Bioavailability of biosolids-borne ciprofloxacin and azithromycin to terrestrial organisms: Microbial toxicity and earthworm responses

Comprehensive tetracycline, ciprofloxacin and sulfamethoxazole toxicity evaluation to earthworm Dendrobaena veneta through life-cycle, behavioral and biochemical parameters

Veterinary antibiotics are widely spread in the environment, however, the knowledge about their impact on soil key species is still limited. This study evaluated the short-term and long-term effects of tetracycline (TC), ciprofloxacin (CIP) and sulfamethoxazole (SMX) (1-500 mg kg) on earthworm Dendrobaena veneta by measuring multiple parameters (survival, growth, reproduction, behavior and biochemical responses). Neither antibiotic induced acute toxicity and low mortality was observed after chronic exposure. TC and CIP had a negligible effect on the earthworm's weight from the 6th week of exposure, SMX inhibited the earthworm growth when was present in the range of 50-500 mg kg-1. In parallel, SMX reduced earthworm reproduction at environmentally relevant concentrations. Antibiotics altered superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GR) and gluthathione-S-transferase (GST) activities and induced lipid peroxidation. Overall, earthworms showed no apparent acute response at environmentally relevant concentrations except for avoidance behavior; after long-term exposure earthworms experienced biochemical, physiological, and reproductive impairments and reduced survival at high soil contamination.

Response and defense mechanisms of the earthworms Eisenia foetida to natural saline soil stress

Salinization of soil is a serious global environmental issue, particularly in agricultural lands. Saline farmland not only endangers grain production but also affects the survival of soil fauna. Earthworms, as soil ecosystem engineers, play a crucial role in maintaining soil health and enhancing global agricultural production. However, the response of earthworms to natural saline soil stress remains poorly understood. To explore this, we investigated the effects of natural saline soil from Dongying City, Shandong Province, China, on the growth, survival, reproduction, antioxidation, and defense-related gene expression of the earthworm Eisenia foetida. Our findings demonstrate that the growth rate, survival rate, and cocoon production of E. foetida decrease under exposure to natural saline soil in a dose-dependent manner. Elevated levels of DNA damage in coelomocytes and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) were observed. Additionally, antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), increased under stress. The mRNA levels of Cyp450 and Hsp70 also rose in response to saline soil exposure. Furthermore, the activity of Na+/K+-ATPase and the expression of the osmotic sensor gene wnk-1 were elevated. In conclusion, our findings indicate that natural saline soil induces antioxidant and osmotic stress in earthworms E. foetida, highlighting the detrimental effects and defense mechanisms of soil fauna under such conditions.

Effects of sulfamethazine and tetracycline at molecular, cellular and tissue levels in Eisenia fetida earthworms

Soil contamination by antibiotics is a global issue of great concern that contributes to the rise of bacterial antibiotic resistance and can have toxic effects on non-target organisms. This study evaluated the variations of molecular, cellular, and histological parameters in Eisenia fetida earthworms exposed to sulfamethazine (SMZ) and tetracycline (TC), two antibiotics commonly found in agricultural soils. The earthworms were exposed for 14 days to a series of concentrations (0, 10, 100, and 1000 mg/kg) of both antibiotics. SMZ and TC did not affect the survival of E. fetida, however, other effects at different levels of biological complexity were detected. The two highest concentrations of SMZ reduced the viability of coelomocytes. At the highest TC concentration, there was a noticeable decline in cell viability, acetylcholinesterase activity (neurotoxicity), and the relative presence of mucopolysaccharides in the epidermis (mucous production). Glutathione S-transferase activity decreased in all TC treatments and at the highest SMZ concentration. However, levels of malondialdehyde and protein carbonyls did not change, suggesting an absence of oxidative stress. Tetracycline was neurotoxic to E. fetida and changed the integrity of the epidermis. Both antibiotics altered the intestinal microbiota of E. fetida, leading to a reduction in the relative abundance of bacteria from the phyla Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes, while causing an increase in the phylum Actinobacteroidota. All observed changes indicate that both SMZ and TC can disrupt the earthworms' immune system and gut microbiome, while fostering the growth of bacteria that harbour antibiotic resistance genes. Finally, both antibiotics exerted additional metabolic and physiological effects that increased the vulnerability of E. fetida to pathogens.

Divergent effects of azithromycin on purple corn (Zea mays L.) cultivation: Impact on biomass and antioxidant compounds

The present study assessed the impact of using irrigation water contaminated with Azithromycin (AZM) residues on the biomass and antioxidant compounds of purple corn; for this purpose, the plants were cultivated under ambient conditions, and the substrate used consisted of soil free from AZM residues, mixed with compost in a ratio of 1:1 (v/v). The experiment was completely randomized with four replications, with treatments of 0, 1, 10, and 100 μg/L of AZM. The results indicate that the presence of AZM in irrigation water at doses of 1 and 10 μg/L increases the weight of dry aboveground biomass, while at an amount of 100 μg/L, it decreases. Likewise, this study reveals that by increasing the concentration of AZM from 1 to 10 μg/L, total polyphenols and monomeric anthocyanins double, in contrast, with an increase to 100 μg/L, these decrease by 44 and 53%, respectively. It has been demonstrated that purple corn exposed to the antibiotic AZM at low doses has a notable antioxidant function in terms of DPPH and ORAC. The content of flavonols, phenolic acids, and flavanols increases by 57, 28, and 83%, respectively, when the AZM concentration is from 1 to 10 μg/L. However, with an increase to 100 μg/L, these compounds decrease by 17, 40, and 42%, respectively. On the other hand, stem length, root length, and dry weight of root biomass are not significantly affected by the presence of AZM in irrigation water.

