Dog bites in The Netherlands: A study of victims, injuries, circumstances and aggressors to support evaluation of breed specific legislation

Behavioural differences and similarities between dog breeds: proposing an ecologically valid approach for canine behavioural research

The behaviour of dogs holds great relevance for not only scientists from fundamental and applied research areas, but also due to the widespread roles of dogs in our societies as companions and working animals; their behaviour is also an important factor in animal and human welfare. A large proportion of dogs currently under human supervision belong to one of roughly 400 recognised breeds. Dog breeds can be characterised by distinctive, predictable and reproducible features, including some of their behavioural traits. To the scientist, the comparative analysis of the behaviour of dog breeds provides an opportunity for investigating an array of intriguing phenomena within an easily accessible model organism created from natural and human-driven evolutionary processes. There are many ways to design and conduct breed-related behavioural investigations, but such endeavours should always be based around biologically relevant research questions and lead to ecologically valid conclusions. In this review, we surveyed recent research efforts that included dog behaviour-related comparisons and applied a critical evaluation according to their methods of breed choice and the subsequent research design. Our aim was to assess whether these two fundamentally important components of experimental design provide a solid basis to reach valid conclusions. Based on 97 publications that fulfilled our selection criteria, we identified three primary methods used by researchers to select breeds for their investigations: (i) convenience sampling; (ii) hypothesis-driven, ancestry-based sampling; and (iii) hypothesis-driven, functional sampling. By using the SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) evaluation system, we highlight each of these techniques' merits and shortcomings. We identify when particular methods may be inherently unable to produce biologically meaningful results due to a mismatch between breed choice and the initial research goals. We hope that our evaluation will help researchers adopt best practices in experimental design regarding future dog breed comparisons.

Review of psychological effects of dog bites in children

BACKGROUND

Dog bites are a concerning health problem in children and one of the leading causes of non-fatal injuries in this population. Dog attacks not only cause physical injuries but can also lead to long-term psychological problems. A review was performed to investigate the scope of literature on the psychological effects of dog bites on a paediatric population.

METHODS

A literature search was performed on Web of Knowledge database between 1982 to June 2023, returning 249 results. 14 primary studies reporting the psychological consequences of dog bites in children or adolescents were classed as eligible and 9 further studies were added from prior knowledge and bibliographical searches. 23 studies involving 1894 participants met the criteria and were included in this review.

RESULTS

Of these 23 studies, 8 were case studies or small case series reports (up to n=4), 14 larger descriptive studies and 1 analytical cross-sectional study. There was a mixture of retrospective and prospective data-gathering. The most common psychological consequences of dog bites in children were post-traumatic stress disorder, dog phobia, nightmares and symptoms of anxiety and avoidance behaviours.

CONCLUSIONS

Studies on dog bites in a paediatric population with a specific focus on the psychological consequences associated with dog bites and their management are sparse. Future research and practice should more greatly consider the psychological impact on child victims of dog bites and their family members, as well as their management to avoid the development of mental health issues and improve their quality of life. Future research also needs to ascertain the efficacy of using virtual reality in treating children with dog phobia.

Emergency department visits for dog bite injuries in Missouri municipalities with and without breed-specific legislation: a propensity score-matched analysis

Breed-Specific Legislation is a type of law that bans or restricts ownership of specific dog breeds. Some local governments - including over seventy municipalities in the state of Missouri - have enacted Breed-Specific Legislation to prevent injuries from dog bites. Several studies from the peer-reviewed literature have found that aggressive behavior is not associated with any particular dog breeds and, since 2018, at least a dozen municipalities in Missouri have repealed these laws. To evaluate the impact of Breed-Specific Legislation on public safety, the 2010-2015 rates of emergency department visits for dog bite-related injuries in Missouri municipalities with and without Breed-Specific Legislation were compared. Propensity-score matched negative binomial regression models were used to assess the effect of breed restrictions on injury rates while balancing the samples on population characteristics and estimates of dog ownership. After matching the sample on population, housing and dog ownership estimates, no association was found between emergency department visits for dog bite injuries and whether the municipality enacted Breed-Specific Legislation. However, the incidence rate ratio of emergency room visits for dog bite-related injuries increased by 13.8% for every 1% increase in the percentage of males aged 5 to 9 in the population (p < 0.01). This study has found breed discriminatory laws have not reduced the risk of emergency department visits for injury from dog bites in Missouri. There appears to be no greater risk to public safety as local governments move to repeal existing breed bans.

A Multidisciplinary Approach to a Complex Fatal Attack Due to a Pack of Maremma Sheepdogs: Is It Always an Accident?

Deaths due to dog attacks are a worldwide issue. Fatal dog attacks may occur in various environments, including the dog owner's property. A lot of difficulties emerge when the attack involves a pack of dogs, of different species and sizes. In this case, it becomes much more difficult for forensic investigators to evaluate the event, especially regarding the identification of the dog or dogs that caused the death as well as the identification of the owner and the reconstruction of the dynamics for forensic purposes. In this paper, we analyze a specific case of an attack by a herd of Maremma sheepdogs. A crime scene investigation has been carried out. In the first phase of this case, the victim interacted with dogs that had non-aggressive attitudes. Then, after an escape attempt, she was assaulted by about 20 Maremma dogs of different sizes, leading to multiple injuries all over her body. The greatest difficulty was precisely that of reconstructing the dynamics due to the numerous injuries and dogs involved in the attack. The dynamics were divided into several stages following the analysis of the injuries found on the victim. This case study highlights how the forensic multidisciplinary approach has made it possible to precisely reconstruct the event. The analysis of the dogs' state of malnutrition and their suddenly aggressive attitude towards the victim revealed profiles of responsibility of the owner attributable to improper management and training of the animals to defend their property.

