Maternal and paternal imprisonment in the stress process

Partner incarceration, maternal substance use, and the mediating role of social support: A longitudinal analysis using the future of families and child wellbeing study

INTRODUCTION

The United States is responsible for the highest incarceration rate globally. This study aimed to explore the impact of partner incarceration on maternal substance use and whether social support mediates the relationship between partner incarceration and maternal substance use.

METHODS

Using data from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a longitudinal cohort following new parents and children, this analysis quantifies the relationship between paternal incarceration and maternal substance use (N = 2823). We analyzed maternal responses in years 3 (2001-2003), 5 (2003-2006), 9 (2007-2010), and 15 (2014-2017). We explored the role of financial support and emergency social support as potential mediators. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was employed to construct support-related mediators. We modeled the impact of partner incarceration and maternal substance use using generalized estimating equations (GEE) to account for repeated measures, adjusting for appropriate confounders (age of mother at child's birth, race, education, employment, and history of intimate partner violence).

RESULTS

Nearly half (44.2%, N = 1247) of participants reported partner incarceration. Among mothers who experienced partner incarceration, the odds of reporting substance use were 110% greater than those who reported no partner incarceration (adjusted Odds Ratio [aOR]: 2.10; 95% Confidence Interval (CI):1.67-2.63). Financial support at year 5 accounted for 19.5% (95% CI: 6.03-33.06%) of the association between partner incarceration at year 3 and substance use at year 9; emergency social support at year 5 accounted for 6.4% (95% CI: 0.51-12.25%) of the association between partner incarceration and substance use at year 9. Neither financial nor emergency social support at year 9 were significant mediators between partner incarceration at year 3 and substance use at year 15.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate that partner incarceration impacts maternal substance use. Financial and emergency support may partially mediate this relationship in the short term, which has important implications for families disrupted by mass incarceration.

How Parental Incarceration Shapes the Timing and Structure of Fertility for Children of Incarcerated Parents

The timing and structure of fertility have important implications for individuals and society. Families play a critical role in fertility; however, little is known about how parental incarceration shapes fertility despite it being a common experience in the life course of disadvantaged children. This study examines the consequences of parental incarceration for children's fertility using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997. I employ multiple-decrement life tables and survival analyses to estimate the relationship between parental incarceration and fertility. Individuals who experience parental incarceration have different timing of fertility, with earlier first births and a quicker pace of subsequent births, as well as more nonmarital fertility, compared with those who do not experience parental incarceration. This analysis finds consistent evidence that parental incarceration is associated with the timing and structure of fertility and suggests that a parent's incarceration carries consequences over the life course of children. This study advances our understanding of how mass incarceration shapes American families, illustrates how the broader consequences of mass incarceration contribute to social inequality, and provides evidence that the enduring implications of incarceration span multiple generations.

Parental incarceration in childhood and violent delinquent behaviors in adulthood: Race/ethnicity and sex differences

Studies indicate parental incarceration (PI) is associated with children's externalizing behaviors. Fewer studies have examined whether the relationship persists into adulthood, manifesting specifically in violent behavior, and differs by race/ethnicity or sex of the individual exposed to PI during childhood. Wave I and Wave IV National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health data where average respondent age was 15.7 and 28.8 years, respectively, was used to expand understanding of PI impact on U.S. male and female violent behavior. PI was associated with fighting, fighting that seriously injured someone, and any violent delinquent behavior in adulthood. When examining the moderating effect of race/ethnicity, the association between PI and fighting was stronger for Hispanic persons than Non-Hispanic White persons. In analysis stratified by race/ethnicity, Hispanic persons who reported PI compared to those who did not were 4.78 [95% CI: 2.43, 9.38] times as likely to report fighting and Non-Hispanic Black persons who reported PI compared to those who did not were 1.88 times as likely (CI 1.01, 3.51) to report fighting. Sex was not found to be a moderator of the association between PI and violent delinquent behaviors. Results indicate the influence of PI on violent behavior persists into adulthood and differs by race/ethnicity. Differing patterns of elevated violence risk in adults with PI history suggest tailored preventive strategies may be of value.