Assessing earthworm exposure to a multi-pharmaceutical mixture in soil: unveiling insights through LC-MS and MALDI-MS analyses, and impact of biochar on pharmaceutical bioavailability

In the European circular economy, agricultural practices introduce pharmaceutical (PhAC) residues into the terrestrial environment, posing a potential risk to earthworms. This study aimed to assess earthworm bioaccumulation factors (BAFs), the ecotoxicological effects of PhACs, the impact of biochar on PhAC bioavailability to earthworms, and their persistence in soil and investigate earthworm uptake mechanisms along with the spatial distribution of PhACs. Therefore, earthworms were exposed to contaminated soil for 21 days. The results revealed that BAFs ranged from 0.0216 to 0.329, with no significant ecotoxicological effects on earthworm weight or mortality (p > 0.05). Biochar significantly influenced the uptake of 14 PhACs on the first day (p < 0.05), with diminishing effects over time, and affected significantly the soil-degradation kinetics of 16 PhACs. Moreover, MALDI-MS analysis revealed that PhAC uptake occurs through both the dermal and oral pathways, as pharmaceuticals were distributed throughout the entire earthworm tissue without specific localization. In conclusion, this study suggests ineffective PhAC accumulation in earthworms, highlights the influence of biochar on PhAC degradation rates in soil, and suggests that uptake can occur through both earthworm skin and oral ingestion.

Terrestrial bioassays for assessing the biochemical and toxicological impact of biosolids application derived from wastewater treatment plants

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) are facilities where municipal wastewater undergoes treatment so that its organic load and its pathogenic potential are minimized. Sewage sludge is a by-product of this process and when properly treated is preferentially called "biosolids". These treatments may include some or most of the following: thickening, dewatering, drying, digestion, composting, liming. Nowadays it is almost impossible to landfill biosolids, which however can well be used as crop fertilizers. Continuous or superfluous biosolids fertilization may negatively affect non-target organisms such as soil macro-organisms or even plants. These effects can be depicted through bioassays on terrestrial animals and plants. It has been shown that earthworms have been affected to various degrees on the following endpoints: pollutants' bioaccumulation, viability, reproduction, avoidance behavior, burrowing behavior. Collembola have been affected on viability, reproduction, avoidance behavior. Other terrestrial organisms such as nematodes and diplopods have also shown adverse health effects. Phytotoxicity have been caused by some biosolids regimes as measured through the following endpoints: seed germination, root length, shoot length, shoot biomass, root biomass, chlorophyll content, antioxidant enzyme activity. Very limited statistical correlations between pollutant concentrations and toxicity endpoints have been established such as between juvenile mortality (earthworms) and As or Ba concentration in the biosolids, between juvenile mortality (collembola) and Cd or S concentration in the biosolids, or between phytotoxicity and some extractable metals in leachates or aquatic extracts from the biosolids; more correlations between physicochemical characteristics and toxicity endpoints have been found such as between phytotoxicity and ammonium N in biosolids or their liquid extracts, or between phytotoxicity and salinity. An inverse correlation between earthworm/collembola mortality and stable organic matter has also been found. Basing the appropriateness of biosolids only on chemical analyses for pollutants is not cost-effective. To enable risk characterization and subsequent risk mitigation it is important to apply a battery of bioassays on soil macro-organisms and on plants, utilizing a combination of endpoints and established protocols. Through combined analytical quantification and toxicity testing, safe use of biosolids in agriculture can be achieved.

A Bibliometric Analysis on Research Progress of Earthworms in Soil Ecosystems

The earthworm, as a soil engineer, plays highly important roles in the soil ecosystem for shaping soil structure, promoting soil fertility, regulating microbial community composition and activities and decomposing soil pollutants. However, the research progresses on this important soil fauna have rarely been reviewed so far. Therefore, we conducted a bibliometric analysis of the literature published during 1900-2022, which was collected from the Web of Science Core Collection (WoS). The results showed that three periods (1900-1990, 1991-2005 and 2006-2022) could be identified in terms of the intensity of publications on the topic, and the number of publications kept increasing since 2006. The United States produced the highest publication record at the country scale, whereas Chinese Academy of Sciences was the most productive institution. Chinese institutions and authors played an active and prominent role during 2018-2022. Soil Biology & Biochemistry was the most popular journal for the topic-related research. In these publications, Professor Lavelle P was the most influential author. Based on a citation network of the top 50 cited papers, four hotspots were identified, i.e., the ecological effects of earthworms, the impact of agricultural activities on earthworms, earthworm ecotoxicology and earthworm invasion. Moreover, "impact", "biodiversity", "oxidative stress", "diversity", "response", "Eisenia fetida" and "exposure" were the emerging and active topics in recent years. This study can help us to better understand the relevant subject categories, journals, countries, institutions, authors and articles and identify the research hotspots and emerging trends in the field of soil earthworm research.

Tracing COVID-19 drugs in the environment: Are we focusing on the right environmental compartment?

The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic led to over 770 million confirmed cases, straining public healthcare systems and necessitating extensive and prolonged use of synthetic chemical drugs around the globe for medical treatment and symptom relief. Concerns have arisen regarding the massive release of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and their metabolites into the environment, particularly through domestic sewage. While discussions surrounding this issue have primarily centered on their discharge into aquatic environments, particularly through treated effluent from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), one often overlooked aspect is the terrestrial environment as a significant receptor of pharmaceutical-laden waste. This occurs through the disposal of sewage sludge, for instance, by applying biosolids to land or non-compliant disposal of sewage sludge, in addition to the routine disposal of expired and unused medications in municipal solid wastes. In this article, we surveyed sixteen approved pharmaceuticals for treating COVID-19 and bacterial co-infections, along with their primary metabolites. For this, we delved into their physiochemical properties, ecological toxicities, environmental persistence, and fate within municipal WWTPs. Emphasis was given on lipophilic substances with log Kow >3.0, which are more likely to be found in sewage sludge at significant factions (25.2%-75.0%) of their inputs in raw sewage and subsequently enter the terrestrial environment through land application of biosolids, e.g., 43% in the United States and as high as 96% in Ireland or non-compliant practices of sewage sludge disposal in developing communities, such as open dumping and land application without prior anaerobic digestion. The available evidence underscores the importance of adequately treating and disposing of sewage sludge before its final disposal or land application in an epidemic or pandemic scenario, as mismanaged sewage sludge could be a significant vector for releasing pharmaceutical compounds and their metabolites into the terrestrial environment.