Medico-legal implications of dog bite injuries: A systematic review

Dog bites pose a significant global public health issue and are the most common type of injury caused by animals. While most dog bites result in minor harm, they can also lead to severe or even fatal consequences. In cases involving serious injury or death, forensic pathologists investigate various aspects, including the crime scene, the injuries sustained by the victim, and the characteristics of the dog suspected to have caused the bite. The aim of this study is to provide a systematic review of the literature on the medical-legal implications of dog bites in forensic practice, in order to recognize the dog bite victim features, the injuries and their consequences related to, and to identify the offending dogs. The literature search was performed using PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science from January 1980 to March 2023. Eligible studies have investigated issues of interest to forensic medicine about dog bites to humans. A total of 116 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review and they were organized and discussed by issue of interest (biting dog features, dog bite victim features, anatomical distribution of dog bites, injuries related to dog bites, cause of death, bite features, dog identification and post-mortem dog depredation). The findings of this systematic review highlight the importance of bite mark analysis in reconstructing the events leading to the attack and identifying the dog responsible. In medical forensic evaluations of dog bite cases, a multidisciplinary approach is crucial. This approach involves thorough analysis of the crime scene, identification of risk factors, examination of dog characteristics, and assessment of the victim's injuries. By combining expertise from both human and veterinary forensic fields, a comprehensive understanding can be achieved in dog bite cases.

Incidence and Characteristics of Facial and Ophthalmic Injuries From Domestic Mammal Bites: Parts of the data in the manuscript were presented at the American Academy of Ophthalmology Annual Meeting, 2022

PURPOSE

To determine population-based incidence and characteristics of facial and ophthalmic injuries from domestic mammal bites in Olmsted County, Minnesota.

DESIGN

Retrospective, population-based cohort study.

METHODS

The Rochester Epidemiology Project (REP) was used to identify all potential cases of facial injuries from domestic mammal bites in Olmsted County, Minnesota from January 1, 1999, to December 31, 2015. Subjects were categorized into 2 cohorts: the ophthalmic cohort, which included persons with ocular and periocular injuries with or without facial injuries, and the non-ophthalmic cohort, which included persons with facial injuries only. The incidence and characteristics of facial and ophthalmic injuries from domestic mammal bites were assessed.

RESULTS

There were 245 patients with facial injuries, 47 ophthalmic and 198 non-ophthalmic. The overall age- and sex-adjusted incidence of facial injuries was 9.0 (CI = 7.9-10.1) per 100,000 persons per year, 1.7 (CI = 1.2-2.2) ophthalmic and 7.3 (CI = 6.3-8.3) non-ophthalmic. Rates of facial injuries were highest in patients younger than 5 years and lowest in patients 50 years or older, 49.1 (CI = 41.3-61.6) and 1.3 (CI = 0.7-2.5), respectively (P < .001). All facial injuries were caused by either dog (92%) or cat (8%) bites. Patients with ophthalmic injuries received more intravenous prophylactic antibiotics (18% vs 1%, P < .001), wound closure (83% vs 58%, P < .001), and hospital admission (6% vs 0%, P = .007) than patients with non-ophthalmic injuries. Facial injury complications were infrequent (14, 6%) and included soft tissue infection and prominent scar.

CONCLUSIONS

Although domestic mammal bites to the face are quite common, ocular injury occurs in a minority of cases.

Not All Puppies and Sunshine: How Dog Keepers Cope with Dog-Related Problems in Dutch Society

Zoonoses, biting incidents, hereditary problems, and other issues can threaten the welfare of both humans and dogs. The Dutch government and animal welfare organizations seem to have little effect in their campaigns to influence the behavior of (potential) dog keepers, who can experience dissonance when faced with these campaigns and use coping strategies to relieve the dissonance instead of changing their behavior. In this study, in focus group discussions, dog keepers with pedigree dogs, high-risk dogs, foreign shelter dogs, and dogs purchased at puppy farms shared their experiences with opinions on dogs and were confronted with negative opinions on their dogs. The data were analyzed using a coping strategies framework. Most coping strategies were found in all groups, but were used in response to different dilemmas, with different manifestations. These differences should be kept in mind when behavior change in dog keepers is opportune. Special attention should be given to differentiating target groups, as use of the detachment coping strategy suggests that boundaries might be set differently than expected. Broad attention on problems with and for dogs can address perceived dissonance and prompt behavior change. In dialogue with dog keepers, in influential campaigns and in policy formulation, the chances of success are greater if initiators are aware of the strategies that they may encounter.

Factors regarding the dog owner's household situation, antisocial behaviours, animal views and animal treatment in a population of dogs confiscated after biting humans and/ or other animals

To examine the dog ownership factors characteristic to a population of dogs confiscated after a human and/ or animal-directed biting incident, we compared bite risk assessment reports of 159 confiscated dogs in the time frame 2008, 2009, 2010 (tf1) and of 215 confiscated dogs in the time frame 2020, 2021, 2022 (until mid-May; tf2). The reports were compiled by the same institute in a standardized format. We studied frequencies and chi-square pairwise comparisons (P<0.05) for 30 identified ownership factors. Overall (tf1 and tf2), 1,308 ownership factors were mentioned in the reports and reports mentioning ≥5 factors were twice as frequent in tf2 (38%) than tf1 (16%). Our data suggest that nine factors may in particular serve as a warning signal for biting incidents, as these factors were most frequently (≥15%) prevalent in the total of reported cases: having a multiple dog household, a dog reportedly roaming a neighbourhood without an owner, a dog's care tasks being transferred, a short leash and muzzle obligation served to the owner for a dog, an isolated and/ or confined keeping of a dog, a dog owner's (suspected) substance abuse, a dog owner's (suspected) animal abuse, a dog owner aggressing at confiscation of the dog and a dog owner being reported on for antisocial behaviours such as intimidation. Particularly, a dog owner's aggressive or antisocial behaviours and previous obligations to muzzle and short leash a dog (in our dataset often inappropriately adhered to by owners), may indicate that a proportion of owners of confiscated dogs, may not always be willing and/ or capable to guarantee societal safety. The results show that identification of dog ownership factors, might be useful for establishing biting incident policies and further studies should be done on preventive measures and controls.

Knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding dogs and dog bites in Indigenous northern communities: A mixed methods study

Introduction

The singular relationship developed over the years between northern Indigenous peoples and dogs has been profoundly changed through historical trauma, settlements and increased use of snowmobiles. Issues related to dogs have become increasingly complex and worrisome with the endemic presence of the rabies virus among Arctic fox populations, and given the fact that northern Indigenous peoples may have a higher risk of dog bites than the general population. This study aimed to investigate factors related to the risk of dog bites in Naskapi and Innu communities located in northern Quebec (Canada) by (1) describing the knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) regarding dogs and dog bites in these communities, and (2) analyzing experiences of inhabitants and health professionals with regard to dog bites and their management.