Can you See What We See? African American Parents' Views of the Strengths and Challenges of Children and Youth Living with Adversity

A premise of positive youth development is that social competencies can develop in adversity and co-exist with problem behaviors. This research tested whether African American youth ages 9-17 who had experienced significant family stressors would form groups that displayed combinations of adversity, problem behavior, and strengths. Parents of a nationally representative sample of African Americans children were interviewed on child difficulties and strengths as part of the CDC's 2019 National Health Interview Survey. About 15% of the national sample of African American youth had experienced violence or parental incarceration, depression, or drug abuse. Latent class analysis (LCA) using indicators of adversity and strengths identified four distinct classes. Class 1 included youth who experienced multiple adversities, exhibited few strengths, and were high in behavior problems. Members of both classes 2 and 3 were more likely to experience parental incarceration but exhibited altruism. Class 3 also experienced parental mental health problems. Members of class 4 had the highest exposure to violence but were comparatively high in altruism and affability. Regression analysis revealed that the groups differed from one another on emotional health but not on physical health controlling for age and gender. These findings support a focus by mental health prevention programs on building on the strengths of children growing up in adversity.

Parental imprisonment, delinquent behavior, and BMI gain in a U.S. nationally representative cohort study of adolescents and adults ages 12-32

Children who experience parental imprisonment report greater mental and physical health adversities in adolescence and adulthood relative to comparable individuals whose parents did not serve time in prison. Research has linked BMI gain with parental imprisonment among females, but other studies have shown null or negative associations between parental imprisonment and weight increases for their offspring. Using longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, this study attempts to resolve these differential findings by examining the interrelationship between delinquent behavior and BMI associated with parental imprisonment as individuals progress from adolescence into adulthood (ages 12-32). We show that higher delinquency levels are associated with lower BMI among men and women. With the transition from adolescence to adulthood, parental imprisonment is linked with increased BMI gain and obesity among females who are not delinquent. These findings highlight the need to consider how the decline in delinquent behavior and increasing health disparities between adolescence and adulthood may intersect as individuals experiencing parental imprisonment transition from adolescence to adulthood.

Parental imprisonment as a risk factor for cardiovascular and metabolic disease in adolescent and adult offspring: A prospective Australian birth cohort study

Objectives

Parental imprisonment is linked with child health in later life. The present study provides the first prospective cohort analysis and non-U.S. based study examining parental imprisonment and cardiometabolic risk factors in adolescence and adulthood.

Methods

The study followed 7,223 children born from live, singleton births from 1981 to 1984 in Brisbane, Australia. Data on parental imprisonment was collected at mother interview when the children were ages 5 and 14. Our sample analyzes offspring with biometric data collected by health professionals, including 3,794 at age 14, 2,136 at age 21, and 1,712 at age 30. Analyses used multivariate linear and logistic regression, and time-varying growth curve models.

Results

Among female respondents, parental imprisonment at ages ≤5 was associated with higher body-mass index (BMI) at ages 14, 21, and 30; higher systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) at age 30; and increased sedentary hours, larger waist circumference, and odds of a high-risk waist circumference at age 30. Parental imprisonment when the child was aged ≤14 was associated with increased BMI and SBP at age 30 for females. In growth-curve models, parental imprisonment when the child was aged ≤5 and ≤ 14 among females was linked with increased BMI; parental imprisonment when the child was aged ≤5 was associated with increased SBP and DBP. No significant associations were observed for males.

Conclusions

Using prospective cohort data, our results support research showing that parental imprisonment, particularly in early childhood, is associated with increased BMI, blood pressure, sedentary hours, and waist circumference in females in early adulthood. These findings implicate parental imprisonment as a risk factor for cardiometabolic health issues in later life among females.

A Population-Level Examination of Incarcerated Women and Mothers Before and After the California Public Safety Realignment Act

Background

In 2011, California enacted its public safety realignment initiative (realignment) motivated by a U.S. Supreme Court ruling to reduce state prison overcrowding and in effort to reduce recidivism. Realignment transferred authority for lower-level felony offenders from the state to the counties, leading to a rapid reduction in state prison incarceration levels.

Objective

This study drew on a unique dataset to assess the effects of California’s efforts to downsize the prison system on maternal incarceration levels and to better understand the characteristics of incarcerated mothers and their children.

Methods

Incarceration records concerning all women in California state prisons between 2010 and 2012 (N = 16,917) were linked to 7.5 million vital birth records dating to 1999 to identify incarcerated women who had given birth. Multinomial logistic regression models were specified to better understand offense type differences among incarcerated mothers versus nonmothers.