Bioaccumulation and trophic transfer of antibiotics in the aquatic and terrestrial food webs of the Yellow River Delta

Antibiotic pollution caused by aquaculture industries is a common problem in the wetland of the Yellow River Delta (YRD). Aquatic and terrestrial food webs coexist and interact in wetlands. However, there are few comparative studies on antibiotics in these two food webs. This study investigated the occurrence, bioaccumulation, and trophic transfer of 19 antibiotics in the aquatic and terrestrial food webs of the YRD, and discussed the effects of physicochemical parameters in different food webs. The total concentrations of antibiotics in aquatic organisms and terrestrial organisms ranged from 11.61 to 63.08 ng/g dry weight (dw) and 4.21-9.11 ng/g dw, respectively. BAF (bioaccumulation factor), BSAF_a (biota sediment accumulation factor), and BSAF_t (biota soil accumulation factor) were used to explore the bioaccumulation capacity of antibiotics. The calculation results of these three factors showed that fluoroquinolones (FQs) had the highest bioaccumulation capacity. As for the trophic transfer, the total concentrations of antibiotics were biodiluted in the aquatic food web while biomagnified in the terrestrial food web. Physicochemical parameters of the antibiotics showed that log K_ow (octanol-water partition coefficient)/log D_ow (pH-dependent distribution coefficient) and log K_oa (octanol-air partition coefficient) were good predictors for antibiotic bioaccumulation in the aquatic and terrestrial organisms of the YRD, respectively. In addition, the increasing log D_ow and log K_oa led to a rise of TMF (trophic magnification factor) in the aquatic food web while a decrease of TMF in the terrestrial food web. Overall, these results provide insights into the mechanisms on bioaccumulation and trophic transfer of antibiotics in different food webs.

Biodegradation of COVID19 antibiotic; azithromycin and its impact on soil microbial community in the presence of phenolic waste and with temperature variation

The increase in using antibiotics, especially Azithromycin have increased steadily since the beginning of COVID19 pandemic. This increase has led to its presence in water systems which consequently led to its presence upon using this water for irrigation. The aim of the present work is to study the impact of irrigation using Azithromycin containing water on soil microbial community and its catabolic activity in the presence of phenolic wastes as compost. Wild berry, red grapes, pomegranate, and spent tea waste were added to soil and the degradation was monitored after 5 and 7 days at ambient and high temperatures. The results obtained show that at 30 °C, soil microbial community collectively was able to degrade Azithromycin, while at 40 °C, addition of spent tea as compost was needed to reach higher degradation. To ensure that the degradation was biotic and depended on degradation by indigenous microflora, a 25 kGy irradiation dose was used to kill the microorganisms in the soil and this was used as negative control. The residual antibiotic was assayed using UV spectroscopy and High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Indication of Azithromycin presence was studied using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) peaks and the same pattern was obtained using the 3 used detection methods, the ability to assign the peaks even in the presence of soil and not to have any overlaps, gives the chance to study this result in depth to prepare IR based sensor for quick sensing of antibiotic in environmental samples.

Effect of different exposure times and doses of cyantraniliprole on oxidative stress and genotoxicity in earthworms (Eisenia fetida)

Cyantraniliprole, the second generation of diamide insecticides, is widely used to control various pests, which will certainly result in adverse effects on earthworms in soil. In this study, after exposure with six doses of cyantraniliprole (0, 0.5, 1, 2.5, 5, and 10 mg kg^-1) by artificial soil method, six biomarkers, four functional genes, and histopathological changes of Eisenia fetida were measured on the 7th, 14th, 21st, and 28th days. The comprehensive toxicity was assessed by the IBR version 2 (IBRv2) method. The results showed that the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level was induced significantly. The superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was activated in 7-28 days. The catalase (CAT) and glutathione S-transferases (GST) activities were also activated in the initial 14 days. The 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents in the high treatment increased until the late stage of exposure. On the 28th day, the metallothionein (MT) and calreticulin (CRT) genes were up-regulated, the transcriptionally controlled tumor protein (TCTP) gene was down-regulated. The SOD gene showed a good correlation with SOD activity. Extensive histopathological damage was found in the endoderm and ectoderm of E. fetida. The 5 and 10 mg kg^-1 treatments showed higher comprehensive toxicity than the 0.5, 1, and 2.5 mg kg^-1 treatments on the 28th day. These results suggest that cyantraniliprole exerted certain subchronic toxic effects of oxidative stress, DNA damage, and histopathological changes to E. fetida, which provided theoretical basis for rational use of cyantraniliprole and evaluation of its safety to soil environment.

Azithromycin Adsorption onto Different Soils

The antibiotic azithromycin (AZM) is one of the most persistent in the environment, with potential to cause serious health and environmental problems. As some polluting discharges containing this antibiotic can reach the soil, it is clearly relevant determining the ability of soils with different characteristics to retain it. In this research, AZM adsorption and desorption were studied for a variety of soils, using batch-type experiments. The results show that, at low doses of antibiotic added (less than or equal to 50 µmol L−1), the adsorption always reached 100%, while when higher concentrations were added (between 200 and 600 µmol L−1) the highest adsorption corresponded to soils with higher pH values. Adsorption data were fitted to the Linear, Langmuir and Freundlich models, with the latter showing the best fit, in view of the determination coefficient. No desorption was detected, indicating that AZM is strongly adsorbed to the soils evaluated, suggesting that the risks of environmental problems due to this contaminant are minimized for these edaphic media. These results can be considered relevant with respect to risk assessment and possible programming of measures aimed at controlling environmental contamination by emerging contaminants, especially from the group of antibiotics, and in particular from AZM.

