Degradation of antibiotics by electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs): Performance, mechanisms, and perspectives

Biotransformation of the Fluoroquinolone Antibiotic, Levofloxacin, by the Free and Immobilized Secretome of Coriolopsis gallica

Antibiotics play a crucial role in human and animal medical healthcare, but widespread use and overuse of antibiotics poses alarming health and environmental issues. Fluoroquinolones constitute a class of antibiotics that has already become ubiquitous in the environment, and their increasing use and high persistence prompt growing concern. Here we investigated a fungal secretome prepared from the white-rot fungus Coriolopsis gallica, which is able to effectively degrade the environmentally persistent fluoroquinolone, levofloxacin. We tested various physical-chemical factors such as concentrations of 1-hydroxybenzotriazol (HBT), of enzyme, and of antibiotic, and pH and temperature of the reaction for biotransformation of the antibiotic. We compared the free with the immobilized Coriolopsis gallica secretome proteins, and analyzed the collective reaction products for residual activity against E. coli (growth inhibition test). We also performed HPLC analysis. The results show that treatment with the free secretome yielded a highest removal efficiency of 50 mg L-1 levofloxacin in the presence of 2.5 mM HBT, whereas the immobilized secretome was only able to degrade 10 mg L-1 levofloxacin with the same concentration of mediator, but presenting the advantage of being reusable.

Innovative approaches to electrochemical oxidation of Bisphenol B in synthetic and complex water environments

The substitution of Bisphenol A (BPA) with Bisphenol B (BPB) has raised concerns due to BPB's increased environmental presence and its potential hazards. Despite the frequent detection in water environments, effective removal methods for BPB are still limited. This study hypothesizes that electrochemical oxidation (EO) can effectively degrade BPB and its by-products. To test this, EO was applied under various conditions, analyzing the role of anode material, current density, pH, and BPB concentration. The results revealed that BPB degradation followed pseudo-first-order kinetics, with boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode showing a rate constant 27 times higher than iridium oxide electrodes. After 180 min, BDD achieved 81.8 % mineralization of BPB. The remaining organic load was associated to easily biodegradable short-chain carboxylic acids. Additionally, the EO process was evaluated in different matrices, including drinking water, tap water, simulated municipal wastewater, and synthetic urine, to assess the impact of matrix complexity. Electrogenerated oxidants, such as hydroxyl radicals, sulfate radicals, and active chlorine, significantly enhanced BPB degradation rates in real water matrices. Energy consumption varied from 5.32 kWh m-3 in drinking water to 2.28 kWh m-3 in synthetic urine, demonstrating the role of matrix composition in EO efficiency. These findings show that EO is a promising technology for removing BPB and similar chemicals in real-world water matrices.

A Novel G-C3N4 Modified Biogenic Mackinawite Mediated by SRB for Boosting Highly Efficient Adsorption and Catalytic Degradation of Antibiotics in Photo-Fenton Process

FeS-based nanomaterials are widely used in Fenton-like reaction of antibiotics degradation. However, the problems of poor stability and low reusability limit the catalytic efficiency. Herein, the study ingeniously introduced the g-C3N4 into FeS to synthesize g-C3N4@biogenic FeS (CN-BF-1) nanocomposite with strong interaction of iron ions and "N-pots" by the mediation of sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB). Results indicated the g-C3N4 accelerated SRB metabolism and improved the mineralization and stability of FeS to well-crystallized mackinawite. The CN-BF-1 can efficiently adsorb and degrade antibiotics compared with FeS and g-C3N4, and bear a broad pH range which further proved the increase of stability. The toxicity studies showed ciprofloxacin (CIP) degradation solution hardly caused ecotoxicity and induced antibiotic resistance genes, while CN-BF-1 can be regenerated by SRB in this solution with chemical and enzymatic reduction of Fe(III)-mud to achieve efficient CIP degradation (99.9%). Finally, the mechanism part showed that CN-BF-1 can activate H2O2 to form 1O2 and •OH which played the main roles in the catalysis process. The work paves the way for a novel approach to intensify iron-based photo-Fenton system in sustainable remediation of antibiotic wastewater, upon which the high-efficiency removal and non-toxic degradation solution of antibiotic contamination are expected.

A comparative review on the mitigation of metronidazole residues in aqueous media using various physico-chemical technologies

In the last few decades, pharmaceuticals have emerged as a new class of serious environmental pollutants. The presence of these emerging contaminants even in minimal amounts (micro- to nanograms) has side effects, and they can cause chronic toxicity to health and the environment. Furthermore, the presence of pharmaceutical contaminants in water resources leads to significant antibiotic resistance in bacteria. Hence, the removal of antibiotics from water resources is essential. Thus far, a wide range of methods, including adsorption, photodegradation, oxidation, photolysis, micro-/nanofiltration, and reverse osmosis, has been used to remove pharmaceutical contaminants from water systems. In this article, research related to the processes for the removal of metronidazole antibiotics from water and wastewater, including adsorption (carbon nanotubes (CNTs), magnetic nanocomposites, magnetic molecularly imprinted polymer (MMIP), and metal-organic frameworks), filtration, advanced oxidation processes (photocatalytic process, electrochemical advanced oxidation processes, sonolysis and sonocatalysis) and aqueous two-phase systems (ATPSs), was reviewed. Results reveal that advanced oxidation processes, especially photocatalytic and sonolysis processes, have high potential in removing MNZ (more than 90%).

Three-dimensional gel network structure of agarose interlayer dispersed Pd nanoparticles in copper foam electrode for electrocatalytic degradation of doxycycline hydrochloride

In this study, we successfully prepared palladium/agarose/copper foam (Pd/AG/CF) composite electrodes by utilizing the three-dimensional network structure agarose (AG), a green material derived from biomass, and homogeneously immobilizing palladium (Pd) atoms on a copper foam (CF) substrate through a facile route. The electrode showed excellent performance in the electrocatalytic degradation of doxycycline (DOX), with a high DOX degradation rate of 92.19 % in 60 min. In-depth studies revealed that palladium can form metal-metal interactions with the CF substrates, which enhances the electron transfer on the catalyst surface. In addition, the introduction of agarose effectively prevented the agglomeration of palladium nanoparticles. In addition, the hydroxyl functional groups in the molecular structure of agarose facilitate interactions between water molecules and the electrode interface through the formation of hydrogen bonds, thereby further enhancing the efficiency of the electrocatalytic reaction. In addition to good stability and reusability. Microbial toxicity test results show that the degraded wastewater has minimal impact on the environment. Also, possible degradation pathways of DOX were explored in this study. Finally, a novel continuous flow reactor was designed, featuring a unique design that ensures full contact between wastewater and the composite electrodes, thereby achieving continuous and efficient treatment of antibiotic wastewater.