Results

Findings indicate that realignment disproportionately affected women. The number of men entering prison decreased 67.8% between 2010 and 2012. In comparison, the number of women entering prison decreased 78.5%. Further, more than half of incarcerated women had given birth. Mothers were more likely than nonmothers to be convicted of nonviolent crimes.

Discussion

This study underscores how prison downsizing can disproportionately reduce incarceration levels for women. Given that such large proportion of incarcerated women were mothers, this policy change may have potential spillover next-generation benefits. Finally, this work reinforces the potential to use linked administrative records to study incarcerated populations.

Service Needs for Corrections-Involved Parents With a History of Problematic Opioid Use: A Community Needs Assessment

The incarceration of a parent is often a continuation of a challenging family situation marked by poverty, unstable housing, trauma, and abuse. These challenges make it difficult for incarcerated parents reentering their communities to raise their children effectively and, thus, increase the likelihood of poor outcomes for their children. Children whose parents are also battling opioid misuse have an even higher risk for long-term problems. This study uses survey data from 48 community service providers to better understand the service needs of parents with histories of problematic opioid use who are reentering their communities after incarceration. Community service providers recommended implementing intervention programs that cover critical information related to basic needs, supportive community resources, drug treatment programs, and parenting to help individuals thrive in their communities and meet their children's needs. The services most frequently identified by providers as important for reentering parents included housing, mentors or peer counselors, mental health support, group therapy and other support programs. Key topics to address in parenting programs included problem-solving techniques, the effect of parent's addiction on children, and strategies for connecting with and meeting children's needs. Suggestions are made for future research and intervention development.

Mass Incarceration and Children's Health: A State-Level Analysis of Adverse Birth Outcomes and Infant, Child, and Teen Mortality

Children's health indicators such as mortality and adverse birth outcomes are poorer in the United States than in comparable nations. These measures also show racial inequities within the United States, with Black children experiencing the highest levels. Mass incarceration may partially explain these findings. High incarceration rates can disrupt community functioning, influencing behavior and health. The purpose of the current study was to conduct a macro (state)-level analysis examining whether yearly state incarceration rates predict health outcomes including infant, child, and teen mortality as well as preterm birth and low birth weight. It was hypothesized that prior year incarceration rates would show positive relationships with all outcomes and that relationships would be stronger for Black than for white children. Yearly state-level panel data were gathered from 1990 to 2017. Weighted least squares regression used states' prior year incarceration rates to predict child health outcomes, using controls for overall state effects and year-to-year effects. Time-varying covariates such as state unemployment rate were also included to address the possibility of spurious relationships. Results indicated that as hypothesized, incarceration rates positively predicted infant mortality, child mortality (for Black children only), preterm births, and low-weight births. Relationships tended to be stronger for Black than for white children.

Assessing the relationship between parental imprisonment in childhood and risk of sexually transmitted infections: a cohort study of US adults in early adulthood

OBJECTIVES

One in six young adults in the USA experiences parental imprisonment in childhood. Prior studies have associated parental imprisonment with risk of sexually transmitted infection (STI); however, potential data and methodological issues may have limited the reliability and accuracy of prior findings. Examining cumulative and longitudinal risk, we address several methodological limitations of prior studies and also examine comparative risk by respondent sex and ethnicity. We assess these associations using a range of control variables.

DESIGN

A national cohort study from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health using (1) a cross-sectional sample of adults at ages 24-32 years and (2) a longitudinal sample between ages 18 and 32 years. Both analyses estimate ORs for STI associated with parental imprisonment and examine variation by parent/child gender and respondent ethnicity.

SETTING

In-home interviews in the USA at wave 1 (1994-1995), wave 3 (2001-2003) and wave 4 (2007-2009).

PARTICIPANTS

15 684 respondents completing interviews at wave 1 (ages 12-18 years) and wave 4 (ages 26-32 years), including 8556 women, 3437 black and 2397 respondents reporting parental imprisonment.