Ecotoxicological effects of untreated pig manure from diets with or without growth-promoting supplements on Eisenia andrei in subtropical soils

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of untreated pig manure from diets incorporating growth-promoting supplements (antibiotics and Zn oxide) on the survival and reproduction of Eisenia andrei earthworms. The tested manures were obtained from four different groups of pigs fed with four different diets: CS, a diet based on corn and soymeal; TR, a diet based on corn, soymeal, and ground wheat (15%); CSa, a diet based on corn and soymeal + 100 ppm of doxycycline + 50 ppm of colistin + 2500 ppm of Zn oxide; and TRa, a diet based on corn, soymeal, and ground wheat (15%) + 100 ppm of doxycycline + 50 ppm of colistin + 2500 ppm of Zn oxide. The study used two soils representative of the Southern region of Brazil (Oxisol and Entisol). In general, there were no significant differences between the different manures tested in each soil. However, there were differences in the toxicity manure on E. andrei between the soils, and the magnitude of this effect was dependent on the applied dose. In Oxisol, LC₅₀ values were higher than 80 m³ ha^-1, and EC₅₀ varied from 9 to 27 m³ ha^-1. In Entisol, the LC₅₀ values were below the lowest dose tested (< 25 m³ ha^-1), and EC₅₀ remained around 5 m³ ha^-1. It may be possible that the effects observed were attributed to an excess of nitrogen, copper, and zinc, promoted by the addition of the untreated manure and how these factors interacted with soil type.

Environmental impacts of mass drug administration programs: exposures, risks, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance

Mass drug administration (MDA) of antimicrobials has shown promise in the reduction and potential elimination of a variety of neglected tropical diseases (NTDs). However, with antimicrobial resistance (AMR) becoming a global crisis, the risks posed by widespread antimicrobial use need to be evaluated. As the role of the environment in AMR emergence and dissemination has become increasingly recognized, it is likewise crucial to establish the role of MDA in environmental AMR pollution, along with the potential impacts of such pollution. This review presents the current state of knowledge on the antimicrobial compounds, resistant organisms, and antimicrobial resistance genes in MDA trials, routes of these determinants into the environment, and their persistence and ecological impacts, particularly in low and middle-income countries where these trials are most common. From the few studies directly evaluating AMR outcomes in azithromycin MDA trials, it is becoming apparent that MDA efforts can increase carriage and excretion of resistant pathogens in a lasting way. However, research on these outcomes for other antimicrobials used in MDA trials is sorely needed. Furthermore, while paths of AMR determinants from human waste to the environment and their persistence thereafter are supported by the literature, quantitative information on the scope and likelihood of this is largely absent. We recommend some mitigative approaches that would be valuable to consider in future MDA efforts. This review stands to be a valuable resource for researchers and policymakers seeking to evaluate the impacts of MDA.

Insights into the mechanisms of organic pollutant toxicity to earthworms: Advances and perspectives

Earthworms play positive ecological roles in soil formation, structure, and fertility, environmental protection, and terrestrial food chains. For this review, we searched the Web of Science database for articles published from 2011 to 2021 using the keywords "toxic" and "earthworm" and retrieved 632 publications. From the perspective of bibliometric analysis, we conducted a co-occurrence network analysis using the keywords "toxic" and "earthworm" to identify the most and least reported topics. "Eisenia fetida," "bioaccumulation," "heavy metals," "oxidative stress," and "pesticides" were the most common terms, and "microbial community," "bacteria," "PFOS," "bioaugmentation," "potentially toxic elements," "celomic fluid," "neurotoxicity," "joint toxicity," "apoptosis," and "nanoparticles" were uncommon terms. Additionally, in this review we highlight the main routes of organic pollutant entry into soil, and discuss the adverse effects on the soil ecosystem. We then systematically review the mechanisms underlying organic pollutant toxicity to earthworms, including oxidative stress, energy and lipid metabolism disturbances, neurological toxicity, intestinal inflammation and injury, gut microbiota dysbiosis, and reproductive toxicity. We conclude by discussing future research perspectives, focusing on environmentally relevant concentrations and conditions, novel data processing approaches, technologies, and detoxification and mitigation methods. This review has implications for soil management in the context of environmental pollution.

Antioxidant system alterations and biological health status of earthworms following long-term exposure to antibiotic-contaminated poultry litter

Poultry litter is widely applied as a fertilizer even though it is one of the main antibiotic sources to agricultural soils. Long-term sublethal effects (56 days) on the antioxidant system of Eisenia andrei earthworms following exposure to fluoroquinolone-contaminated poultry litter (enrofloxacin + ciprofloxacin) at 5.0, 10, and 20 g kg^-1 were evaluated. The following biomarkers were assessed: superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), reduced glutathione (GSH), and a lipid peroxidation (LPO) proxy. Significant CAT and SOD increases, and a moderate positive correlation (ρ = 0.67, p < 0.05) between these enzymes was observed. Glutathione-S-transferase levels increased significantly at 10 g kg^-1, while GSH exhibited a dose-dependent response at 5.0 mg kg^-1 (4-106%), 10 mg kg^-1 (28-330 %), and 20 mg kg^-1 (45-472%). LPO levels exhibited a decreasing trend with increasing poultry litter concentrations of 8-170% (5.0 g kg^-1), 7-104% (10 mg kg^-1), and 3-6% (20 mg kg^-1). A principal component analysis (PCA) highlighted increased SOD and CAT activities, possibly due to increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentrations. Biological health status assessments based on the biomarker response index indicate major alterations in the first month of exposure and becoming moderate in the second month. These findings indicate an antioxidant system attenuation trend. It is possible, however, that successive poultry litter applications may reduce the long-term recovery capacity of the evaluated biomarkers.