Bismuth oxyiodide-based composites for advanced visible-light activation of peroxymonosulfate in pharmaceutical mineralization

The presence of pharmaceutical pollutants in water bodies represents a significant environmental and public health concern, largely due to their inherent persistence and potential to induce antibiotic resistance. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) that employ peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activation have emerged as an effective means of degrading these contaminants. Bismuth oxyiodides (BiOI), which are known for their visible-light photocatalytic properties, demonstrate considerable potential for removal of pharmaceutical pollutants. This study examines the synthesis and performance of BiOI-based composites with barium ferrite (BFO) nanoparticles for enhanced PMS activation under visible light. BiOI and Bi5O7I were synthesized via solvothermal and electrodeposition methods, respectively, and their morphologies and crystalline structures were observed to exhibit distinctive characteristics following annealing. The formation of the composite with BFO resulted in an improvement in the catalytic properties, which in turn enhanced the surface area and availability of active sites. The objective of the photocatalytic studies was to evaluate the degradation and mineralization of tetracycline (TC) under visible light, PMS, and combined conditions. The Bi5O7I(ED)-BFO catalyst was identified as the optimal candidate, achieving up to 99.8% TC degradation and 99.4% mineralization within 90 min at room temperature. The synergistic effect of BFO in BiOI-based composites significantly enhanced performance across all conditions, indicating their potential for efficient remediation of pharmaceutical pollutant. The material's performance was further evaluated in tap water, where the degradation efficiency decreased to 56.4% and mineralization to 38.2%. These results reflect the challenges posed by complex water matrices. However, doubling the PMS concentration to 5 mM led to improved outcomes, with 93.8% degradation and 81.4% mineralization achieved. These findings demonstrate the material's robust potential for treating pharmaceutical pollutants in real-world conditions, advancing sustainable water treatment technologies.

In Situ Production of Hydroxyl Radicals via Three-Electron Oxygen Reduction: Opportunities for Water Treatment

The electro-Fenton (EF) process is an advanced oxidation technology with significant potential; however, it is limited by two steps: generation and activation of H2O2. In contrast to the production of H2O2 via the electrochemical two-electron oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), the electrochemical three-electron (3e-) ORR can directly activate molecular oxygen to yield the hydroxyl radical (⋅OH), thus breaking through the conceptual and operational limitations of the traditional EF reaction. Therefore, the 3e- ORR is a vital process for efficiently producing ⋅OH in situ, thus charting a new path toward the development of green water-treatment technologies. This review summarizes the characteristics and mechanisms of the 3e- ORR, focusing on the basic principles and latest progress in the in situ generation and efficient utilization of ⋅OH through the modulation of the reaction pathway, shedding light on the rational design of 3e- ORR catalysts, mechanistic exploration, and practical applications for water treatment. Finally, the future developments and challenges of efficient, stable, and large-scale utilization of ⋅OH are discussed based on achieving optimal 3e- ORR regulation and the potential to combine it with other technologies.

Cerium added corn-based biochar as particle electrode for electrochemical oxidation industrial wastewater

Three-dimensional (3D) electrochemical oxidation has become a popular advanced oxidation technology for wastewater treatment due to its various benefits. In this study, cerium (Ce) loaded biochar (Ce/BC) was used as a particle electrode to conduct the degradation of industrial wastewater released by the chemical industry. SEM, EDS, XRD, FTIR, XPS, and BET were used to characterize the properties of Ce/BC. The effects of some variables, including Ce loading (0-5%), pH (5-9), Ce/BC dosage (12.5-50.0 g/L), and working voltage (12-20 V), were evaluated with regard to COD elimination. The kinetics of COD oxidation and the energy consumption were carefully investigated. Tert-butanol significantly reduced the removal efficiency of COD, indicating that hydroxyl radicals generated during the process rather than direct electro-oxidation were the main mechanism for COD degradation. The treatment of industrial wastewater might benefit from the use of Ce/BC as particle electrode.

Antibiotic Degradation via Fenton Process Assisted by a 3-Electron Oxygen Reduction Reaction Pathway Catalyzed by Bio-Carbon-Manganese Composites

Bio-carbon-manganese composites obtained from olive mill wastewater were successfully prepared using manganese acetate as the manganese source and olive wastewater as the carbon precursor. The samples were characterized chemically and texturally by N2 and CO2 adsorption at 77 K and 273 K, respectively, by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and X-ray diffraction. Electrochemical characterization was carried out by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and linear sweep voltammetry (LSV). The samples were evaluated in the electro-Fenton degradation of tetracycline in a typical three-electrode system under natural conditions of pH and temperature (6.5 and 25 °C). The results show that the catalysts have a high catalytic power capable of degrading tetracycline (about 70%) by a three-electron oxygen reduction pathway in which hydroxyl radicals are generated in situ, thus eliminating the need for two catalysts (ORR and Fenton).

Preparation of novel Au-Nb3O7F nanosheets for the photodegradation of tetracycline hydrochloride

Water pollution caused by antibiotics is a growing problem and photodegradation by efficient catalysts is an environmentally friendly technology that can effectively degrade organic pollutants in water. Here, a novel method was innovatively used to synthesize niobium oxyfluoride (Nb3O7F) nanosheets decorated with Au nanoparticles, which is the first report for the composites of Au and Nb3O7F. We prepared the Nb3O7F nanosheets via hydrothermal synthesis followed by deposition of Au nanoparticles on their surface using HAuCl4. The prepared samples were characterized by XRD, HRTEM, XPS, and UV-Vis. The diameters of most Au NPs are ranging from 5 to 25 nm with an average size of about 16.9 nm, as well as the Nb3O7F nanosheets in size ranging from 200 nm to 700 nm. The chemical composition of the Au-Nb3O7F showed a Au/Nb atomic ratio of 1/10, as well as a Nb/O/F ratio of 3/7/1. UV-Vis spectrum reveals a largest absorption peak at 520 nm for the Au-Nb3O7F nanosheets. The prepared Au-Nb3O7F nanomaterials were applied to the visible-light photodegradation of tetracycline hydrochloride, with the photocatalytic degradation rate reached more than 50% under the optimal conditions within 1 h. Capture experiments indicated that h+ and •O2 - are the main active substances involved during the course of the photodegradation. Furthermore, the proposed mechanism for the photodegradation of the novel Au-Nb3O7F nanosheets was given.