Methods

A mixed methods study design that combined an observational cross-sectional survey and individual interviews was used. The survey collected data on KAP regarding dogs and dog bites among 122 respondents. Individual interviews (n = 37) were then conducted with victims of dog bites, owners of dogs that have bitten a person before, and health professionals. Descriptive and inferential analysis (quantitative data) and thematic analysis (qualitative data) were performed.

Results and discussion

Results highlighted that 21% of respondents have had a dog bite in their lifetime. Most respondents were not aware of the risk of contracting rabies following a dog bite, although rabies risk perception was associated with risk perception of dogs (linear regression: coefficient = 0.69, 95% CI = 0.36-1.02). The odds of being more knowledgeable on rabies were higher (logistic regression: OR = 2.92, 95% CI = 1.07-7.98) among young adults. Dogs were perceived as both threats and protectors by community members. When the fear of dogs was present, it affected the quality of life of some inhabitants. There was confusion about responsibilities in the management of biting dogs, although protocols to follow after a bite were clear for health care professionals. This study revealed a lack of awareness and knowledge about dog bites and rabies risks in both communities. Results provide important knowledge for the development of interventions adapted to northern Indigenous communities.

US Adults' Perceptions of Dog Breed Bans, Dog Aggression and Breed-Specific Laws

Dog aggression directed towards people is a leading reason for relinquishment and a major public health hazard. In response to the threat of dog aggression and dog bites, breed-specific legislation has been introduced in numerous cities within the United States and countries throughout the world. There is limited evidence, however, to suggest that such laws are effective. This study explored, through an online, anonymous, cross-sectional survey, US residents' views about the bite risk of common dog breeds, breed-specific legislation, and alternative options for improved public safety. A total of 586 surveys were completed by adult US residents, 48.8% female and 48.6% male. Approximately half of the respondents reported feeling that dog bites are a serious public health issue. Although 70% of respondents were opposed to a breed ban, only 56% felt that banning specific breeds creates an animal welfare issue. Females were less likely to support a ban or agree that specific breed bans improve public safety. When participants were asked to indicate their support of several alternatives to breed-specific legislation, the most frequently endorsed options included public education about animal welfare and animal behavior, and stricter leash laws. Further research pertaining to the most effective public education dissemination methods is warranted.

Systematic review of dog bite prevention strategies

BACKGROUND

The prevention of dog bites is an increasingly important public health topic, as the incidence of serious injury continues to rise.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effectiveness of interventions to prevent dog bites and aggression.

METHODS

Online databases were searched (PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase and Google Scholar), using the search terms: dog/s, canine, canis, kuri, bite/s, bitten, aggression, attack, death, fatal, mortality, injury/ies, prevention, intervention, for studies between 1960 and 2021. All study designs were considered. Outcomes of interest were the incidence of dog bites or dog aggression. Non-English studies, and those without full-text access were excluded.

RESULTS

Forty-three studies met the review criteria, including 15 observational and 27 interventional studies. Fifteen studies investigating dog-control legislation, including leash laws, stray dog control and infringements indicated this can reduce dog bite rates. Breed-specific legislation had less of an effect. Six studies investigating sterilisation, showed while this may reduce dog bites through a reduction in the dog population, the effect on dog aggression was unclear. An alcohol reduction programme showed a significant reduction in dog bite rates in one study. Seven studies assessing educational approaches found that intensive adult-directed education may be effective, with one study showing child-directed education was not effective. Eight studies on dog training (two police-dog related), and six evaluating dog medication or diet were generally low quality and inconclusive.

CONCLUSIONS

Multiple strategies including effective engagement with indigenous communities and organisations will be required to reduce dog-bites and other incidents involving dog aggression. This review provides some evidence that legislated dog control strategies reduce dog bite rates. Available evidence suggests greater restrictions should be made for all dogs, rather than based on breed alone. Due to a burden of child injury, protection of children should be a focus of legislation and further investigations. Prevention strategies in children require redirection away from a focus on child-directed education and future research should investigate the effectiveness of engineering barriers and reporting strategies.

Non-Fatal Attacks by Dogs: Characteristics of Victims and Attacking Dogs, From the Forensic Perspective: A Series of 106 Cases From Athens, Greece, and Brief Review of the Literature

Introduction: The close association of dogs with humans may explain the fact that dog bites are possibly the most common animal bites recorded. The relevant data concerning Greece is scarce. We aimed to study this phenomenon by describing its characteristics.

Methods: We performed a retrospective analysis of cases concerning dog attack victims, examined our Department, between 2011 and 2019. Recorded variables included sex, age, nationality, occupation, marital status, medical history, ownership status of the dog, injury anatomic location, incident time, the timing of clinical forensic examination, incapacitation time, and medical care provided.

Statistical analysis was performed using Stata/MP 13 (Stata Corp., College Station, TX) and IBM SPSS Statistics Version 20 (IBM, Armonk, NY). Statistical significance was defined as a two-sided p value of <0.05.

Results: Most incidents involved male victims (54.2%). The victim’s mean age was 44.9 years. The dog involved was unowned in 19.8% of cases. The most frequent anatomical site of injury was the legs (48.1%). Older victims suffered injuries in more sensitive areas of the body (head and neck), when compared to younger adults. Only 1.9% of victims required hospitalization. The mean incapacitation time was estimated at 5.39 days.

Conclusions: Per our results, males tend more often to be victims of dog attacks. Typically, victims are of increased age and are attacked by a dog already known to them. Most incidents take place during late winter and spring, more specifically during February and during May. The most frequently affected anatomical sites were the legs. Older people suffered injuries in more sensitive areas of the body.

"If You Don't See the Dog, What Can You Do?" Using Procedures to Negotiate the Risk of Dog Bites in Occupational Contexts

Dog bites are a health risk in a number of workplaces such as the delivery, veterinary and dog rescue sectors. This study aimed to explore how workers negotiate the risk of dog bites in daily interactions with dogs and the role of procedures in workplace safety. Participants who encounter dogs at work were recruited using snowball sampling. Ethnographic methods (interviews, focus group discussions, participant-observations) were used for data collection. All data were coded qualitatively into themes. Six themes describing dog bite risk management were identified: ‘Surveillance of dogs’; ‘Communicating risk; ‘Actions taken to manage perceived risk’; ‘Reporting bites and near-misses’, ‘Investigating bites and near-misses’, and; ‘Learning and teaching safety’. While the procedures described dog bite risk as objective, when interacting with dogs, participants drew on experiential knowledge and subjective judgment of risk. There was a discrepancy between risks that the procedures aimed to guard against and the risk participants were experiencing in the course of work. This often led to disregarding procedures. Paradoxically, procedures generated risks to individual wellbeing and sometimes employment, by contributing to blaming employees for bites. Dog bite prevention could be improved by clarifying definitions of bites, involving at risk staff in procedure development, and avoiding blaming the victim for the incident.