Veterinary antibiotics can reduce crop yields by modifying soil bacterial community and earthworm population in agro-ecosystems

Veterinary antibiotics are intensively and widely used in animal farming to treat or prevent diseases, as well as improve growth rate and feed efficiency. Animal manure is an important reservoir of veterinary antibiotics due to their high excretion rates, and thus manure application has been a critical source of veterinary antibiotics in agro-ecosystems. However, how veterinary antibiotics affect agroecosystem functions is still unclearly understood. In this study, we evaluated the effects of veterinary antibiotics on soil bacteria and earthworms in agricultural land with long-term manure application. The potential mechanisms of antibiotic-induced changes in crop yields were also revealed. The results showed that the increasing prevalence of veterinary antibiotics in agro-ecosystems inhibited earthworm abundance and bacterial diversity, and then decreased the bioavailability of soil nutrients. Furthermore, high-dose exposure to veterinary antibiotics improved the abundance of plant pathogenic bacteria. Analysis indicated that veterinary antibiotics played an important underlying role in driving the negative effects on peanut grain yields via disturbing microbe- and earthworm-mediated soil available nutrient contents. The direct toxicity effects of antibiotics on peanut relative yields were stronger than their indirect mediating effects. Additionally, the tradeoffs between antibiotics and agroecosystem functions increased at low exposure levels and then decreased at high exposure levels, which indicated the effects of antibiotics on agroecosystem functions were dose-dependent, except for earthworm biomass. Antibiotic contamination which will impose threats to agricultural sustainability was highlighted and should be paid more attention.

Mite gut microbiome and resistome exhibited species-specific and dose-dependent effect in response to oxytetracycline exposure

The importance of the gut microbiome to host health is well recognized, but the effects of environmental pressures on the gut microbiome of soil fauna are poorly understood. Here, Illumina sequencing and high-throughput qPCR were applied to characterize the gut microbiomes and resistomes of two mites, Nenteria moseri and Chiropturopoda sp. AL5866, exposed to different concentrations of oxytetracycline (0, 0.01, 0.1 and 1 μg mg^-1). Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria and Firmicutes were the dominant phyla in the gut microbiomes of both studied mite species, but the relative abundance of them was different between mites. After exposure to oxytetracycline, there was no variation in the gut microbiome and resistome of C. sp. AL5866, whereas the gut microbiome and resistome of N. moseri were altered significantly. The relative abundance of Proteobacteria significantly decreased, and those of Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes significantly increased at the high-concentration antibiotic treatments. Excepting the 0.01 μg mg^-1 treatment, gut microbial diversity increased with ascending concentrations. A significant resistome enrichment of relative abundance in N. moseri gut microbiome at low-dose antibiotic treatment was noted. These results indicated that the gut microbiome in N. moseri was potentially more sensitive to antibiotics than C. sp. AL5866, which was supported by the greater relative abundance of key tetracycline-resistant genes in the gut microbiome of C. sp. AL5866 compared to N. moseri. Mite gut microbiomes were correlated with their associated resistomes, demonstrating the consistent changes between microbiome and resistome. Thus, this study showed that oxytetracycline amendment resulted in a dose-dependent and species-specific effect on the gut microbiomes and resistomes of two mite species. It will contribute to understanding the relationship between the soil mite gut microbiome and resistome under antibiotic exposure, and extend our knowledge regarding the emergence and transfer of resistomes in soil food webs.

Environmental contamination in a high-income country (France) by antibiotics, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and antibiotic resistance genes: Status and possible causes

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major global public health concern, shared by a large number of human and animal health actors. Within the framework of a One Health approach, actions should be implemented in the environmental realm, as well as the human and animal realms. The Government of France commissioned a report to provide policy and decision makers with an evidential basis for recommending or taking future actions to mitigate AMR in the environment. We first examined the mechanisms that underlie the emergence and persistence of antimicrobial resistance in the environment. This report drew up an inventory of the contamination of aquatic and terrestrial environments by AMR and antibiotics, anticipating that the findings will be representative of some other high-income countries. Effluents of wastewater treatment plants were identified as the major source of contamination on French territory, with spreading of organic waste products as a more diffuse and incidental contamination of aquatic environments. A limitation of this review is the heterogeneity of available data in space and time, as well as the lack of data for certain sources. Comparing the French Measured Environmental Concentrations (MECs) with predicted no effect concentrations (PNECs), fluoroquinolones and trimethoprim were identified as representing high and medium risk of favoring the selection of resistant bacteria in treated wastewater and in the most contaminated rivers. All other antibiotic molecules analyzed (erythromycin, clarithromycin, azithromycin, tetracycline) were at low risk of resistance selection in those environments. However, the heterogeneity of the data available impairs their full exploitation. Consequently, we listed indicators to survey AMR and antibiotics in the environment and recommended the harmonization of sampling strategies and endpoints for analyses. Finally, the objectives and methods used for the present work could comprise a useful example for how national authorities of countries sharing common socio-geographic characteristics with France could seek to better understand and define the environmental dimension of AMR in their particular settings.