Oxygen vacancy based WO3/SnO2-x promote electrochemical H2O2 accumulation by two-electron water oxidation reaction and toxic uniform dimethylhydrazine degradation

The key to constructing an anodic electro-Fenton system hinges on two pivotal criteria: enhancing the catalyst activity and selectivity in water oxidation reaction (WOR), while simultaneously inhibiting the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) which is on-site electrosynthesized at the anode. To address the issues, we synthesized novel WO3/SnO2-x electrocatalysts, enriched with oxygen vacancies, capitalize on the combined activity and selectivity advantages of both WO3 and SnO2-x for the two-electron pathway electrocatalytic production of H2O2. Moreover, the introduction of oxygen vacancies plays a critical role in impeding the decomposition of H2O2. This innovative design ensures that the Faraday efficiency and yield of H2O2 are maintained at over 80 %, with a noteworthy production rate of 0.2 mmol h-1 cm-2. We constructed a novel electro-Fenton system that operates using only H2O as its feedstock and applied it to treat highly toxic uniform dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) from rocket launch effluent. Our experiments revealed a substantial total organic carbon (TOC) removal, achieving approximately 90 % after 120 mins of treatment. Additionally, the toxicity of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), a byproduct of great concern, was shown to be effectively mitigated, as evidenced by acute toxicity evaluations using zebrafish embryos. The degradation mechanism of UDMH is predominantly characterized by the advanced oxidative action of H2O2 and hydroxyl radicals, as well as by complex electron transfer processes that warrant further investigation.

Mechanism of biochar composite (BN3Z0.5BC) activated peracetic acid for efficient antibiotic degradation: Synergistic effect between free radicals and non-free radicals

This study utilized corn straw as the feedstock to synthesize biochar (BC) loaded with cobalt-zeolitic imidazolate framework nanoparticles and boron nitride quantum dots. The prepared BC composite, named BN3Z0.5BC, efficiently activated peracetic acid (PAA), resulting in the degradation of 94.8% of sulfadiazine (SDZ) in five minutes. Compared to pure BC, the SDZ removal rate increased nearly 5-fold. Mechanism analysis revealed that the main degradation pathway involves synergism between free and non-free radicals. The defect structure on the BC surface possesses a high charge density, stimulating PAA to produce more active species, while nitrogen-oxygen vacancy formation significantly promotes charge transfer. Besides, the unique structure of BC ensures good stability and recyclability, effectively controlling metal leaching. The BN3Z0.5BC/PAA system shows promising applicability across various water matrices, indicating a favorable application outlook.

Design of novel solar-light-induced KBi6O9I/Ag-AgVO3 nanophotocatalyst with Ag-bridged Z-scheme charge carriers separation and boosted photo-elimination of hospital effluents

In this research, a novel solar-light-induced KBi6O9I/Ag-AgVO3 nanophotocatalyst with an Ag-bridged Z-scheme structure has been designed and synthesized through a sonochemical method to photo-degrade antibiotic hospital contaminants under simulated solar-light irradiation. Synthesized nanophotocatalysts with varying KBi6O9I to Ag-AgVO3 weight ratios underwent N2 Adsorption-Desorption, XRD, TEM, UV-Vis DRS, FESEM and PL analyses. The Ag-bridged Z-scheme-structured KBi6O9I/Ag-AgVO3 (1:1) nanophotocatalyst, demonstrated broad light absorption within the solar-light spectrum and showcased effective photocatalytic efficacy in degrading tetracycline antibiotic (88.3% and 83.5% removal for 25 and 50 mg/L, respectively, after 120 min). This performance outperformed other composited photocatalysts, as well as pure Ag-AgVO3 and KBi6O9I photocatalysts. The enhanced degradation efficiency of the KBi6O9I/Ag-AgVO3 (1:1) composite can be ascribed to the synergistic interaction of various elements. These include the surface plasmon resonance impact of silver nanoparticles, their pronounced sensitivity to solar irradiation, and the Z-scheme heterojunction configuration. Collectively, these factors work together to minimize the recombination rate of photoinduced electron-hole pairs, thereby amplifying the efficacy of photodegradation. Furthermore, the KBi6O9I/Ag-AgVO3 (1:1) composite photocatalyst displayed sustained pollutants elimination performance even after undergoing four consecutive cycles.

Zn2SnO4@Ti ceramic film anode preparation by microarc oxidation for 2e- WOR degradation of unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH)

The main challenge facing the anodic electro-Fenton through the 2e- water oxidation reaction (WOR) for toxics degradation lies in the electrode's stability, because the anodic oxygen evolution (OER) generated O2 will inevitably exfoliate the electro-active components loaded on the electrode substrate. To address this point, two aspects need attention: 1) Identifying a catalyst that exhibits both excellent electrocatalytic activity and selectivity can improve the faradaic efficiency of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2); 2) Employing novel methods for fabricating highly stable electrodes, where active sites can be firmly coated. Consequently, this study utilized microarc oxidation (MAO) to prepare a ceramic film electrode Zn2SnO4@Ti at 300 V. Zn2SnO4 acts as an WOR electrocatalyst and further improved the generation of H2O2 for treating real wastewater containing Unsymmetrical Dimethylhydrazine (UDMH). From the perspective of characterization of electrode structure, Zn2SnO4@Ti forms a stable active coating, the electrochemical yield of H2O2 is high up to 78.4 μmol h-1 cm-2, and the selectivity of H2O2 is over 80% at 3.3 V vs. RHE, which can be fully applied to scenarios where it is inconvenient to transport H2O2 and need in-situ safe production. Additionally, the prepared electrodes exhibit significant stability, suitable for various applications, providing insightful preparation strategies and experiences for constructing highly stable anodes.

