Adjuvant activities of saponins from traditional Chinese medicinal herbs

Determining Antiradical Capacity of Medicinal Plant Extract Individual Constituents Using Post-Column Reaction Method

The post-column reaction method enables the evaluation of the antiradical capacity of individual components in a mixture by separating the components using HPLC and measuring stable free radical (e.g., DPPH●) scavenging that occurs after the chromatography column. The equipment typically consists of two detectors. The first records signals of the analytes leaving the column. The second records radical scavenging by the analytes, which appears as a negative band. The recorded signals are found on two separate chromatograms, which must be combined to interpret the results. In this study, a single DAD detector was used behind the post-column reactor, enabling the simultaneous recording of the analyte bands and negative signals, indicating radical scavenging. The objective of this study was to evaluate the antiradical capacity of key compounds found in two herbal raw materials used in traditional Chinese medicine. Saposhnikovia divaricata roots contain phenolic acids, chromones, and furanocoumarins. Chlorogenic acid, rosmarinic acid, and imperatorin demonstrated strong radical scavenging, while prim-O-glucoslocimifugin showed a weaker response, both in standards and in root extracts. However, scavenging was not observed for cimifugin and 4'-O-β-D-glucosyl-5-O-methylvisamminol. Astragalus mongholicus roots contain astragalosides I-IV (triterpene saponins). None of these showed DPPH● scavenging. Furthermore, additional signals were observed, indicating the presence of unidentified radical scavenging compounds.

Boosting the immunogenicity of the CoronaVac SARS-CoV-2 inactivated vaccine with Huoxiang Suling Shuanghua Decoction: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study

Introduction

In light of the public health burden of the COVID-19 pandemic, boosting the safety and immunogenicity of COVID-19 vaccines is of great concern. Numerous Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) preparations have shown to beneficially modulate immunity. Based on pilot experiments in mice that showed that supplementation with Huoxiang Suling Shuanghua Decoction (HSSD) significantly enhances serum anti-RBD IgG titers after inoculation with recombinant SARS-CoV-2 S-RBD protein, we conducted this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial aimed to evaluate the potential immunogenicity boosting effect of oral HSSD after a third homologous immunization with Sinovac's CoronaVac SARS-CoV-2 (CVS) inactivated vaccine.

Methods

A total of 70 participants were randomly assigned (1:1 ratio) to receive a third dose of CVS vaccination and either oral placebo or oral HSSD for 7 days. Safety aspects were assessed by recording local and systemic adverse events, and by blood and urine biochemistry and liver and kidney function tests. Main outcomes evaluated included serum anti-RBD IgG titer, T lymphocyte subsets, serum IgG and IgM levels, complement components (C3 and C4), and serum cytokines (IL-6 and IFN-γ). In addition, metabolomics technology was used to analyze differential metabolite expression after supplementation with HSSD.

Results

Following a third CVS vaccination, significantly increased serum anti-RBD IgG titer, reduced serum IL-6 levels, increased serum IgG, IgM, and C3 and C4 levels, and improved cellular immunity, evidenced by reduce balance deviations in the distribution of lymphocyte subsets, was observed in the HSSD group compared with the placebo group. No serious adverse events were recorded in either group. Serum metabolomics results suggested that the mechanisms by which HSSD boosted the immunogenicity of the CVS vaccine are related to differential regulation of purine metabolism, vitamin B6 metabolism, folate biosynthesis, arginine and proline metabolism, and steroid hormone biosynthesis.

Conclusion

Oral HSSD boosts the immunogenicity of the CVS vaccine in young and adult individuals. This trial provides clinical reference for evaluation of TCM immunomodulators to improve the immune response to COVID-19 vaccines.

Potential Immunoregulatory Mechanism of Plant Saponins: A Review

Saponins are extracted from different parts of plants such as seeds, roots, stems, and leaves and have a variety of biological activities including immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory effects, and hypoglycemic properties. They demonstrate inherent low immunogenicity and possess the capacity to effectively regulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses. Plant saponins can promote the growth and development of the body's immune organs through a variety of signaling pathways, regulate the activity of a variety of immune cells, and increase the secretion of immune-related cytokines and antigen-specific antibodies, thereby exerting the role of immune activity. However, the chemical structure of plant saponins determines its certain hemolytic and cytotoxicity. With the development of science and technology, these disadvantages can be avoided or reduced by certain technical means. In recent years, there has been a significant surge in interest surrounding the investigation of plant saponins as immunomodulators. Consequently, the objective of this review is to thoroughly examine the immunomodulatory properties of plant saponins and elucidate their potential mechanisms, with the intention of offering a valuable point of reference for subsequent research and advancement within this domain.