The UK Dangerous Dogs Act: Improved, but legally and ethically flawed

BACKGROUND

The Dangerous Dogs Act (DDA) is considered among the most controversial pieces of legislation ever passed in the UK. Its effectiveness and how it works in practice, up until a dog and its owner are charged, has been subjected to considerable analysis. However, there has been little examination of how the DDA works after charging, nor of how courts are interpreting it.

METHOD

We accessed legal cases from 1992 to 2019, the period in which the DDA has been in force. Each case was examined from a legal and ethical perspective, using doctrinal legal methodology and the principlism approach to ethics described by Beauchamp and Childress.

RESULTS

Analysis showed that while improvements to the function of the act have been made, substantial legal and ethical failings remain, particularly with Section 1 and the therein breed specific legislation (BSL).

CONCLUSION

Legal failings could be partially resolved by removing the reversed burden of proof placed on dog owners and allowing a change of ownership for banned breeds. However, ethical failings could only be resolved through the abolition of BSL. Further study into whether judicial bias exists against certain breeds found to be dangerously out of control is warranted.

English hospital episode data analysis (1998-2018) reveal that the rise in dog bite hospital admissions is driven by adult cases

Dog bites are a global health issue that can lead to severe health outcomes. This study aims to describe the incidence and sociodemographics of patients admitted to English National Health Service (NHS) hospitals for dog bites (1998-2018), and to estimate their annual direct health care costs. An analysis of patient level data utilising hospital episode statistics for NHS England, including: temporal trends in annual incidence of admission, Poisson models of the sociodemographic characteristics of admitted patients, and direct health care cost estimates. The incidence of dog bite admissions rose from 6.34 (95%CI 6.12-6.56) in 1998 to 14.99 (95%CI 14.67-15.31) admissions per 100,000 population in 2018, with large geographic variation. The increase was driven by a tripling of incidence in adults. Males had the highest rates of admission in childhood. Females had two peaks in admission, childhood and 35-64 years old. Two percent (2.05%, 95%CI 0.93-3.17) of emergency department attendances resulted in admission. Direct health care costs increased and peaked in the financial year 2017/2018 (admission costs: £25.1 million, emergency attendance costs: £45.7million). Dog bite related hospital admissions have increased solely in adults. Further work exploring human-dog interactions, stratified by demographic factors, is urgently needed to enable the development of appropriate risk reduction intervention strategies.

Epidemiology of Dog Bite Incidents in Chile: Factors Related to the Patterns of Human-Dog Relationship

Dog bites are one of the main public health problems. They produce important consequences for those who suffer them (physical and psychological injuries, secondary infections, sequelae, risk of transmission of zoonoses and surgeries, among others). The objective of this study was to characterize epidemiologically the incidents of bites in Chile and the patterns of human-dog relationship involved. The records analyzed in this article were obtained from bitten patients who attended the main public health facilities in Chile during the period 17 September 2017 and 17 September 2018: In the period studied, 17,299 animal bites were recorded; however, only 7220 (41.74%) cases were analyzed in which the offending species could be identified. Of the bites analyzed, 6533 were caused by dogs (90.48%). Of these, 41.05% were caused by medium-sized dogs. Most bites were caused by dogs of mixed breeds (55.99%), followed by dogs of the German Shepherd breed (8.50%). Most of the dogs that bit were known to the victim (99.95%) and most of the attacks occurred indoors (57.48%). Although dog bite records have improved in Chile, it would be useful to also include background information on the context in which the incident occurred, which would be very useful for developing effective bite prevention programs.

Paediatric emergency department dog bite attendance during the COVID-19 pandemic: an audit at a tertiary children's hospital

BACKGROUND

Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic include strict public health measures, such as national lockdowns. During these measures, paediatric emergency department attendances have declined and the prevalence of presenting complaints has changed. This study sought to identify whether dog bite attendance and victim demographics changed during COVID-19 public health measures.

METHODS

An audit was conducted of emergency department attendance data from a UK tertiary paediatric hospital between January 2016 and September 2020. Dog bite attendance and victim demographics were explored using χ² tests and multivariable Poisson regression. The mean monthly percentage of attendance due to dog bites in 2020 was compared against predicted percentages based on previous years' data.

RESULTS

Dog bite attendance rose in conjunction with the introduction of COVID-19 public health measures and reached a peak in July 2020 (44 dog bites, 1.3% of all attendances were due to dog bites). This was a threefold increase in dog bite attendance. By September 2020, attendance had returned to normal. The demographic profile of child dog bite victims remained the same. Boys had the highest attendance rates in 7-12 year-olds, girls in 4-6 year-olds. Girls showed higher attendance rates in the summer, while boys' attendance rates were constant throughout the year. COVID-19 public health measures were associated with a 78% increase in attendance for boys and a 66% increase in girls.

CONCLUSIONS

COVID-19 national public health measures were associated with an increase in paediatric emergency department dog bite attendance, and may be due to increased child exposure to dogs via 'stay at home' orders and school closures. National lockdowns are likely to continue globally throughout the COVID-19 pandemic; this is likely to result in more dog bites. Urgent public health communication and injury prevention strategies are needed to help prevent these avoidable injuries.