A Comprehensive Review on Modification of Titanium Dioxide-Based Catalysts in Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment

It has become necessary to develop effective strategies to prevent and reduce water pollution as a result of the increase in dangerous pollutants in water reservoirs. Consequently, there is a need to design new catalyst materials to promote the efficiency of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) in the field of wastewater treatment plant to ensure the mineralization of trace organic contaminants. A notable approach gaining attention involves the coupling of sulfate radicals-based AOPs to photocatalysis or electrocatalysis processes, aiming to achieve the complete removal of refractory contaminants into water and carbon dioxide. Titanium dioxide as metal oxide has received great attention for its catalytic application in water purification. TiO2 catalysts offer a multitude of advantages in AOPs. They are characterized by their high photocatalytic activity under both ultraviolet and visible light, making them environmentally friendly due to the absence of toxic byproducts during oxidation. Their versatility is remarkable, finding utility in various AOPs, from photocatalysis to photo-Fenton processes. TiO2's durability ensures long-lasting catalytic activity, which is crucial for continuous treatment processes, and their cost-effectiveness is particularly advantageous. Furthermore, their chemical stability allows it to withstand varying pH conditions. However, the large band gap energy and low electrical conductivity hinder the catalytic reaction effectiveness. This review aims to examine various approaches to enhance the catalytic performance of titanium dioxide, with the objective of enabling more efficient water purification methods.

Electro-oxidation of Ibuprofen using carbon-supported SnOx-CeOx flow-anodes: The key role of high-valent metal

Exploiting electrochemically active materials as flow-anodes can effectively alleviate mass transfer restriction in an electro-oxidation system. However, the electrocatalytic activity and persistence of the conventional flow-anode materials are insufficient, resulting in limited improvement in the electro-oxidation rate and efficiency. Herein, we reported a rational strategy to substantially enhance the electrocatalytic performance of flow-anodes in electro-oxidation by introducing the redox cycle of high-valent metal in a suitable carbon substrate. The characterization suggested that the SnOx-CeOx/carbon black (CB) featured well-distributed morphology, rapid charge transfer, high oxygen evolution potential, and strong water adsorption, and stood out among three kinds of SnOx-CeOx loaded carbon materials. Mechanistic analysis indicated that the redox cycle of Ce species played a key role in accelerating the electron transfer from SnOx to CB directionally and could continuously create the electron-deficient state of the SnOx, thereby sustainably triggering the generation of ·OH. All these features enabled the resulting SnOx-CeOx/CB flow-anode to accomplish a calculated maximum kinetic constant of 0.02461 1/min, a higher current efficiency of 47.1%, and a lower energy consumption of 21.3 kWh/kg COD compared with other conventional flow-anodes reported to date. Additionally, SnOx-CeOx/CB exhibited excellent stability with extremely low leaching concentrations of Sn and Ce ions. This study provides a feasible manner for efficient water decontamination using the electro-oxidation system with SnOx-CeOx/CB.

Unravelling the enhanced rifampicin photocatalytic degradation over green-synthesized SrO2@SnIn4S8 p-n heterojunction: Pathway, toxicity evaluation and mechanistic insights

In recent years, the discharge of pharmaceutical drugs into aquatic ecosystems has become a growing concern, posing a significant threat to aquatic life. In response to this environmental challenge, advanced oxidation processes have gained prominence in wastewater treatment due to their efficacy in eliminating pharmaceutical pollutants and their potential for reusability. In this study, we have fabricated SnIn4S8 coupled SrO2 nano-heterojunction (NH) using a greener co-precipitation approach using leaf extract derived from Acaphyla wilkesiana. The resulting NH exhibited exceptional photocatalytic activity against rifampicin (RIF), achieving a remarkable 97.4% degradation under visible light, surpassing the performance of its individual components. The morphological characteristics of the NH were thoroughly analyzed through SEM, TEM, XRD, and XPS techniques, while EIS, DRS, and BET techniques provided valuable insights into its photocatalytic and optical properties. Furthermore, radical scavenging assays and ESR analysis identified hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and superoxide radicals (O2•-) were the species contributing to the visible light-driven photocatalytic degradation. The study also elucidated the potential degradation pathways and intermediates of RIF through GC-MS analysis. Additionally, the toxicity of the produced intermediates was assessed using the ECOSAR model. The findings have significant implications for the treatment of pharmaceutical pollutants and underscore the importance of eco-friendly synthesis methods in addressing environmental challenges.

Cobalt etched graphite felt electrode for enhanced removal of organic pollutant in aqueous solution with a solid polymer electrolyte

In this study, cobalt etched graphite felt electrodes were produced using a simple etching technique. It was used in combination with a solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) for the degradation of the target contaminant Orange II by Electro-Fenton (EF) technique in low conductivity water. In this method, 94% of Orange II in low conductivity water was removed in 90 min. The characterization analysis substantiates the hypothesis that the electrodes produced exhibit a three-dimensional porous structure, augmented defect concentration, and enhanced electron transfer capability. In addition, the potential reaction mechanism was inferred from the radical quenching experiments, and hydroxyl radicals (·OH) were deemed the main reactive substances. The combination of cobalt etched graphite felt electrodes with SPE demonstrates remarkable efficacy in the treatment of organic wastewater characterized by low electrical conductivity.

Advanced oxidation and biological integrated processes for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment: A review

The stress of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) discharging to water bodies and the environment due to increased industrialization has reduced the availability of clean water. This poses a potential health hazard to animals and human life because water contamination is a great issue to the climate, plants, humans, and aquatic habitats. Pharmaceutical compounds are quantified in concentrations ranging from ng/Lto μg/L in aquatic environments worldwide. According to (Alsubih et al., 2022), the concentrations of carbamazepine, sulfamethoxazole, Lutvastatin, ciprofloxacin, and lorazepam were 616-906 ng/L, 16,532-21635 ng/L, 694-2068 ng/L, 734-1178 ng/L, and 2742-3775 ng/L respectively. Protecting and preserving our environment must be well-driven by all sectors to sustain development. Various methods have been utilized to eliminate the emerging pollutants, such as adsorption and biological and advanced oxidation processes. These methods have their benefits and drawbacks in the removal of pharmaceuticals. Successful wastewater treatment can save the water bodies; integrating green initiatives into the main purposes of actor firms, combined with continually periodic awareness of the current and potential implications of environmental/water pollution, will play a major role in water conservation. This article reviews key publications on the adsorption, biological, and advanced oxidation processes used to remove pharmaceutical products from the aquatic environment. It also sheds light on the pharmaceutical adsorption capability of adsorption, biological and advanced oxidation methods, and their efficacy in pharmaceutical concentration removal. A research gap has been identified for researchers to explore in order to eliminate the problem associated with pharmaceutical wastes. Therefore, future study should focus on combining advanced oxidation and adsorption processes for an excellent way to eliminate pharmaceutical products, even at low concentrations. Biological processes should focus on ideal circumstances and microbial processes that enable the simultaneous removal of pharmaceutical compounds and the effects of diverse environments on removal efficiency.