Azithromycin and Ciprofloxacin Can Promote Antibiotic Resistance in Biosolids and Biosolids-Amended Soils

Spread of biosolids-borne antibiotic resistance is a growing public and environmental health concern. Herein, we conducted incubation experiments involving biosolids, which are byproducts of sewage treatment processes, and biosolids-amended soil. Quantitative reverse transcription-PCR (RT-qPCR) was employed to assess responses of select antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and mobile elements to environmentally relevant concentrations of two biosolids-borne antibiotics, azithromycin (AZ) and ciprofloxacin (CIP). Additionally, we examined sequence distribution of gyrA (encoding DNA gyrase; site of action of CIP) to assess potential shifts in genotype. Increasing antibiotic concentrations generally increased the transcriptional activities of qnrS (encoding CIP resistance) and ermB and mefE (encoding AZ resistance). The transcriptional activity of intl1, a marker of class 1 integrons, was unaffected by CIP or AZ concentrations, but biosolids amendment increased intl1 activity in the soil by 4 to 5 times, which persisted throughout incubation. While the dominant gyrA sequences found herein were unrelated to known CIP-resistant genotypes, the increasing CIP concentrations significantly decreased the diversity of genes encoding the DNA gyrase A subunit, suggesting changes in microbial community structures. This study suggests that biosolids harbor transcriptionally active ARGs and mobile elements that could survive and spread in biosolids-amended soils. However, more research is warranted to investigate these trends under field conditions. IMPORTANCE Although previous studies have indicated that biosolids may be important spreaders of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in environments, the potential activities of ARGs or their responses to environmental parameters have been understudied. This study highlights that certain biosolids-borne antibiotics can induce transcriptional activities of ARGs and mobile genetic elements in biosolids and biosolids-amended soil, even when present at environmentally relevant concentrations. Furthermore, these antibiotics can alter the structure of microbial populations expressing ARGs. Our findings indicate the bioavailability of the antibiotics in biosolids and provide evidence that biosolids can promote the activities and dissemination of ARGs and mobile genes in biosolids and soils that receive contaminated biosolids, thus, underscoring the importance of investigating anthropogenically induced antibiotic resistance in the environment under real-world scenarios.

Chemical speciation of ciprofloxacin in aqueous solution regulates its phytotoxicity and uptake by rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Ciprofloxacin (CIP), a widely used fluoroquinolone antibiotic, is frequently detected in aqueous environments, and could be assimilated by vegetable plants to possess potential threats to human and animal health through food chains. However, plant uptake of CIP in different chemical speciation has still far from clear now. Thus, the toxicity and uptake of CIP by rice plants were investigated under different solution pH, owing to its contribution to different chemical speciation of CIP. Results display that high pH-driven changes of CIP from cation (CIP⁺) to anion (CIP^-) decreased its adsorption and uptake by excised roots and intact plants, respectively. However, CIP concentrations in roots, stems and leaves all exhibited no significant differences with increasing solution pH. Moreover, six intermediates of CIP were detected and two possible transformation pathways were proposed in rice plants, including firstly oxidation and following consecutive cleavage of piperazine ring. After accumulated in plant tissues, CIP significantly inhibited the plant growth, decreased the photosynthetic pigments contents and enhanced the antioxidant enzyme activities in a concentration-dependent manner. Besides, high pH exacerbated the growth inhibition and changed the oxidative damage responses of rice plants to CIP. These findings indicate that the uptake and toxicity of CIP in rice plants were influenced by solution pH-driven changes of its chemical speciation.

Pentachlorophenol and ciprofloxacin present dissimilar joint toxicities with carbon nanotubes to Bacillus subtilis

Discharged carbon nanotubes (CNTs) likely interact with co-existing organic contaminants (OCs) and pose joint toxicity to environmental microbes. Herein, hydrophobic pentachlorophenol (PCP) and hydrophilic ciprofloxacin (CIP) were used as representative OCs and their joint toxicities with CNTs to Bacillus subtilis were systematically investigated at cellular, biochemical, and omics levels. The 3-h bacterial growth half inhibitory concentrations of CNTs, PCP, and CIP were 12.5 ± 2.6, 3.5 ± 0.5, and 0.46 ± 0.03 mg/L, respectively, and they all could damage cell membrane, increase intracellular oxidative stress, and alter bacterial metabolomics and transcriptomics; while CNTs-PCP and CNTs-CIP binary exposures exhibited distinct additive and synergistic toxicities, respectively. CNTs increased bacterial bioaccumulation of PCP and CIP via destabilizing and damaging cell membrane. PCP reduced the bioaccumulation of CNTs, while CIP had no significant effect; this difference could be owing to the different effects of the two OCs on cell-surface hydrophobicity and CNTs electronegativity. The additive toxicity outcome upon CNTs-PCP co-exposure could be a result of the balance between the increased toxicity from increased PCP bioaccumulation and the decreased toxicity from decreased CNTs bioaccumulation. The increased bioaccumulation of CIP contributed to the synergistic toxicity upon CNTs-CIP co-exposure, as confirmed by the increased inhibition of topoisomerase Ⅳ activity and interference in gene expressions regulating ABC transporters and lysine biosynthesis. The findings provide novel insights into environmental risks of CNTs.

Multi-omics analyses reveal molecular mechanisms for the antagonistic toxicity of carbon nanotubes and ciprofloxacin to Escherichia coli

With the increasing production and application, engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) are being discharged into the environment, where they can interact with co-existing contaminants, causing complicated joint toxicity to organisms that needs to be studied. The case study of ENMs-contaminant joint toxicity and the understanding of relative mechanisms are very insufficient, particularly the mechanisms of molecular interactions and governing processes. Herein, a typical ENMs, carbon nanotubes (CNTs, 0-60 mg/L), and a common antibiotic, ciprofloxacin (CIP, 0-900 mg/L), were selected as the analytes. Their joint toxicity to a model microbe Escherichia coli was specifically investigated via biochemical, transcriptomics, and metabolomics approaches. The result revealed an antagonistic effect on growth inhibition between CNTs and CIP. Mitigations in cell membrane disruption and oxidative stress were involved in the antagonistic action. CIP (48.8-244 mg/L) decreased the bioaccumulation of CNTs (7.2 mg/L) via reducing cell-surface hydrophobicity and hindering the bio-nano interaction, which could attenuate the toxicity of CNTs to bacteria. CNTs (7.2 and 14.4 mg/L) alleviated the disturbance of CIP (122 and 244 mg/L) to gene expressions especially related to nitrogen compound metabolism, oxidoreductase activity, and iron-sulfur protein maturation, probably through relieving the CIP-induced inhibition of DNA gyrase activity. Further, CNTs (7.2 and 14.4 mg/L) offset the impact of CIP (122 and 244 mg/L) on bacterial metabolome via the regulation of biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids and metabolisms of some amino acids and glutathione. The findings shed new light on the molecular mechanisms by which ENMs present joint effect on contaminant toxicity, and provide important information for risk assessments of CNTs and fluoroquinolones in the environment.