Advancements in Vaccine Adjuvants: The Journey from Alum to Nano Formulations

Vaccination is a groundbreaking approach in preventing and controlling infectious diseases. However, the effectiveness of vaccines can be greatly enhanced by the inclusion of adjuvants, which are substances that potentiate and modulate the immune response. This review is based on extensive searches in reputable databases such as Web of Science, PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, and Google Scholar. The goal of this review is to provide a thorough analysis of the advances in the field of adjuvant research, to trace the evolution, and to understand the effects of the various adjuvants. Historically, alum was the pioneer in the field of adjuvants because it was the first to be approved for use in humans. It served as the foundation for subsequent research and innovation in the field. As science progressed, research shifted to identifying and exploiting the potential of newer adjuvants. One important area of interest is nano formulations. These advanced adjuvants have special properties that can be tailored to enhance the immune response to vaccines. The transition from traditional alum-based adjuvants to nano formulations is indicative of the dynamism and potential of vaccine research. Innovations in adjuvant research, particularly the development of nano formulations, are a promising step toward improving vaccine efficacy and safety. These advances have the potential to redefine the boundaries of vaccination and potentially expand the range of diseases that can be addressed with this approach. There is an optimistic view of the future in which improved vaccine formulations will contribute significantly to improving global health outcomes.

Synthesis of immunostimulatory saponins: A sweet challenge for carbohydrate chemists

Saponins are a large family of natural glycosides showing a wide range of biological activities. Current research efforts on saponins as vaccine adjuvants have been mainly focused on the development of synthetic analogs. By mimicking the immunomodulatory saponins from Quillaja saponaria (QS), less complex and readily accessible analogs have been synthesized to improve the industrial applicability and efficacy of saponins as vaccine adjuvants. Through the exploration of several structural modifications on the skeleton of QS saponins, including changes in the sugar and aglycone compositions as well as in the nature and configuration of the glycosidic bonds, structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies developed by Pr. Gin in the early 2010s were taken as a starting point for the development of a new generation of immunomodulatory candidates. In this review, the recent synthetic strategies and SAR studies of mono- and bidesmosidic QS saponins are discussed. Original concepts of vaccination including self-adjuvanticity and the development of saponin-based glycoconjugates are described. The synthesis and semi-synthesis of saponin alternatives to QS, such as Momordica saponin and onjisaponin derivatives, are also discussed in this review.

Comparison of the Effects of Yucca saponin, Yucca schidigera, and Quillaja saponaria on Growth Performance, Immunity, Antioxidant Capability, and Intestinal Flora in Broilers

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of Yucca saponin (YSa), Yucca schidigera (YS), and Quillaja Saponaria (QS) on growth performance, nitrogen metabolism, immune ability, antioxidant capability, and intestinal flora of yellow-feather broilers. This study randomly divided a total of 480 1-day yellow-feather broilers into 4 treatment groups. Factors in the 4 groups included CON group (basic diet), YSa group (basic diet mixed with 500 mg/kg YSa), YS group (basic diet mixed with 500 mg/kg YS), and QS group (basic diet mixed with 500 mg/kg QS). Throughout the 56-day study period, YSa, YS, and QS groups had higher average daily gain in broilers than the CON group (p < 0.01). The YS group had a lower feed gain ratio (F: G) in broilers than the CON group (p < 0.05). YSa, YS, and QS showed increased serum immunoglobin A (IgA), immunoglobin Y (IgY), immunoglobin M (IgM), and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) levels; enhanced acetic acid, butyric acid, and valeric acid levels of cecal content; and reduced contents of ammonia nitrogen, urea nitrogen, interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and malondialdehyde (MDA) in serum in broilers (p < 0.05). The relative abundance of Lachnoclostridium in the QS group was decreased compared with that in the CON group (p < 0.05). Higher IgA and IgY sera contents were observed in the YS group compared to the YSa and QS groups (p < 0.05). In contrast with the QS group, the serum IL-6 concentration of the YS group was reduced (p < 0.05). In conclusion, YSa, YS, and QS promoted growth performance, nitrogen metabolism, immunity, antioxidant capability, and intestinal flora in broilers. Through the comparison of YSa, YS, and QS, it was found that YS is more suitable as a feed additive to ameliorate the healthy growth of broilers.