RESULTS

Father-only imprisonment is associated with 1.22 higher odds (95% CI: 1.09 to 1.37) of lifetime STI and 1.19 higher odds (95% CI: 1.01 to 1.41) of STI in the past 12 months between ages 18 and 32 years, adjusting for familial, neighbourhood, individual and sexual risk factors. Maternal imprisonment is not associated with higher risk of lifetime STI after adjusting for confounders (95% CI: 0.90 to 1.61). Examining predicted probabilities of STI, our findings show additive risks for women, black people and parental imprisonment.

CONCLUSION

Adjusting for confounders, only paternal imprisonment is associated with slightly elevated risk of annual and lifetime risk of STI. Additive effects show that parental imprisonment modestly increases ethnic and female risk for STI.

Parental Incarceration, Child Adversity, and Child Health: A Strategic Comparison Approach

Background: Research points to parental incarceration as an important social determinant of child health. Even so, studies examining the health impact of parental incarceration in the context of diverse childhood stressors and adversities are lacking. Methods: The present study uses a large, nationally representative sample to compare U.S. children who were exposed to parental incarceration to a strategic comparison group of U.S. children who were not exposed to parental incarceration, but were nonetheless exposed to alternative family stressors and adversities. Results: The initial findings generally reveal worse health among children exposed to parental incarceration compared to those who are not exposed. Even so, these differences were partially or completely attenuated when comparing the incarceration-exposed group to more comparable groups of children exposed to a varying degree of alternative stressors/adversities. Conclusions: Programmatic efforts targeting parental incarceration as a means of promoting child health may be enhanced by adequately addressing co-occurring family stressors and child adversities.

The role of stress and absence: How household member incarceration is associated with risky sexual health behaviors

Sexual health is a critical indicator of wellbeing with consequences for population health. However, little is known about whether and how household member incarceration affects the sexual health behaviors of young adults. This study seeks to assess the association between household member incarceration and sexual health behaviors and provides an initial test of mechanisms. Drawing upon data from the NLSY97, this study estimates the association between household member incarceration and sexual health behaviors using linear probability models, and then re-estimates these associations using two alternative comparison groups; 1) youth who experienced other forms of stress, and 2) youth who experienced other forms of family absence. Results indicate that household incarceration is positively associated with a higher risk of reporting sexual intercourse with an intravenous drug user net of individual and family characteristics and is negatively associated with condom use net of individual but not family characteristics. The results also show that the associations between household member incarceration and sexual health behaviors may be attributable, at least in part, to the well documented stress associated with incarceration. Yet, the results provide little evidence that absence is a pathway linking household member incarceration to risky sexual health behaviors. It is possible that household member incarceration is linked to deleterious outcomes for youth through different mechanisms than parental incarceration given the differing roles of parents versus other adults in the home. Future research should explore the pathways linking household member incarceration to health risks for youth and consider household member incarceration as a unique family stressor.

Parental incarceration during childhood and later delinquent outcomes among Puerto Rican adolescents and young adults in two contexts

OBJECTIVE

Childhood parental incarceration has been linked to increased rates of delinquency and arrest during adolescence and young adulthood; however, previous research has focused on White and/or Black samples rather than Latinx youth. We examined relationships between childhood parental incarceration and later delinquency and arrest among Puerto Rican youth living in Puerto Rico (majority context) and the mainland United States (minority context).

HYPOTHESES

We expected that childhood parental incarceration would be significantly linked to delinquent behavior and arrest. In line with acculturation theory, we hypothesized that residence (proxy for minority status) would be significantly related to delinquent outcomes and that an interaction effect would emerge between parental incarceration and residence.

METHOD

Longitudinal data from the Boricua Youth Study were examined for 1,294 Puerto Rican youth from the South Bronx, NY (minority context) and greater San Juan, PR (majority context). We conducted a series of negative binomial and logistic regressions to determine the effects of parental incarceration and residence in childhood on self-reported delinquent behavior and arrest in adolescence and young adulthood, while also examining factors previously linked to delinquency in Puerto Rican youth.