Ecotoxicological effects of petroleum-contaminated soil on the earthworm Eisenia fetida

Petroleum is an important industrial raw material that enters the soil during production and use and is harmful to soil organisms. To evaluate the toxicity of petroleum-contaminated soil, earthworms (Eisenia fetida) were used as model organisms for soil ecotoxicity studies. We found that earthworm weight and cocoon production decreased significantly after exposure to petroleum-contaminated soil. In addition, soil contaminated with high concentrations of petroleum can cause damage to the DNA within earthworm seminal vesicles. Superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and peroxidase activities were significantly inhibited when earthworms were exposed to petroleum-contaminated soil, indicating that oxidative stress was induced by petroleum pollutants. The mRNA levels of annetocin precursor, a reproduction-related gene, was significantly inhibited after petroleum exposure. The mRNA levels of translationally controlled tumour protein (TCTP) and SOD exhibited a concentration-dependent relationship, and their relative expression increased with petroleum concentration.

Effects of ciprofloxacin exposure on the earthworm Eisenia fetida

The widespread use of the antibiotic ciprofloxacin (CIP) poses a serious risk to soil organisms. Here, earthworms (Eisenia fetida) were used to explore the effect of CIP exposure on growth, reproduction, mortality, antioxidant enzyme activity, DNA damage, and mRNA levels. The results showed that mortality, weight, and reproduction did not change in response to CIP exposure. The antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and glutathione (GSH) were inhibited after 10 mg/kg CIP exposure on day 21, and catalase (CAT) activity increased significantly on day 14. High concentrations (1-2 g/kg) of CIP pollution caused DNA damage in E. fetida on days 7 and 14. At a dose of 10 mg/kg, CIP altered antioxidant enzymes and gene expression, but was not harmful to the growth and reproduction of E. fetida. Moreover, mRNA expression of annetocin, metallothionein, heat shock protein 70, and translationally controlled tumor protein were significantly upregulated on day 28. These findings indicate that antioxidant enzymes, DNA damage, and mRNA levels of biomarkers are more sensitive than mortality, growth, and reproduction for detecting CIP pollution in the soil environment.

World within world: Intestinal bacteria combining physiological parameters to investigate the response of Metaphire guillelmi to tetracycline stress

Due to the abusive usage of antibiotics in animal husbandry, a large amount of residual antibiotics has been released into the environment, therein posing great threat against both environment security and public health. Therefore, it is of great significance to investigate the toxicity of antibiotics on the widely-applied bioindicator-earthworm. In this work, the physiological parameters and the intestinal bacteria community of Metaphire guillelmi were monitored simultaneously to evaluate their sensitivity to the tetracycline (TC) exposure. As expected, the antioxidant enzyme activity and coelomocyte apoptosis acted fairly well as biomarkers for the TC toxicity. In contrast, the intestinal bacteria of Metaphire guillelmi responded varyingly to different TC doses. When TC concentration increased from 0 to 35.7 μg cm^-2, the percentage of the Proteobacteria phylum declined significantly from 85.5% to 34.4%, while the proportions of the Firmicutes, Planctomycetes and Atinomycete phyla clearly increased (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, the levels of TC resistance genes tetA, tetC, and tetW increased with the increasing TC concentration, in contrast to the declined abundance in denitrifying genes nirS and nosZ (p < 0.05). By analyzing the correlation between the antioxidant enzyme activity and the dominant intestinal bacteria in the worm gut, it is interesting to found that the four dominant bacteria genera Mesorhizobium, Aliihoeflea, Romboutsia, and Nitrospira are the promising bioindicator of TC stress due to their sensitive response. This work shed novel light on evaluating the ecotoxicological risks posed by residual TC in environment by using a combination of physiological parameters and intestinal bacterial activity in earthworms.

Effect of biosolids characteristics on retention and release behavior of azithromycin and ciprofloxacin

Azithromycin (AZ) and ciprofloxacin (CIP) are commonly prescribed antibiotics frequently detected in municipal biosolids and identified by the USEPA as contaminants of emerging concern. The land application of municipal biosolids is an agronomically beneficial practice but is also a potential pathway of CIP and AZ release into the environment. Understanding retention-release behavior is crucial for assessing the environmental fate of and risks from land-applied biosolids-borne target antibiotics. Here, we used batch equilibrations to assess retention and release of environmentally relevant concentrations of CIP and AZ in ten different biosolids. The biosolids included Class A and Class B materials with a range of physiochemical characteristics (e.g. pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), organic matter content (OM), and iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al)) expected to influence retention and release of AZ and CIP. Retention was linear (R² > 0.99 for AZ and >0.96 for CIP) and sorption coefficients (K_d) ranged from 52 to 370 L kg^-1 for AZ and 430-2300 L kg^-1 for CIP. Desorption also varied but was highly hysteretic, with hysteresis coefficients (H) ranging 0.01 to 0.15 for AZ and ≤0.01 for CIP, suggesting limited bioaccessibility. The penalized and shrinkage method least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) was used to produce models describing AZ and CIP sorption behavior based on any given biosolids physiochemical characteristics. Multiple linear regression analysis linked AZ sorption behavior to total Fe content, likely due to a predisposition of AZ to participate in reactions with in situ Fe species. CIP sorption behavior was linked to oxalate extractable Al and total phosphorus (P) content, suggesting CIP bonding with amorphous forms of Al and a potential relationship between CIP sorption to biosolids and biosolids production processes, as manifested by correlation of CIP sorption with total P content.