Dog bite Emergency department presentations in Brisbane metro south: Epidemiology and exploratory medical geography for targeted interventions

Dog bites are a recognized public health issue due to their impact on human and animal health/welfare. This study aimed to investigate demographic and geographic disparities in the epidemiology of dog bites presentations reported to the emergency departments of the four main public hospitals in the Metro South region of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Dog bite patient hospitalization data geolocated to the street address were collected from clinical records management systems from the four main public hospitals in the Metro South Hospital Health Service region of Queensland for a 5-year period (ie. 01/07/2013 to 30/06/2017). We investigated the epidemiology of three clinical outcomes including probability of paediatric cases (paediatric vs. adult), probability of dog bites to the head (head injury vs. other injury), and probability of re-presentation to the ED following their initial dog bite (yes or no) by way of univariable then multivariable Bernoulli logistic regression models including patient postcode as a random effect. Residual semivariograms were created to identify spatial trends in the medical geography of dog bites and binomial geostatistical models were created to predict the probability of the outcomes of interest in Brisbane Metro south and surrounding suburbs. Our results demonstrate that compared to adult dog bite cases, paediatric dog bite cases were significantly associated with bites to the head or face or neck (OR 14.65, P < 0.001), bites to the lower body (OR 4.95, P = 0.035) and larger dogs (OR 0.25, P = 0.030 for small dogs). The probability of head injuries was greater in younger age groups (17-39 OR 0.25, P = 0.001; 40-64 OR 0.15, P = 0.001; 65-above OR 0.14, P = 0.029). Attacks by small dogs were more likely to inflict head wounds than large dogs (OR 6.12, P < 0.001). The probability of re-presentation was lower in patients bitten by medium sized dogs (OR 0.29, P = 0.027) than larger dogs. Our predictive maps showed significant clustering of paediatric case probability in the Logan city and Redlands councils associated with socioeconomic status of the places of residence. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate significant demographic and geographic heterogeneity in dog bite ED presentations. Public health interventions to reduce the burden of dog bites should be targeted to the populations most at-risk in the areas identified in this study.

Qualitative analysis of the perception of street dog bite victims and implication for the prevention of dog bites at a teaching hospital anti-rabies Clinic

Background:

Aggression among the dogs has been stated as the most common cause of their biting nature by many dog experts. Most of the dog experts' opinion that many of the dog's bites are preventable.

Objectives of the Study:

Explore the victim's perception regarding dog bite, its circumstances and events that led to the bite and prevention of future bites by dogs.

Methodology:

This study involved one-to-one detailed interviews of dog bite victims to tell their tale and allowed the interviewer to ask questions related to all the circumstances that led to the bite. We included adults aged >20 years living in the Srinagar city who had been bitten by the street dog within last 24 h. Qualitative research protocol was adapted to conduct the study.

Results:

The perception of the victims vary from person to person which makes it difficult for public health practitioners to formulate standardized prevention tools. In our study, the participants had different perceptions regarding what constitute a dog bite. Some discussed a skin contact with piercing and oozing of blood as a dog bite while other perceived a simple jumping of dog over them. Some blamed the society; some blamed the dog; whereas some blamed themselves for the incident. Most of the participants never perceived that they will be bitten by the dog, so they did not use any strategies to prevent themselves. Reaction to the bite and the perception of responsibility and preventability appeared to be more related to the individual experiences of the victim and their belief about dogs in particular, than the actual circumstances which led to the bite and how preventable a bite could have been.

Conclusion:

Our findings suggest that the apparent instantaneous nature of bites and recognized psychological barriers to being receptive to educational intervention may mean bites are not as easily preventable as previously assumed.

Facial dog bites treated at the Massachusetts General Hospital over a 20-year period

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to identify risk factors associated with facial dog bites and discuss prevention strategies.

STUDY DESIGN

This is a retrospective analysis of facial dog bites treated at the Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) from 1997to 2018. Patients were identified through the Research Patient Data Registry. The predictor variables included demographic characteristics, circumstantial information regarding the injury, and dog characteristics. Other study variables were wound and treatment specifics and follow-up. Descriptive and bivariate statistics were computed.

RESULTS

In total, 321 patients were identified (mean age 29.5 years; range 0.7-81 years). There were 141 males and 180 females. The majority of patients were adults (age > 18 years; n = 223 [69.5%]). Most dogs (n = 281 [87.5%]) were known (P < .00001), and provocation was recorded in 207 cases (64.5%; P < .00001). Bites were preceded by the following behaviors: playing with the dog, feeding the dog, and placing the face close to the dog. Pitbulls led in the number of bites (n = 26 [8.5%]). Location on the face was predominantly the middle or lower third (n = 299 [93.1%]).

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study suggest that education of dog owners, parents, and children should focus on avoidance of known provoking behaviors. This may help decrease the incidence of these devastating injuries.

Preventing Dog Bites: It Is Not Only about the Dog

Simple Summary

Dog bites can have an array of negative health impacts on human victims. Research on the correlates of bites focused on limited sets of variables and produced conflicting findings. Data were drawn from police department reports of dog bites in the city of Detroit between 2007–2015. This project expands knowledge about the correlates of dog bites by exploring a comprehensive set of variables related to the breed type of dog, the nature of its surroundings, and the circumstances surrounding the bite. The greatest risk of bites does not come from wandering feral dogs, nor is it primarily related to the nature of the victim. Based on multiple regression, the victim was most likely bitten in their own yard by a single neighborhood dog that escaped from its home or yard. Human error often contributes to bites.

Abstract

Background: Dog bites can have an array of negative health impacts on victims. Research focusing on the correlates of bites focused on limited sets of variables and produced conflicting findings. Objective: To expand knowledge about the correlates of dog bites by exploring a comprehensive set of variables related to the nature of the dog and the circumstances surrounding the bite not commonly explored in extant research. Methods: Data were drawn from police department reports of dog bites in the city of Detroit between 2007–2015; 478 dog bites were reported. Multiple regression was used to determine the significant correlates of dog bites, focusing on the nature of the dog and the circumstances surrounding the bite. Results: Bites were caused by a neighborhood dog. Thirty-two percent of the reports involved dogs running loose; 25% dogs that had escaped from a fenced or unfenced yard; 9% escaped from their home; and 8% had broken off a chain, were being walked, or were in their own home. Based on multiple regression, the victim was most likely bitten in their own yard by a single neighborhood dog that escaped from its home or yard. Breed of dog was not correlated with bites in multiple regression. Conclusions: The greatest risk of bites does not come from wandering feral dogs. Based on multiple regression, the victim was most likely bitten in their own yard by a single neighborhood dog that escaped from its home or yard. Human error often contributes to bites.

Animal-related injuries and fatalities: evidence from a large-scale population-based cross-sectional survey in rural Bangladesh

OBJECTIVE

This study determines the magnitude and pattern of animal-related injury mortalities and morbidities in rural Bangladesh.

