literature toxicological data for compounds in Tier 2, and from a Threshold of Toxicological Concern approach for compounds in Tier 3. A risk quotient is estimated by comparing the maximum concentration levels reported in greywater to the benchmark values. The results show that for the majority of compounds, risk quotient values were below 0.2, which suggests they would not pose appreciable concern to human health over a lifetime exposure to potable water. Fourteen compounds were identified with risk quotients above 0.2 which may warrant further investigation if greywater is used as a source for potable reuse. The present findings are helpful in prioritizing upcoming greywater quality monitoring and defining the goals of multiple barriers treatment in future water reclamation plants for potable water production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramiro Etchepare
- Laboratório de Tecnologia Mineral e Ambiental, Departamento de Engenharia de Minas, PPGE3M, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, 91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, Brasília DF 70.040-020, Brazil.
| | - Jan Peter van der Hoek
- Delft University of Technology, Department Water Management, Stevinweg 1, 2628 CN Delft, The Netherlands; Waternet, Strategic Centre, Korte Ouderkerkerdijk 7, 1096 AC Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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