Treatment of Monochlorobenzene from Polymers Process through Electrochemical Oxidation

With the rapid development of the economy and the demands of people's lives, the usage amount of polymer materials is significantly increasing globally. Chlorobenzenes (CBS) are widely used in the industrial, agriculture and chemical industries, particularly as important chemical raw materials during polymers processes. CBS are difficult to remove due to their properties, such as being hydrophobic, volatile and persistent and biotoxic, and they have caused great harm to the ecological environment and human health. Electrochemical oxidation technology for the treatment of refractory pollutants has been widely used due to its high efficiency and easiness of operation. Thus, the electrochemical oxidation system was established for the efficient treatment of monochlorobenzene (MCB) waste gas. The effect of a single factor, such as anode materials, cathode materials, the electrolyte concentration, current density and electrode distance on the removal efficiency (RE) of MCB gas were first studied. The response-surface methodology (RSM) was used to investigate the relationships between different factors' conditions (current density, electrolyte concentration, electrode distance), and a prediction model was established using the Design-Expert 10.0.1 software to optimize the reaction conditions. The results of the one-factor experiments showed that when treating 2.90 g/m3 MCB gas with a 0.40 L/min flow rate, Ti/Ti4O7 as an anode, stainless steel wire mesh as a cathode, 0.15 mol/L NaCl electrolyte, 10.0 mA/cm2 current density and 4.0 cm electrode distance, the average removal efficiency (RE), efficiency capacity (EC) and energy consumption (Esp) were 57.99%, 20.18 g/(m3·h) and 190.2 (kW·h)/kg, respectively. The results of the RSM showed that the effects of the process parameters on the RE of MBC were as follows: current density > electrode distance > electrolyte concentration; the interactions effects on the RE of MBC were in the order of electrolyte concentration and current density > current density and electrode distance > electrolyte concentration and electrode distance; the optimal experimental conditions were as follows: the concentration of electrolyte was 0.149 mol/L, current density was 18.11 mA, electrode distance was 3.804 cm. Under these conditions, the RE achieved 66.43%. The response-surface variance analysis showed that the regression model reached a significant level, and the validation results were in agreement with the predicted results, which proved the feasibility of the model. The model can be applied to treat the CBS waste gas of polymer processes through electrochemical oxidation.

Precursor-oriented design of nano-alumina for efficient removal of antibiotics

Rapid and efficient removal of environmental antibiotics is vital to curb bacterial resistance. Through rational precursors-oriented design, we attain the best Al2O3 absorbent by 500 °C calcination of ammonium aluminium carbonate hydroxide (AACH) precursor from NH4HCO3 route (AACH-NH4HCO3-500) for fast and efficient removal of tetracycline (TC) and other antibiotics from environmental waters including high-salinity wastewater. AACH-NH4HCO3-500 (0.25 g·L-1) can remove (69.92 ± 1.78)% of aqueous TC (0.025 g·L-1) within 5 min and (97.62 ± 2.75)% within 2 h, and the adsorption capacity is 444.4 mg·g-1, which is the highest qmax of TC for the 2 h-adsorptions among numerous adsorbents. AACH-NH4HCO3-500 has fine tolerance to the coexisting substances, and can be easily regenerated and reused, and has no harm even discarded. The relations among the synthetic methods, the structural features, and the adsorption functions of Al2O3 are disclosed through a systematic comparison of the commercial Al2O3 and different Al2O3 nanomaterials attained from three precursors produced by five different routes. The reasons behind the exceptional adsorption performance are discussed throughout. Our findings would facilitate the development of excellent adsorbents for removal of other pollutants.

Systematic analysis of the scientific-technological production on the use of the UV, H2O2, and/or Cl2 systems in the elimination of bacteria and associated antibiotic resistance genes

This study presents a systematic review of the scientific and technological production related to the use of systems based on UV, H2O2, and Cl2 for the elimination of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) and genes associated with antibiotic resistance (ARGs). Using the Pro Know-C (Knowledge Development Process-Constructivist) methodology, a portfolio was created and analyzed that includes 19 articles and 18 patents published between 2011 and 2022. The results show a greater scientific-technological production in UV irradiation systems (8 articles and 5 patents) and the binary combination UV/H2O2 (9 articles and 4 patents). It was emphasized that UV irradiation alone focuses mainly on the removal of ARB, while the addition of H2O2 or Cl2, either individually or in binary combinations with UV, enhances the removal of ARB and ARG. The need for further research on the UV/H2O2/Cl2 system is emphasized, as gaps in the scientific-technological production of this system (0 articles and 2 patents), especially in its electrochemically assisted implementation, have been identified. Despite the gaps identified, there are promising prospects for the use of combined electrochemically assisted UV/H2O2/Cl2 disinfection systems. This is demonstrated by the effective removal of a wide range of contaminants, including ARB, fungi, and viruses, as well as microorganisms resistant to conventional disinfectants, while reducing the formation of toxic by-products.

Fabrication and performance of novel multifunctional sodium alginate/polyvinylpyrrolidone hydrogels

In this work, a novel alginate/polyvinylpyrrolidone (SA/PVP-Fe) hydrogel spheres were prepared by cross-linking with Fe2+ ions after blending sodium alginate with polyvinylpyrrolidone. The degradation performance of the hydrogels was assessed through the degradation of phenol, achieving 100% degradation and about 64% total organic carbon (TOC) mineralization within 60 min (initial concentration of phenol = 20 mg/L; H2O2 concentration = 5 mM; initial pH = 6.5; catalyst dosage = 1.0 g/L). Degradation kinetics were monitored using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The structural and chemical properties of the hydrogels were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy spectroscopy (EDS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Additionally, the hydrogels exhibited multiple reuse cycles, albeit with a gradual decline in degradation performance. Mechanistic investigations revealed that the hydroxyl radical derived from the Fenton reaction was the primary active species responsible for the degradation process. This research provides valuable insights into improving the mechanical properties of sodium alginate hydrogels, opening up avenues for their practical applications.