DESIGN AND SETTING

A cross-sectional survey was conducted in 51 Unions of 7 subdistricts of Bangladesh from June 2013 to September 2013.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of approximately 1.17 million individuals across all age and gender profiles were included in the survey. The participants had to be residents of the seven subdistricts and have provided consent to participate in the study.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Animal-related injury characteristics and demographic information was collected in the study. Frequency, proportion and 95% CIs of variables such as type of animal, type of animal attack, activity of the person prior to attack and the seasonality of the injury were reported. Data was then statistically analysed for associations between injury and sociodemographic characteristics.

RESULTS

The incidence rate of fatal and non-fatal animal-related injuries across all ages were 0.7 (95% CI 0.4 to 1.4) and 1635.3 (95% CI 1612.0 to 1658.0) per 100 000 populations, respectively. Non-fatal animal-related injury rates were highest among adults 18 years and older (1820.6 per 100 000 population (1777.2 to 1865.1)), and in males across all age groups. The most common animal injury was wasp/hornet/bee sting (49%), followed by cow/buffalo (25%), dog bite (9%) and snake bites (9%).

CONCLUSIONS

Animal-related injuries are an important public health issue in rural Bangladesh. The incidence of animal-related morbidities was found high in the study area. Males, school-going and productive age groups were at high risk. Immediate attention should be given to prevent these events.

Small Animal Veterinarians' Perceptions, Experiences, and Views of Common Dog Breeds, Dog Aggression, and Breed-Specific Laws in the United States

Dog aggression directed towards humans is a common and serious behavioral and public health issue. This cross-sectional study was designed to gain insights into U.S. small animal veterinarians’ views and experiences with the most common dog breeds in the U.S., dog aggression, and breed-specific legislation. An electronic survey was distributed via email to an online veterinary community, and responses were summarized and compared by means of χ² and Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel tests. Most respondents were concerned about the risks of dog bite injuries, but the majority were not in favor of banning specific breeds of dogs in order to enhance public safety. When participants rated the perceived bite risk associated with popular dog breeds, Chow Chows were perceived as the highest risk, with pit bull types categorized as a moderate risk. Golden Retrievers were seen as the most appropriate for families with children. Public education about animal behavior was the most frequently endorsed policy intervention to increase public safety. These findings suggest that most veterinarians feel that banning an entire dog breed is not an effective way to ensure human safety. Instead, most respondents endorsed alternative initiatives, such as public education and stricter leash laws, to reduce the risk of dog bites.

Identification of dysfunctional human-dog dyads through dog ownership histories

The human–dog relationship is at least 16,000-years old and is mutually beneficial to both dyadic members. When the human–dog relationship becomes dysfunctional, however, there can be serious consequences for both parties and for society. Unfortunately, dysfunctional dyads are normally only identified after consequences have been felt (e.g., dog–human aggression) limiting the action that can be taken to prevent such occurrences. To evaluate whether these dysfunctional dyads can be preemptively identified, a questionnaire analyzing the owners’ dog health care histories was administered to an urban dog owning population. Multiple correspondence analysis (n = 1,385) was conducted and identified three clusters accounting for 37.1% of the total variance, while four moderate positive correlations were found: “unspecified trauma” with “vehicular trauma” (r = 0.303, p < 0.001), “bitten” with “bit other animal” (r = 0.345, p < 0.001), “bit a person” with “bit other animal” (r = 0.369, p < 0.001), and “chronic illness” with “hospitalized” (r = 0.297, p < 0.001). These results suggest that a simple questionnaire can identify potential characteristics of functional and dysfunctional dyads. In functional dyads, humans tend to be responsible for their dogs’ well-being, while dysfunctional dyads show the opposite characteristics, reporting experience with trauma and dog aggression.

Characteristics and factors associated with post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) treatment of dog and cat bites among left-behind children: a cross-sectional study in two cities of China

OBJECTIVE

Animal injury is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Dog bites account for tens of millions of injuries annually and the highest risk is among children. However, children may not receive postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) treatment timely and appropriately after rabies exposure. This study aimed to investigate the characteristics and factors associated with PEP treatment of dog and cat bites among left-behind children.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional study using questionnaire was conducted in primary and high schools.

SETTING

Shenzhen and Shantou cities, Guangdong Province, China.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 9380 participants were included and 2236 of them were with a history of dog and cat bites.

RESULTS

1188 (53.1%) boys and 1048 (46.9%) girls suffered from animal bites. Bitten in holidays was less likely to receive PEP treatment (OR 0.512, 95% CI 0.377 to 0.695) than those bitten in school days. Bitten while being with family (OR 1.418, 95% CI 1.040 to 1.934) and bitten at roadside (OR 1.842, 95% CI 1.297 to 2.171), bitten by unvaccinated animals (OR 1.745, 95% CI 1.246 to 2.443) tended to receive PEP treatment. Compared with unbroken skin, bleeding (OR 1.789, 95% CI 1.165 to 2.745) and laceration (OR 3.834, 95% CI 2.310 to 6.366) were showed as treatment prompting factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Bitten in holidays was found as a risk factor of receiving PEP treatment of animal bites. Certain measures should be taken to raise left-behind children's awareness of receiving PEP treatment timely and appropriately after dog and cat bites.

The demographics of dog bites due to K-9 (legal intervention) in the United States

BACKGROUND

There is sparse literature regarding K-9 (legal intervention) dog bites. It was the purpose of this study to analyze the demographics of K-9 dog bites using a national data base.

METHODS

This was a retrospective study of prospectively collected data from National Electronic Injury Surveillance System - All Injury Program for years 2005-2013. Patients with dog bites were identified and those due to legal intervention were analyzed. Statistical analyses were performed with SUDAAN 11.0.01™ software. A p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

There were an estimated 32, 951 K-9 dog bite ED visits, accounting for 1.1% of all ED dog bite visits. The K-9 group was nearly all male (95.0 vs 52.1%) and more commonly Black (42.0 vs 13.0%) compared to the non K-9 group. Bites to the head/neck and upper extremity were less frequent and lower extremity bites more frequent in the K-9 group; K-9 bites more commonly occurred outside the home. Within the K-9 group, the proportion of White patients increased with increasing age and smaller hospital size. Patients seen in small and medium size hospitals were in the middle age ranges, while those in the very young and >64 years of age were only seen at large hospitals. The average annual incidence of K-9 dog bites seen in the ED for US was 2.43 per 100,000 males with no changes over time.