RESULTS

Childhood parental incarceration and South Bronx residence were both linked to delinquent behavior but not arrest, even when simultaneously examining several individual, diagnostic, environment/social, and family factors reported in childhood. However, we did not observe an interaction effect between parental incarceration and residence for either outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that Puerto Rican youth with histories of parental incarceration could benefit from targeted programs aimed at preventing future delinquency. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Externalizing Behavior Among Youth With a Current or Formerly Incarcerated Parent

This study examined associations between parental incarceration and youths' externalizing behaviors (e.g., damage to property, fighting, theft, etc.). Data were drawn from the 2016 Minnesota Student Survey, a statewide sample of 126,868 youth in public schools. Logistic regression analyses examined associations between youths' experience of parental incarceration and their self-reported externalizing behaviors, controlling for key demographic characteristics. Youth with a currently or formerly incarcerated parent reported significantly more externalizing behaviors compared with youth who never had a parent incarcerated. In addition, youth with a currently incarcerated parent reported significantly more externalizing behaviors than youth who had a formerly incarcerated parent in six out of the eight externalizing behaviors. However, youth who reported having a formerly incarcerated parent were more likely to report lying or conning and more likely to have difficulty paying attention than youth who currently had an incarcerated parent. Results illustrate that parental incarceration has important implications for youths' own risk for delinquency and high-risk behavior.

Association of Childhood History of Parental Incarceration and Juvenile Justice Involvement With Mental Health in Early Adulthood

IMPORTANCE

Young adults with a childhood history of parental incarceration (PI) or juvenile justice involvement (JJI) are more likely to have worse mental health outcomes than their peers. However, the association between mental health and exposure to both PI and JJI (PI plus JJI) is unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the association of PI plus JJI exposure with mental health outcomes in young adulthood.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

A cross-sectional study of the US National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent to Adult Health was conducted to examine the associations between PI, JJI, and PI plus JJI and mental health outcomes (ie, depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, suicidal ideation, and mental health counseling). In-home interviews were conducted of 13 083 participants; 704 participants with PI after age 18 years were excluded, and 12 379 participants formed the analysis sample. Participants were in grades 7 to 12 in 1994 to 1995 and were ages 24 to 32 years at follow-up in 2008. Data analysis was completed in 2019.

EXPOSURES

Parental incarceration, JJI, or PI plus JJI before age 18 years.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Mental health outcomes in early adulthood (ages 24-32 years). The analysis included multivariable logistic regression models; accounted for individual, family, and geographic-level factors; and generated adjusted odds ratios.

RESULTS

Among 13 083 participants (6962 female; weighted proportion, 49.6%) with a mean age at wave 1 of 15.4 years (95% CI, 15.2-15.7 years), 10 499 (80.2%) did not have a history of PI or JJI, 1247 (9.1%) had childhood PI, 704 (5.2%) had PI after age 18 years, 492 (4.5%) had JJI only, and 141 (1.2%) had PI plus JJI. Sociodemographic characteristics varied by exposure. Exposure to both PI and JJI was associated with a greater risk of depression (adjusted odds ratio, 2.80; 95% CI, 1.60-4.90), anxiety (adjusted odds ratio, 1.89; 95% CI, 1.08-3.31), and posttraumatic stress disorder (adjusted odds ratio, 2.92; 95% CI, 1.09-7.82) compared with peers with neither exposure. Exposure to both PI and JJI did not have an additive association with mental health beyond PI or JJI alone.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

This study suggests that exposure to the criminal justice system during childhood places individuals at risk for poor mental health outcomes in early adulthood. Clinical, advocacy, and policy efforts that prioritize reducing the impact of the US criminal justice system on children may yield substantive improvements in the mental well-being of those individuals as adults.

Health-care needs of older women prisoners: Perspectives of the health-care workers who care for them

The proportion of older incarcerated women is growing, yet little is known regarding their health-care needs. Using focus group methodology, this study sought to elucidate the unique health-care needs of older women prisoners through the perspectives of correctional health-care providers. Three organizing themes emerged regarding the health of older women prisoners: (a) the meaning of being "older" in the prison setting; (b) challenges impacting correctional health-care workers' care delivery; and (c) unmet health-care-related needs. Correctional health-care workers' insights can provide guidance regarding how to optimize the health of the increasing population of older women prisoners.

Paternal Incarceration and Early Sexual Onset among Adolescents

Despite a growing literature documenting deleterious intergenerational consequences of incarceration, relatively little is known about how exposure to paternal incarceration is associated with risk behaviors in adolescence. In this article, we use data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 3,405)-a cohort of urban children born around the turn of the 21st century and followed for 15 years-to examine the relationship between paternal incarceration and one indicator of adolescent risk behavior, early sexual onset. Results from adjusted logistic regression models show that paternal incarceration is associated with a greater likelihood of initiating sexual activity before age 15, in part resulting from externalizing problems that follow paternal incarceration. We also find that these associations are concentrated among boys living with their fathers prior to his incarceration. Given that paternal incarceration is a stressor concentrated among already vulnerable children, paternal incarceration may exacerbate inequalities in adolescent sexual risk behavior.