Calcined Bean Dregs-Hydrocalumite Composites as Efficient Adsorbents for the Removal of Ofloxacin

Calcined bean dregs-hydrocalumite composites were prepared through in situ self-assembly of hydrocalumite on the surface of bean dregs and used for the adsorption of ofloxacin from water. The adsorbents were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, and N2 physical adsorption. The results showed that the adsorption performance of calcined bean dregs-hydrocalumite composites for ofloxacin was much better than that of a single bean dreg carbon or calcined hydrocalumite. The effects of preparation and adsorption conditions on the adsorption property of calcined bean dregs-hydrocalumite for ofloxacin were also investigated. The adsorption ratio of ofloxacin reached up to 99.93% using 4 g·L-1 adsorbent dosage with 20 mg·L-1 initial concentration of ofloxacin at 30 °C in 2 h. The adsorption process mainly occurred in the first 5 min. In addition, the adsorption of ofloxacin by calcined bean dregs-hydrocalumite was more in line with pseudo-second-order dynamics and the Langmuir isotherm model.

Photoelectrochemical advanced oxidation processes for simultaneous removal of antibiotics and heavy metal ions in wastewater using 2D-on-2D WS2@CoFe2O4 heteronanostructures

The presence of antibiotics in water poses significant threats to both human health and the environment. Addressing this issue requires the effective treatment of medical wastewater. Photoelectrochemical advanced oxidation processes (PEAOPs) are emerging as promising solutions for wastewater treatment. This process utilizes photocatalysts to convert charge carriers into reactive species such as hydroxyl radicals and superoxide ions, which are essential for degrading pollutants in wastewater. However, limitations in charge carrier separation and transport have hindered the efficiency of photoelectrochemical advanced oxidation processes. To overcome these limitations, we designed WS2@CoFe2O4 heterojunctions, optimizing their energy levels to enhance charge transport and separation. This improvement significantly increased the oxidation of antibiotics such as amoxicillin and azithromycin. Multiple reactions occurred at the WS2@CoFe2O4 heterojunctions during photoelectrochemical advanced oxidation processes, leading to the impressive degradation of up to 99% of antibiotics under visible light irradiation at 0.8 V. Urea and H2O2 acted as oxidation agents within photoelectrochemical advanced oxidation processes, amplifying the generation of hydroxyl radicals and superoxide ions, further enhancing antibiotic oxidation. Moreover, the WS2@CoFe2O4 photoanode efficiently oxidized toxic antibiotics while converting As(III) into the less harmful As(V). Crucially, recyclability tests confirmed the robustness of the WS2@CoFe2O4 photoanode, ensuring its suitability for prolonged use in photoelectrochemical advanced oxidation processes. Integrating WS2@CoFe2O4 photoanodes into water purification systems can enhance efficiency, reduce energy consumption, and improve economic viability. This technology's scalability and its ability to protect ecosystems while conserving water resources make it a promising solution for addressing the critical issue of antibiotic pollution in water environments.

Activation of Peracetic Acid by CoFe2O4 for Efficient Degradation of Ofloxacin: Reactive Species and Mechanism

Peroxyacetic acid (PAA)-based advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have attracted much attention in wastewater treatment by reason of high selectivity, long half-life reactive oxygen species (ROS), and wider applicability. In this study, cobalt ferrite (CoFe2O4) was applied to activate PAA for the removal of ofloxacin (OFX). The degradation of OFX could reach 83.0% via the CoFe2O4/PAA system under neutral conditions. The low concentration of co-existing anions and organic matter displayed negligible influence on OFX removal. The contributions of hydroxyl radicals (·OH), organic radicals (R-O·), and other reactive species to OFX degradation in CoFe2O4/PAA were systematically evaluated. Organic radicals (especially CH3C(O)OO·) and singlet oxygen (1O2) were verified to be the main reactive species leading to OFX destruction. The Co(II)/Co(III) redox cycle occurring on the surface of CoFe2O4 played a significant role in PAA activation. The catalytic performance of CoFe2O4 remained above 80% after five cycles. Furthermore, the ecotoxicity of OFX was reduced after treatment with the CoFe2O4/PAA system. This study will facilitate further research and development of the CoFe2O4/PAA system as a new strategy for wastewater treatment.

Insights into electrochemical oxidation of tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP) in aquatic media: Degradation performance, mechanisms and toxicity changes of intermediate products

Tris (2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP) has gained significant attention due to its widespread presence and potential toxicity in the environment. In this study, the degradation of TBOEP in aquatic media was investigated using electrochemical oxidation technology. The anode Ti/SnO2-Sb/La-PbO2 demonstrated effective degradation performance, with a reaction constant (k) of 0.6927 min-1 and energy consumption of 1.24 kW h/m3 at 10 mA/cm2. CV tests, EPR tests, and quenching experiments confirmed that indirect degradation is the main degradation mechanism and ·OH radicals were the predominant reactive species, accounting for up to 93.8%. The presence of various factors, including Cl-, NO3-, HCO3- and humic acid (HA), inhibited the degradation of TBOEP, with the inhibitory effect dependent on the concentrations. A total of 13 intermediates were identified using UPLC-Orbitrap-MS/MS, and subsequent reactions led to their further degradation. Two main degradation pathways involving bond breaking, hydroxylation, and oxidation were proposed. Both Flow cytometry and the ECOSAR predictive model indicated that the intermediates exhibited lower toxic than the parent compound, resulting in a high detoxification rate of 95.9% for TBOEP. Although the impact of TBOEP on the phylum-level microbial community composition was found to be insignificant, substantial alterations in bacterial abundance were noted when examining the genus level. The dominant genus Methylotenera, representing 17.4% in the control group, decreased to 6.9% in the presence of TBOEP and slightly increased to 8.7% in the 4-min exposure group of degradation products. Electrochemical oxidation demonstrated its effectiveness for the degradation and detoxification of TBOEP in aqueous solutions, while it is essential to consider the potential impact of degradation products on sediment microbial communities.