CONCLUSIONS

In the US, 1.1% of all ED visits for dog bites are due to K-9 intervention with no change in incidence, even though this study spanned the time when it was encouraged to change K-9 intervention; from "find and bite" to "find and bark". The K-9 dog bite patient is nearly always male, more commonly Black, occurred away from home, and has a 3.7% hospital admission rate. Bites to the head/neck are less common compared to the non K-9 dog bite group.

'When the dog bites': What can we learn about health geography from newspaper coverage in a 'model city' for dog-bite prevention?

Despite calls for the adoption of 'One-Health' approaches, dog-bite injuries remain neglected in healthcare and public health, and our study may help to understand why. Media coverage can influence policy directions, including policies that address dogs. We collected articles (n = 65) published in two local newspapers, 2012-2017, then carried out an ethnographically-informed discourse analysis of the dog-bite reports. The newspapers portrayed dog-bites mainly as matters of public disorder, as opposed to priorities for healthcare and public health. Even as our study took place in a city that has shown dog-bite reductions without recourse to 'breed bans' or restrictions (i.e., breed-specific legislation), journalists still tended to emphasize dog breed as a narrative element in explaining dog-bite incidents. Nonetheless, the news coverage did not reproduce a 'nature versus nurture' dichotomy. Rather, the journalists presented dog breed, and presumably associated aggressive behaviour, as entanglements with social, economic, and cultural contexts. Meanwhile, the news stories reduced contextual complexity to geographic locations, as codes for community reputation, in attributing causality and morality.

The demographics of dog bites in the United States

Dog bites are a significant public health issue. There is no comprehensive study of dog bite demographics. It was the purpose of this study to perform such an analysis across the US. The National Electronic Injury Surveillance System All Injury Program data for the years 2005 through 2013 was accessed; dog bite injuries were extracted and analyzed. Statistical analyses were performed with SUDAAN 11.0.01™ software to account for the weighted, stratified nature of the data. Incidence values were calculated using population data from the US Census Bureau. A P < 0.05 was considered significant. There was an average 337,103 ED visits each year for dog bites. The average age was 28.9 years; 52.6% were male and 47.4% female. The bites were located on the upper extremity in 47.3%, head/neck in 26.8%, lower extremity in 21.5%, and trunk in 4.4%. Younger patients had more bites involving the head/neck, while older patients the upper extremity. More occurred in the summer and on weekends and 80.2% occurred at home. Hospital admission occurred in 1.7%. Logistic regression analysis demonstrated that the odds of admission was solely dependent upon the age group. The OR for admission was 11.03 [4.68, 26.01] for those >85 years of age, 4.88 [2.89, 8.24] 75–84 years, and 2.79 [1.77, 4.39] those ≤4 years of age, with the 10–14 year age group the reference group. The average annual incidence was 1.1 per 1,000, and was slightly higher in males (1.18 vs 1.02 per 1,000). The estimated cost was at least 400 million US$ per year. Potential prevention strategies are educational programs directed at both children and parents/caretakers outlining the responsibilities of owning a dog. This information can be disseminated in health care facilities, radio/TV/Internet venues, and dog kennels/shelters.

The effect of breed-specific dog legislation on hospital treated dog bites in Odense, Denmark-A time series intervention study

As dog bite injuries are a considerable problem in modern society, in order to reduce such injuries, breed-specific legislation has been introduced in a number of countries. Whilst many studies have shown a lack of effect with such legislation, the commonly used methodology is known to be flawed. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the effect of the Danish breed-specific legislation on the number of dog bite injuries using more credible methods. A time series intervention method was used on a detailed dataset from Odense University Hospital, Denmark, regarding dog bite injuries presented to the emergency department. The results indicate that banning certain breeds has a highly limited effect on the overall levels of dog bite injuries, and that an enforcement of the usage of muzzle and leash in public places for these breeds also has a limited effect. Despite using more credible and sound methods, this study supports previous studies showing that breed-specific legislation seems to have no effect on dog bite injuries. In order to minimise dog bite injuries in the future, it would seem that other interventions or non-breed-specific legislation should be considered as the primary option.

Teaching Children and Parents to Understand Dog Signaling

Safe human-dog relationships require understanding of dogs' signaling. As children are at particularly high risk of dog bites, we investigated longitudinally how children from 3 to 5 years and parents perceive and interpret dogs' distress signaling gestures. All participants were then taught how to link their perception of the dog with the correct interpretation of dogs' behavioral signals and tested again. Results show a significant increase in learning for children and adults, with them showing greater understanding of dogs' signaling after intervention. Better learning effects were found with increasing age and depended on the type of distress signaling of the dogs. Effects endured over time and it can be concluded that children and adults can be taught to interpret dogs' distress signaling more correctly. Awareness and recognition of dogs' stress signaling can be seen as an important first step in understanding the dog's perspective and are vital to enable safe interactions.

A canine identity crisis: Genetic breed heritage testing of shelter dogs

Previous research in animal shelters has determined the breeds of dogs living in shelters by their visual appearance; however the genetic breed testing of such dogs is seldom conducted, and few studies have compared the breed labels assigned by shelter staff to the results of this testing. In the largest sampling of shelter dogs’ breed identities to-date, 459 dogs at Arizona Animal Welfare League & SPCA (AAWL) in Phoenix, Arizona, and 460 dogs at San Diego Humane Society & SPCA (SDHS) in San Diego, California, were genetically tested using a commercially available product to determine their breed heritage. In our sample, genetic analyses identified 125 distinct breeds with 91 breeds present at both shelters, and 4.9% of the dogs identified as purebreds. The three most common breed signatures, in order of prevalence, American Staffordshire Terrier, Chihuahua, and Poodle, accounted for 42.5% or all breed identifications at the great grandparent level. During their stay at the shelter, dogs with pit bull-type ancestries waited longer to be adopted than other dogs. When we compared shelter breed assignment as determined by visual appearance to that of genetic testing, staff at SDHS was able to successfully match at least one breed in the genetic heritage of 67.7% of dogs tested; however their agreement fell to 10.4% when asked to identify more than one breed. Lastly, we found that as the number of pit bull-type relatives in a dog’s heritage increased, so did the shelter’s ability to match the results of DNA analysis. In total when we consider the complexity of shelter dog breed heritage and the failure to identify multiple breeds based on visual identification coupled with our inability to predict how these breeds then interact within an individual dog, we believe that focusing resources on communicating the physical and behavioral characteristics of shelter dogs would best support adoption efforts.