Evaluation of immunostimulatory attributes of Asparagus racemosus and Withania somnifera supplemented diets in fish, Channa punctatus (Bloch, 1793)

With the progression of aquaculture industry, there has been a spurt in dietary supplementation with economically viable medicinal herbs having enough immunostimulatory potential. This also aids in avoidance of environmentally undesirable therapeutics that are almost inevitable to safeguard fish against an array of diseases in aquaculture practices. The study aims to determine the optimal dose of herbs that can stimulate substantial immune response in fish for reclamation of aquaculture. Immunostimulatory potential of the two medicinal herbs- Asparagus racemosus (Shatavari), Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha), individually, and in combination, with a basal diet was screened up to 60 days in Channa punctatus. 300 laboratory acclimatized healthy fish (14 ± 1 g; 11 ± 1 cm) were divided into ten groups- C, S1, S2, S3, A1, A2, A3, AS1, AS2, and AS3, based on the composition of dietary supplementation, in triplicates, with 10 specimens per group. The hematological index, total protein and lysozyme enzyme activity were performed after 30 and 60 days, while qRT-PCR analysis of lysozyme expression was done after 60 days of the feeding trial. The significant (P < 0.05) increments in hematological indices- (TEC, TLC, DLC, Hb, Hct, MCV, MCH and MCHC), total protein content and serum lysozyme activity, after 30 and 60 days; whereas upregulation of lysozyme transcript levels, both in liver and muscle tissues after 60 days of the feeding trial were recorded in groups- AS1, AS2, and AS3. The maximal increment in lysozyme expression was recorded in AS3, both in liver and muscle tissues, with 3.75 ± 0.13 and 3.21 ± 0.18-folds, respectively. However, increments were non-significant (P > 0.05) for MCV in AS2 and AS3 after 30 days; and for MCHC in AS1 for both the durations; whereas in AS2 and AS3, after 60 days of the feeding trial. A positive correlation (P < 0.05) among lysozyme expression, MCH, lymphocytes, neutrophils, total protein content, and serum lysozyme activity in AS3, after 60 days, conclusively, evinces that a 3% dietary supplementation with both A. racemosus and W. somnifera enhances immunity and health profile of the fish, C. punctatus. The study, thus finds ample scope in augmentation of aquaculture production and also paves the way for more researches for biological screenings of potential immunostimulatory medicinal herbs that can be appropriately incorporated in the fish diet.

Improvement influenza vaccine immune responses with traditional Chinese medicine and its active ingredients

The current influenza vaccines are unable to provide effective protection in many cases, like influenza viruses strain antigenic drift or shift, and the influenza continues to cause significant annual morbidity and mortality. Improving the immune response to influenza vaccination is an unmet need. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and its active ingredients are commonly known to have immunomodulatory properties. We therefore compared influenza vaccination alone or formulated with Astragali Radix (Huangqi in Chinese), and several representative ingredients of TCM, including lentinan (polysaccharide), panax notoginseng saponins (saponin), breviscapine (flavone), andrographolide (terpenoid), and a Chinese herbal compound (kangai) for their potential to enhance immune responses to influenza vaccine in mice. We found that all these TCM-adjuvants were able to increase hemagglutination inhibition (HAI) antibody titers, splenocyte proliferation, splenic T cell differentiation, bone marrow dendritic cell maturity, and both Th1 and Th2 cytokine secretion of influenza vaccine to varying degrees, and that had the characteristics of no excessive inflammatory responses and bidirectional regulation simultaneously. Taken together, our findings show that Astragali Radix exerts a more comprehensive effect on vaccine immunity, on both innate and adaptive immunity. The effects of lentinan and andrographolide on adaptive immunity were more significant, while the effects of breviscapine on innate immunity were stronger, and the other two TCM adjuvants were weaker. As the first report of a comprehensive evaluation of TCM adjuvants in influenza vaccines, the results suggest that TCM and their active ingredients are good candidates for enhancing the immune response of influenza vaccines, and that suitable TCMs can be selected based on the adjuvant requirements of different vaccines.