The Dynamics of Intra-Family Relationships During Incarceration and the Implications for Children of Incarcerated Parents

The current study examines effects of changes in intra-family relationships after parental incarceration on internalizing behaviors of the children of incarcerated parents. Using data from a sample of 249 incarcerated parents with minor children in South Korea, the present study found that perceived degradation of family relationships among inmate parents, their non-incarcerated spouses, and children was a significant risk factor of internalizing behaviors of children of incarcerated parents. The current study also found that inmate parents who had more frequent family contact were more likely to perceive improvements of all forms of intra-family relationships during incarceration. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Paternal Incarceration and Adolescent Social Network Disadvantage

Previous research has suggested that adolescent peers influence behavior and provide social support during a critical developmental period, but few studies have addressed the antecedents of adolescent social networks. Research on the collateral consequences of incarceration has explored the implications of parental incarceration for children's behavioral problems, academic achievement, health, and housing stability, but not their social networks. Using network data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, I find that adolescents with recently incarcerated fathers are in socially marginal positions in their schools and befriend more-marginal peers than other adolescents: their friends are less advantaged, less academically successful, and more delinquent than other adolescents' friends. Differences in network outcomes are robust to a variety of specifications and are consistent across race and gender subgroups. This study advances the social networks literature by exploring how familial characteristics can shape adolescent social networks and contributes to the collateral consequences of incarceration literature by using network analysis to consider how mass incarceration may promote intergenerational social marginalization.

Maternal imprisonment, economic marginality, and unmet health needs in early adulthood

There is relatively little research on access to the health care needed by children whose mothers have been incarcerated, and even fewer studies of how effects of lack of access continue and cumulate as these children transition from living with parents, parent surrogates, or foster care into adulthood. We find in a nationally representative U.S. panel study (n=9418 participants from 1995 to 2007-2008 in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent and Adult Health) that young adult children of incarcerated mothers are less likely to receive the health care they need. These effects hold in models that take into account covariates and receipt of health care in the past, a useful control for unmeasured heterogeneity. In this analysis for 2007-2008, economic marginality mediates maternal incarceration on young adult unmet health care needs. Health insurance mediates a smaller portion of this effect. The findings of this research provide important bench marks for assessing the effects of the 2010 passage and the 2013 implementation of the Affordable Care Act [ACA], as well as prospective efforts to change or repeal the ACA.

Families at the Intersection of the Criminal Justice and Child Protective Services Systems

In this article, we first describe the incidence and prevalence of incarceration and CPS involvement in the United States. Second, we outline the reasons that the same individuals and families may be at risk for involvement in both systems and review the limited existing research examining links between incarceration and CPS involvement. Third, we use unique longitudinal data from Wisconsin, spanning from 2004 to 2012, to describe intergenerational and intragenerational overlap in the two systems. Specifically, we calculate (1) the proportion of all CPS-involved children who have an incarcerated parent; (2) the proportion of incarcerated adults who have a CPS-involved child; (3) the proportion of incarcerated young men and women who were involved in the CPS system as adolescents; and (4) the proportion of CPS-involved adolescents who subsequently became incarcerated. We conclude with a discussion of potential directions for future research as well as implications for practice and policy.