Removal of organic pollutants through hydroxyl radical-based advanced oxidation processes

The use of Advance Oxidation Process (AOPs) has been extensively examined in order to eradicate organic pollutants. This review assesses the efficacy of photolysis, O3 based (O3/UV, O3/H2O2, O3/H2O2/UV, H2O2/UV, Fenton, Fenton-like, hetero-system) and sonochemical and electro-oxidative AOPs in this regard. The main purpose of this review and some suggestions for the advancement of AOPs is to facilitate the elimination of toxic organic pollutants. Initially proposed for the purification of drinking water in 1980, AOPs have since been employed for various wastewater treatments. AOPs technologies are essentially a process intensification through the use of hybrid methods for wastewater treatment, which generate large amounts of hydroxyl (•OH) and sulfate (SO4·-) radicals, the ultimate oxidants for the remediation of organic pollutants. This review covers the use of AOPs and ozone or UV treatment in combination to create a powerful method of wastewater treatment. This novel approach has been demonstrated to be highly effective, with the acceleration of the oxidation process through Fenton reaction and photocatalytic oxidation technologies. It is clear that Advance Oxidation Process are a helpful for the degradation of organic toxic compounds. Additionally, other processes such as •OH and SO4·- radical-based oxidation may also arise during AOPs treatment and contribute to the reduction of target organic pollutants. This review summarizes the current development of AOPs treatment of wastewater organic pollutants.

Volatile fatty acids recovery and antibiotic degradation from erythromycin fermentation residues by combined thermal pretreatment and anaerobic fermentation: Insights into microbial communities and metabolic pathways

High resistance of erythromycin has been the key factor restricting the disposal of erythromycin fermentation residues (EFR). Considering the high sensitivity of erythromycin to acidic conditions, anaerobic fermentation may be a good approach for EFR treatment, through which pH decreases along with the volatile fatty acids (VFA) accumulation. This study firstly explored the EFR treatment by combined thermal pretreatment and anaerobic fermentation. Results showed that thermal pretreatment and anaerobic fermentation exhibited a synergistic effect on erythromycin removal. Erythromycin concentration decreased to 20.0 mg/L with the maximum removal rate of 60.0%, which was 140% and 71.4% higher than erythromycin removal by sole thermal pretreatment and anaerobic fermentation. Thermal pretreatment induced the increased VFA production by 22.3% with the highest VFA concentration of 5325.4 mg/L. Microbial analysis shows that thermal pretreatment stimulated erythromycin degradation and VFA production by increasing the microbial diversity and enriching the functional enzymes involved in acetate-producing pathways.

A pilot scale of electrochemical integrated treatment technology and equipment driven by solar energy for decentralized domestic sewage treatment

Based on the natural air diffusion electrode (NADE) cathode, a solar-driven electrochemical integrated sewage treatment technology and equipment in a pilot scale was developed to treat dispersed rural wastewater. The non-aeration NADE had efficient and stable H2O2 production performance, maintaining the H2O2 output between 1474 and 1535 mg h-1 within 50 h with the current efficiency of 77.4%-80.6%. This electrochemical integrated wastewater treatment system was coupled with technologies such as dual-cathode electro-Fenton, peroxi-coagulation and photoelectro-Fenton, which effectively improved the conversion and utilization efficiency of H2O2. It integrated Fenton-like oxidation, electro-oxidation and UV/H2O2, as well as Fe(OH)3-dominated flocculation, which could effectively remove various pollutants in wastewater. The integrated sewage treatment equipment (500 L d-1) realized the effective treatment of a rural decentralized domestic sewage, achieving simultaneous removal of chemical oxygen demand (COD), NH3-N, total phosphorus (TP) and bacteria. Driven by solar energy, its application feasibility, superiority and stability have been proved, providing theoretical and technical support for the efficient and low-consumption treatment of dispersed organic wastewater.

Recycling waste iron-rich algal flocs as cost-effective biochar activator for heterogeneous Fenton-like reaction towards tetracycline degradation: Important role of iron species and moderately defective structures

Harvesting aquatic harmful algal blooms (HABs) and reusing them is a promising way for antibiotic degradation. Herein, a novel iron-rich biochar (Fe-ABC), derived from algal biomass harvested by magnetic coagulation, was successfully designed and fabricated as activator for heterogeneous Fenton-like reaction. The modification methods and pyrolysis temperatures (400-800 °C) were optimized to enhance the formation of rich iron species and moderately defective structure, yielding Fe-ABC-600 with enhanced electron transfer and H2O2 activation capability. Thus, Fe-ABC-600 exhibited superior removal efficiency (95.33%) on tetracycline (TC), where the presence of multiple iron species (Fe3+, Fe2+ and Fe4+) and moderately defective structure accelerating the Fenton-like oxidation. The concentration of leaching Fe after each reaction was all below 0.74 mg/L in five cycles, ensuring the sustained degradation. And •OH was proved to be the major radical contributing to the degradation of TC, as well as the direct electron transfer mechanism together, in which the CO acted as electron regulator and electron donor. Fe-ABC as a cost-effective catalyst has notable application potentials in TC removal from wastewater owing to its remarkable advantages of high resource utilization, enhanced catalytic property, high ecological safe, notable TC degradation efficiency, low cost and environmental-friendliness.

Degradation of Sulfonamides by UV/Electrochemical Oxidation and the Effects of Treated Effluents on the Bacterial Community in Surface Water

This study evaluated the effects of ultraviolet (UV) photolysis combined with electrochemical oxidation on sulfonamides (SAs) as well as its treated effluent on the bacterial community in surface water. In terms of degradation rate, the best anode material for electrochemical oxidation was Ti/RuO2-IrO2, which had the highest degradation kinetic constant compared to Ti/Ta2O5-IrO2 and Ti/Pt. Experiments showed the highest degradation rate of SAs at 8.3 pH. Similarly, increasing the current leads to stronger degradation due to the promotion of free chlorine production, and its energy consumption rate decreases slightly from 73 to 67 W h/mmol. Compared with tap water, the kinetic constants decreased by 20-62% for SAs in three different surface water samples, which was related to the decrease in free chlorine. When extending the reaction time to 24 h, the concentrations of chemical oxygen demand and total organic carbon decreased by approximately 30-40%, indicating that the SAs and their products could be mineralized. The diversity analysis showed that the effluents influenced the richness and diversity of the bacterial community, particularly in the 4 h sample. Additionally, there were 86 operational taxonomic units common to all samples, excluding the 4 h sample; significant differences were derived from changes in the Actinobacteriota and Bacteroidota phyla. The toxicity of the products might explain these changes, and these products could be mineralized, as observed in the 24 h sample. Therefore, the extension of treatment time would greatly reduce the ecological harm of treated effluent and ensure that the UV/electrochemical process is a feasible treatment option. Overall, this study provides valuable insight into the optimization and feasibility of UV/electrochemical processes as a sustainable treatment option for sulfonamide-contaminated water sources, emphasizing the importance of considering ecological impacts and the need for extended treatment times that address environmental concerns and ensuring improved water quality.