Ability of the Public to Recognize Dogs Considered to Be Dangerous under the Dangerous Dogs Act in the United Kingdom

Canine aggression came into the public eye in the United Kingdom in the late 1980s prompting enactment of the UK Dangerous Dogs Act , which prohibits four breeds or "types" of dogs. The act faced strong opposition surrounding correct identification of prohibited dogs. A questionnaire was distributed  to the public via an online platform, especially  targetting those who have worked with dogs. The questionnaire assessed respondents' abilities to identify the four banned types of dogs from other breeds and their capability to identify Pit Bull Terrier types from other similar dog types. Identification of both banned breeds, F(1, 20) = 57.746, p < .001, and bull breeds, F(1, 20) = 9.293, p = .006, was significantly lower than identification of other breeds. Recognition of Pit Bull Terrier types from similar types of dogs was generally poor, although people in a dog-related profession, as opposed to those in other professions, could correctly distinguish more pit bull-type dogs (U = 46,164.0, n₁ = 187, n₂ = 575, p = .003). Findings suggest public understanding of dangerous dogs is poor, and it may impact societal perceptions of dogs more widely.

Online videos indicate human and dog behaviour preceding dog bites and the context in which bites occur

YouTube videos of dog bites present an unexplored opportunity to observe dog bites directly. We recorded the context of bites, bite severity, victim and dog characteristics for 143 videos and for 56 videos we coded human and dog behaviour before the bite. Perceived bite severity was derived from visual aspects of the bite. Associations between bite severity and victim, dog and context characteristics were analysed using a Bayesian hierarchical regression model. Human and dog behaviour before the bite were summarised with descriptive statistics. No significant differences in bite severity were observed between contexts. Only age of the victim was predictive of bite severity: adults were bitten more severely than infants and infants more severely than children. Non-neutral codes describing dog body posture and some displacement and appeasement behaviours increased approximately 20 seconds before the bite and humans made more tactile contacts with dogs 21 seconds before the bite. This analysis can help to improve understanding of context in which bites occur and improve bite prevention by highlighting observable human and dog behaviours occurring before the bite.

How many people have been bitten by dogs? A cross-sectional survey of prevalence, incidence and factors associated with dog bites in a UK community

Background

Dog bite studies are typically based on hospital records and may be biased towards bites requiring significant medical treatment. This study investigated true dog bite prevalence and incidence at a community-level and victim-related risk factors, in order to inform policy and prevention.

Methods

A cross-sectional study of a community of 1280 households in Cheshire, UK, surveyed 694 respondents in 385 households. Data included dog ownership and bite history, demographics, health and personality (Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI) brief measure). Multivariable logistic regression modelled risk factors for having ever been bitten by a dog, accounting for clustering of individuals within households.

Results

A quarter of participants (24.78%, 95% CI 21.72 to 28.13) reported having ever been bitten by a dog during their lifetime, with only a third of bites described requiring further medical treatment and 0.6% hospital admission. Incidence of dog bites was 18.7 (11.0–31.8) per 1000 population per year. Males were 1.81 times more likely to have been bitten in their lifetime than females (95% CI 1.20 to 2.72, P=0.005). Current owners of multiple dogs were 3.3 times more likely (95% CI 1.13 to 9.69, P=0.03) to report having been bitten than people not currently owning a dog. Regarding all bites described, most commonly people were bitten by a dog that they had never met before the incident (54.7%). Individuals scoring higher in emotional stability had a lower risk of having ever been bitten (OR=0.77 for 1 point change in scale between 1 and 7, 95% CI 0.66 to 0.9, P=0.001).

Conclusion

This study suggests that the real burden of dog bites is considerably larger than those estimated from hospital records. Further, many bites do not require medical treatment and hospital-based bite data are not representative of bites within the wider population. Victim personality requires further investigation and potential consideration in the design of bite prevention schemes.

An Algorithmic Approach to Operative Management of Complex Pediatric Dog Bites: 3-Year Review of a Level I Regional Referral Pediatric Trauma Hospital

Background:

Incidence of dog bites continues to rise among the pediatric population and serves as a public health threat for the well-being of children. Plastic surgeons are at the forefront of initial management and eventual outcome of these devastating injuries. This study set out to determine the nature of dog bite injuries treated over a 3-year period at a large level 1 pediatric trauma center.

Methods:

A retrospective review of emergency room records of all pediatric patients (age, 0–18 years old) who sustained dog bites between January 2012 and December 2014 were gathered. All details about age of patient, location and severity of dog bites, type of dog breed, antibiotics given, and emergency versus operative treatment were recorded and analyzed.

Results:

One hundred eight patients aged 5 months to 18 years old were treated in the emergency department after suffering dog bite injuries during the study period. The highest incidence of dog bites occurred in preschool children. The mean age for patients who required operative repair was lower than the mean age for patients who underwent primary closure in the emergency department. The location of injury was most commonly isolated to the head/neck region. Of the 56 cases that had an identified dog breed, pit bulls accounted for 48.2% of the dog bites, and 47.8% of pit bull bites required intervention in the operating room.

Conclusion:

Children with large dog bite injuries require more immediate care in a level 1 pediatric trauma hospitals in order to optimize their hospitalization course and eventual outcome.

Future of keeping pet reptiles and amphibians: towards integrating animal welfare, human health and environmental sustainability

The keeping of exotic pets is currently under debate and governments of several countries are increasingly exploring the regulation, or even the banning, of exotic pet keeping. Major concerns are issues of public health and safety, animal welfare and biodiversity conservation. The keeping of reptiles and amphibians in captivity encompasses all the potential issues identified with keeping exotic pets, and many of those relating to traditional domestic pets. Within the context of risks posed by pets in general, the authors argue for the responsible and sustainable keeping of reptile and amphibian pets by private persons, based on scientific evidence and on the authors' own expertise (veterinary medicine, captive husbandry, conservation biology).