C-Reactive Protein Levels Among U.S. Adults Exposed to Parental Incarceration

Previous studies have linked childhood adversity to low-grade inflammation via C-reactive protein (CRP) levels. This study analyzed the association between low-grade inflammation and prior biological parental incarceration. Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (1994-2008) were analyzed using multinomial logistic regression models. Measures included high-sensitivity (hs)-CRP (<3 mg/L = reference, 3-10 mg/L = low-grade inflammation, and >10 mg/L = acute inflammation), parent incarceration occurring in the child's lifetime, and frequency and timing of incarceration with respect to child's age (0-18 years or >18 years vs. never) of incarceration. Analyses were stratified by child's gender. Final sample sizes were n = 5,396 males and n = 6,447 females for maternal incarceration and n = 4,956 males and n = 5,860 females for paternal incarceration. In models with and without potential mediators, females whose fathers were ever incarcerated were more likely to have hs-CRP levels of 3-10 mg/L than females whose fathers were never incarcerated (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 1.44, 95% confidence interval [CI]: [1.09, 1.91]). Additionally, daughter's age (<18 years; AOR: 1.48, 95% CI: [1.11, 1.97]) and frequency of father's incarceration were significant (AOR: 1.24, 95% CI: [1.04, 1.49]). No mediating effects were observed. Males whose fathers were incarcerated when they were ≥18 years were less likely to have hs-CRP levels of 3-10 mg/L than those whose father was never incarcerated; the association was nonsignificant in the mediated model. Further investigation is needed on the physiological effects of exposure to parental incarceration and interventions to support children.

Self-Reported Health Among Recently Incarcerated Mothers

OBJECTIVES

We examined self-reported health among formerly incarcerated mothers.

METHODS

We used data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (n = 4096), a longitudinal survey of mostly unmarried parents in urban areas, to estimate the association between recent incarceration (measured as any incarceration in the past 4 years) and 5 self-reported health conditions (depression, illicit drug use, heavy drinking, fair or poor health, and health limitations), net of covariates including health before incarceration.

RESULTS

In adjusted logistic regression models, recently incarcerated mothers, compared with their counterparts, have an increased likelihood of depression (odds ratio [OR] = 1.60; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.18, 2.17), heavy drinking (OR = 1.79; 95% CI = 1.19, 2.68), fair or poor health (OR = 1.49; 95% CI = 1.08, 2.06), and health limitations (OR = 1.78; 95% CI = 1.27, 2.50). This association is similar across racial/ethnic subgroups and is larger among mothers who share children with fathers who have not been recently incarcerated.

CONCLUSIONS

Recently incarcerated mothers struggle with even more health conditions than expected given the disadvantages they experience before incarceration. Furthermore, because incarceration is concentrated among those who are most disadvantaged, incarceration may increase inequalities in population health.

Ethnographic assessment of an alternative to incarceration for women with minor children

Allowing criminal justice-involved women to remain with their children in the community may decrease some of the negative intergenerational effects of incarceration. Little is known about potential program models to safely support community coresidence in this population. Ethnographic methods were used to explore the historical development of and life within a supportive housing alternative to incarceration (ATI) program for women with minor children and the health and social needs of resident families. Participants included 8 current and former adult tenants, 12 of their resident children, 3 program staff, the program administrator, and 5 prosecutors who originally conceptualized it. Women also reported information about their 8 nonresident children. Analysis revealed 3 major themes: "The Cycle," "This is My Home," and "This Doesn't Go With That." While the program built on a core value of family preservation, results illustrate that keeping families together is only the beginning. Clinical and research implications for coresidence ATI programs are discussed in relation to the uniqueness of this context and population.

Paternal incarceration and child-reported behavioral functioning at age 9

Within the last few decades our understanding of the importance of non-cognitive skills for socioeconomic success has grown along with our knowledge of the deleterious impacts of paternal incarceration for child wellbeing. Given the importance of early skills and that elementary-aged children constitute the majority of children with incarcerated parents, understanding the connection between paternal incarceration and the socio-emotional component of children's non-cognitive development is pressing. Using matching models, data from the newest wave of the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, and exploring a larger range of behavioral skills than previous literature, this paper provides estimates of the impact of paternal incarceration on children's behavioral functioning at age 9 using children's own self-reports. Comparisons to oft-used parent reports are made and heterogeneity by gender is explored. Findings suggest the incarceration of a father increases the antisocial behaviors children self-report, but has null effects on prosocial skill development.

Detrimental for Some? Heterogeneous Effects of Maternal Incarceration on Child Wellbeing

Research Summary

We use data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 3,197) to consider the heterogeneous effects of maternal incarceration on 9-year-old children. We find that maternal incarceration has no average effects on child well-being (measured by caregiver-reported internalizing problem behaviors, caregiver-reported externalizing problem behaviors, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Third Edition scores, and child-reported early juvenile delinquency) but that the effects vary by mothers' propensities for experiencing incarceration. Maternal incarceration is deleterious for children of mothers least likely to experience incarceration but mostly inconsequential for children of mothers more likely to experience incarceration.