Sequential electron beam and bioflocculation for treatment of textile nanodyes

Nanodyes are a new class of hazardous materials that are used in textile coloring. Their small size, color, stability and high dispersion characteristics pose a huge threat if they are released in open water systems. The aim of the present study is to test electron beam irradiation, bioflocculation and their sequential use for nanodye removal. The nanodye was obtained from a factory and was characterized using UV-visible spectroscopy, Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, zeta potential and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX). The obtained results show that applying 7.5 kGy electron beam irradiation results in complete color removal in 10 min for 50 and 100 ppm nanodye, while at 200 and 400 ppm concentrations, the decolorization reaches 90% but leaving a residual brownish color. Adding 5 mg mL^-1 of Serratia marcescens N2 biosurfactant resulted in agglomeration of 80% dye removal for 400 ppm nanodye after 24 h. On the other hand, the use of sequential electron beam and bioflocculation led to an initial removal of 80% in 1 h. The residual dyes were tested for toxicity on normal dermal HFB4 cells. The toxicity result was 1.19% after electron beam treatment, while those for sequential treatment and bioflocculation were 6.28 and 6.9%, respectively. It can be concluded that electron beam technology provides fast and highly efficient nanodye removal, while biosurfactants offer a low-cost, eco-friendly approach with a chance for dye retrieval.

Detection and removal technologies for ammonium and antibiotics in agricultural wastewater: Recent advances and prospective

With the extensive development of industrial livestock and poultry production, a considerable part of agricultural wastewater containing tremendous ammonium and antibiotics have been indiscriminately released into the aquatic systems, causing serious harms to ecosystem and human health. In this review, ammonium detection technologies, including spectroscopy and fluorescence methods, and sensors were systematically summarized. Antibiotics analysis methodologies were critically reviewed, including chromatographic methods coupled with mass spectrometry, electrochemical sensors, fluorescence sensors, and biosensors. Current progress in remediation methods for ammonium removal were discussed and analyzed, including chemical precipitation, breakpoint chlorination, air stripping, reverse osmosis, adsorption, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), and biological methods. Antibiotics removal approaches were comprehensively reviewed, including physical, AOPs, and biological processes. Furthermore, the simultaneous removal strategies for ammonium and antibiotics were reviewed and discussed, including physical adsorption processes, AOPs, biological processes. Finally, research gaps and the future perspectives were discussed. Through conducting comprehensive review, future research priorities include: (1) to improve the stabilities and adaptabilities of detection and analysis techniques for ammonium and antibiotics, (2) to develop innovative, efficient, and low cost approaches for simultaneous removal of ammonium and antibiotics, and (3) to explore the underlying mechanisms that governs the simultaneous removal of ammonium and antibiotics. This review could facilitate the evolution of innovative and efficient technologies for ammonium and antibiotics treatment in agricultural wastewater.

Application of Deep Eutectic Solvents (DES) for the Synthesis of Iron Heterogeneous Catalyst: Application to Sulfamethoxazole Degradation by Advanced Oxidation Processes

The development of novel approaches to the remotion of pharmaceuticals in wastewater is a subject of concern due to their effect on living beings and the environment. Advanced oxidation processes and the use of relevant catalysts are feasible treatment alternatives that require further development. The development of suitable heterogeneous catalysts is a necessity. This work proposes the synthesis of an iron catalyst in a deep eutectic solvent (Fe-DES) composed of choline chloride and citric acid, which was physically and chemically characterized using SEM-EDS and TEM, FTIR, RAMAN, XRD and XPS. The characterisation confirmed the presence of iron in the form of hematite. Fe-DES was shown to be a multipurpose catalyst that can be applied in the removal of sulfamethoxazole as a reagent in the Fenton and electro-Fenton processes and as an activator of peroxymonosulfate (PMS) processes. After testing the catalyst with the aforementioned techniques, the best result was achieved by combining these processes in an electro-PMS, with great efficiency achieved by dual activation of the PMS with the catalyst and electric field, attaining total elimination at natural pH in 90 min. Furthermore, the degradation was confirmed by the detection of short-chain carboxylic acids (oxalic, succinic, and acetic) and reduction in toxicity values. These results confirm the suitability of Fe-DES to degrade high-priority pharmaceutical compounds.

Tetracycline removal from aqueous solution by electrooxidation using ruthenium-coated graphite anode

This paper reports the electrochemical oxidation treatment of 80 mL of acidic aqueous solutions with 0.2 mM of the drug tetracycline in 25 mM Na₂SO₄ using a lab-scale electrochemical cell. The performance of tetracycline removal with Ru-coated graphite by the chemical bath deposition (CBD) and raw graphite anode has been demonstrated. The effects of operating parameters were tested such as pH, applied current, supporting electrolyte concentration, and initial tetracycline concentration. The best tetracycline degradation was obtained with Ru-coated graphite anode due to its higher oxidation power, which allowed the complete degradation of refractory compounds. The modified surface structure of the Ru-coated graphite anode was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX). The EO process with Ru-coated graphite anode allowed 93.8% tetracycline abatement after 100 min of electrolysis at an applied current of 100 mA. In all cases, tetracycline decay obeyed pseudo-first-order kinetics. The tetracycline removal performance of graphite electrodes with nano coating on graphite has offered a performing alternative. A Comparative study revealed that electrolysis with Ru-coated graphite acted as a better electrode material than raw graphite for the catalytic reaction.