Do combined nanoscale polystyrene and tetracycline impact on the incidence of resistance genes and microbial community disturbance in Enchytraeus crypticus?

It has been proved that nanoplastics can effectively adsorb pollutants and thus influence their behavior and availability. The combined toxic effects of nanoplastic and its adsorbed pollutant on the soil fauna are still not well known. We used high-throughput quantitative PCR to explore the effects of oral nanoscale polystyrene and tetracycline exposure on antibiotic resistance genes in the soil invertebrate Enchytraeus crypticus, and used bacterial 16S rRNA gene amplification sequencing to examine the response of the microbiome of E. crypticus. After 14 days of tetracycline and nanoscale polystyrene exposure, we terminated exposure and monitored the restoration of ARGs and microbiome in the E. crypticus. Results showed that the number of ARGs, especially macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin B (MLSB), tetracycline ARGs, as well as multidrug ARGs, increased with exposure to nanoscale polystyrene and tetracycline. The abundance of Aminoglycoside and Beta_Lactamase ARGs in E. crypticus also significantly increased. The exposure significantly perturbed the abundance of families Microbacteriaceae, Streptococcaceae, Enterobacteriaceae, Rhodocyclaceae and Sphinomonadaceae. After terminating exposure for 14 days, the diversity and abundance of ARGs were not completely restored, while the microbiome was not permanently changed but reversibly impacted.

New Insights into Dose- and Time-Dependent Response of Five Typical PPCPs on Soil Microbial Respiration

The widespread use of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) has attracted much attention and the impact of PPCPs on indigenous microbial communities has become increasingly important in recent days. Five common PPCPs, including doxycycline (DOX), ciprofloxacin (CIP), triclocarban (TCC), carbamazepine (CBZ), and sulfadimidine (SMZ), were selected and their effects on soil microbial respiration were studied at concentrations of 0, 0.2, 1, 5, 25 and 50 mg/kg. The results of this study indicate that the effect of five common PPCPs on soil microbial respiration was dose- and time- dependent. At low concentrations (0.2 and 1 mg/kg), CBZ and SMZ exhibited an activation effect on microbial soil respiration at 1 day (58.02%, 26.39% and 1.54%, 1.76% at 0.2 and 1 mg/kg respectively), while DOX showed inhibition for all tested concentrations at 1 day of incubation. At high concentrations (25 and 50 mg/kg) CIP and SMZ showed an inhibitory effect (- 69.13%, - 80.86% for 25 and 50 mg/kg, respectively), while TCC and CBZ exhibited stimulatory effect (38.07%, 9.64% and 4.06%, 12.18% at 25 and 50 mg/kg, respectively) at 1 day of incubation. Our findings indicate that the effect of tested PPCPs on soil microbial respiration had an inhibitory or stimulatory effect based on the dose and extent of time.

Heterogeneous fenton-like degradation of ofloxacin over sludge derived carbon as catalysts: Mechanism and performance

In this study, heterogeneous Fenton-like degradation of ofloxacin (OFX) was investigated by sludge derived carbon (SC). The effects of SC catalyst, temperature and pH on the efficiency of ofloxacin degradation were investigated. SC treated with sulfuric acid (SC-H₂SO₄) performed high catalytic activity, indicating that sulfate group produced low pH of the surface and was beneficial for heterogeneous Fenton-like degradation. The removal of ofloxacin and TOC was 91.5% and 62.3%, respectively, after 180 min adsorption and 540 min oxidation, at pH 6 and a dosage of 138 mg L^-1 H₂O₂. It was found that OFX conversion increased with the decrease of pH and OFX was degraded under the wide range of pH (3-6) by SC-H₂SO₄. These promising results clearly demonstrate the potential of the heterogeneous Fenton-like process for the effective degradation of ofloxacin by SC-H₂SO₄. Based on intermediated products identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, a possible OFX oxidation pathway in Fenton-like reaction was proposed.

Risk assessment of biosolids-borne ciprofloxacin and azithromycin

Ciprofloxacin (CIP) and azithromycin (AZ) are commonly prescribed antibiotics for various infections in humans and are frequently detected in biosolids. Ecological and human health risks from biosolids-borne CIP and AZ are not well understood, but necessary for formulating policies on safe use and management of biosolids. A tiered integrated risk assessment (IRA), based on the World Health Organization (WHO) framework and the USEPA Part 503 Biosolids Rule, was conducted to assess human and ecological health risks from biosolids-borne CIP and AZ. The IRA utilized the hazard quotient (HQ) approach to evaluate risks to various receptors of concern (including humans, animals, and birds) in sixteen exposure pathways and three conservative biosolids land application scenarios. The scenarios consisted of (i) single-heavy (100 Mg ha^-1) land application of biosolids containing 95th percentile concentrations of CIP or AZ (USEPA, 2009), (ii) long-term (annual for 40-y) land application of biosolids containing typical (median; USEPA, 2009) CIP or AZ concentrations, and (iii) long-term (annual for 40-y) land application of biosolids containing the 95th percentile concentrations of CIP or AZ. The unrealistically conservative screening level (Tier 1) assessment identified three pathways of potential concern: biosolids → soil → plant (CIP); biosolids → soil → soil organism (CIP and AZ); and biosolids → soil → soil organism → predator (CIP and AZ). Subsequent tier (refined; more realistic) assessments and pollutant limits (calculated based on the USEPA Part 503 Biosolids Rule) suggested negligible human and ecological health risks from biosolids-borne CIP and AZ under real-world biosolids application scenarios. Pollutant concentration limits were 12 mg CIP kg^-1 and 2.2 mg AZ kg^-1; suggesting that pollutant load tracking is not needed for the majority (75% for CIP and 90% for AZ) of USA biosolids. Biosolids-borne antibiotic resistance (currently not addressed in any risk assessment model) is the principal uncertainty limiting risk assessment of biosolids-borne antibiotics including CIP and AZ.