Policy Implications

It is important that public policies take into account the fact that not all children experience similar effects of maternal incarceration. For children of mothers who are unlikely to experience incarceration, the negative consequences of maternal incarceration could be driven by at least three factors, all of which may be operating simultaneously and all of which potentially call for different policy interventions: (a) jail incarceration as opposed to prison incarceration, (b) incarceration for a crime that did minimal-or no-harm to their children, and (c) inadequate family supports for coping with maternal incarceration. We discuss these policy implications.

Coping With Confinement

Theory and research suggest that parental incarceration is often a significant source of stress for children and adolescents. Understanding how young people navigate the stressors of parental incarceration can shed important light on well-being and inform intervention efforts, but little research exists on the coping strategies that young people use during and after a parent’s incarceration. Through in-depth interviews, this study explores how adolescents ( n = 10) cope with parental incarceration. Results suggest that most adolescents use some combination of three strategies: deidentification from the incarcerated parent, desensitization to incarceration, and strength through control. Results reveal variability in how young people cope with parental incarceration, and underscore the importance of future research on the implications of different strategies for well-being.

Incarceration, maternal hardship, and perinatal health behaviors

Parental incarceration is associated with mental and physical health problems in children, yet little research directly tests mechanisms through which parental incarceration could imperil child health. We hypothesized that the incarceration of a woman or her romantic partner in the year before birth constituted an additional hardship for already-disadvantaged women, and that these additionally vulnerable women were less likely to engage in positive perinatal health behaviors important to infant and early childhood development. We analyzed 2006-2010 data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment and Monitoring System to assess the association between incarceration in the year prior to the birth of a child and perinatal maternal hardships and behaviors. Women reporting incarceration of themselves or their partners in the year before birth of a child had .86 the odds (95 % CI .78-.95) of beginning prenatal care in the first trimester compared to women not reporting incarceration. They were nearly twice as likely to report partner abuse and were significantly more likely to rely on WIC and/or Medicaid for assistance during pregnancy. These associations persist after controlling for socioeconomic measures and other stressors, including homelessness and job loss. Incarceration of a woman or her partner in the year before birth is associated with higher odds of maternal hardship and poorer perinatal health behaviors. The unprecedented scale of incarceration in the US simultaneously presents an underutilized public health opportunity and constitutes a social determinant of health that may contribute to disparities in early childhood development.

Stress proliferation across generations? Examining the relationship between parental incarceration and childhood health

Stress proliferation theory suggests that parental incarceration may have deleterious intergenerational health consequences. In this study, I use data from the 2011-2012 National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH) to estimate the relationship between parental incarceration and children's fair or poor overall health, a range of physical and mental health conditions, activity limitations, and chronic school absence. Descriptive statistics show that children of incarcerated parents are a vulnerable population who experience disadvantages across an array of health outcomes. After adjusting for demographic, socioeconomic, and familial characteristics, I find that parental incarceration is independently associated with learning disabilities, attention deficit disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, behavioral or conduct problems, developmental delays, and speech or language problems. Taken together, results suggest that children's health disadvantages are an overlooked and unintended consequence of mass incarceration and that incarceration, given its unequal distribution across the population, may have implications for population-level racial-ethnic and social class inequalities in children's health.

Adverse childhood events: incarceration of household members and health-related quality of life in adulthood

BACKGROUND

Incarceration of a household member has been associated with adverse outcomes for child well-being.

METHODS

We assessed the association between childhood exposure to the incarceration of a household member and adult health-related quality of life (HRQOL) in the 2009/2010 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System controlling for age, race/ethnicity, education, and additional adverse childhood experiences.

RESULTS

Adults who lived in childhood with an incarcerated household member had higher risk of poor HRQOL compared with adults who had not (adjusted relative risk [ARR] 1.18; 95% CI 1.07, 1.31). Among Black adults the association was strongest with the physical health component of HRQOL (ARR 1.58 [95% CI 1.18, 2.12]); among White adults, the association was strongest with the mental health component of HRQOL (ARR 1.29, [95% CI 1.07-1.54]).

CONCLUSIONS

Living with an incarcerated household member during childhood is associated with higher risk of poor HRQOL during adulthood, suggesting that the collateral damages of incarceration for children are long-term.