Development and Evaluation of a Novel Diammonium Glycyrrhizinate Phytosome for Nasal Vaccination

The objective of the present research was to formulate diammonium glycyrrhizinate (DG) into phytosomes (DG-P) to induce nasal immune responses and enhance absorption. Plackett- Burman design was used for process optimization, incorporating specific formulation and process variables to obtain the optimal parameters. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray power diffraction (P-XRD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used for characterization. The adjuvant activity of the DG-P was evaluated by using bone marrow dendritic cells. In vitro nasal mucosal permeation and in situ nasal perfusion were also investigated to evaluate nasal absorption. The DG phytosomes were in the size range of 20~30 nm and zeta-potential range of −30~−40 mV. DG-P demonstrated 4.2-fold increased solubility in n-octanol. Coculturing bone marrow dendritic cells with DG-P led to enhanced dendritic cell maturation. Apparent permeability coefficient of the phytosomal formulation was almost four times higher than that of free DG determined by ex vivo permeation studies on excised porcine mucosa. In situ nasal perfusion studies in rats demonstrated that the nasal absorption of DG-P was significantly higher than that of free DG. Conclusively, the results confirmed that DG-P have potential for use as an adjuvant for nasal vaccine.

Effect of Chinese Herbs on Serum Biochemical Parameters, Immunity Indices, Antioxidant Capacity and Metabolomics in Early Weaned Yak Calves

Chinese traditional herbs are used widely as feed supplements to improve the immune response and antioxidant capacity of livestock. Twenty early-weaned 4-month-old yak calves (72.3 ± 3.65 kg) were divided randomly into four groups (n = 5 per group); three groups were provided with supplementary 80 mL/kg DMI of the root water extracts of either Angelica sinensis, Codonopsis pilosula or Glycyrrhiza uralensis, and one group (control) was not provided with a supplement. Compared to control calves, calves consuming the three herbal extracts increased serum concentrations of albumin (ALB) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), but decreased serum concentrations of free fatty acids (FFAs) and malondialdehyde (MDA) (p < 0.05). Calves consuming A. sinensis decreased (p < 0.05) serum concentration of total cholesterol (TC), and increased (p < 0.05) serum concentration of total proteins (TP). Serum FFA concentrations increased (p = 0.004) linearly with time in the control group, but not in the groups consuming herbs. Serum metabolomic data demonstrated that A. sinensis and C. pilosula regulate mainly amino acid metabolism, while G. uralensis regulates mainly carbon and amino acid metabolism. It was concluded that the three herbal root extracts, as dietary supplements, improved energy and nitrogen metabolism, and enhanced the antioxidant capacity of yak calves.

Analgesic Alkaloids Derived From Traditional Chinese Medicine in Pain Management

Chronic pain is one of the most prevalent health problems. The establishment of chronic pain is complex. Current medication for chronic pain mainly dependent on anticonvulsants, tricyclic antidepressants and opioidergic drugs. However, they have limited therapeutic efficacy, and some even with severe side effects. We turned our interest into alkaloids separated from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), that usually act on multiple drug targets. In this article, we introduced the best-studied analgesic alkaloids derived from TCM, including tetrahydropalmatine, aloperine, oxysophocarpine, matrine, sinomenine, ligustrazine, evodiamine, brucine, tetrandrine, Stopholidine, and lappaconitine, focusing on their mechanisms and potential clinical applications. To better describe the mechanism of these alkaloids, we adopted the concept of drug-cloud (dCloud) theory. dCloud illustrated the full therapeutic spectrum of multitarget analgesics with two dimensions, which are “direct efficacy”, including inhibition of ion channels, activating γ-Aminobutyric Acid/opioid receptors, to suppress pain signal directly; and “background efficacy”, including reducing neuronal inflammation/oxidative stress, inhibition of glial cell activation, restoring the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission, to cure the root causes of chronic pain. Empirical evidence showed drug combination is beneficial to 30–50% chronic pain patients. To promote the discovery of effective analgesic combinations, we introduced an ancient Chinese therapeutic regimen that combines herbal drugs with “Jun”, “Chen”, “Zuo”, and “Shi” properties. In dCloud, “Jun” drug acts directly on the major symptom of the disease; “Chen” drug generates major background effects; “Zuo” drug has salutary and supportive functions; and “Shi” drug facilitates drug delivery to the targeted tissue. Subsequently, using this concept, we interpreted the therapeutic effect of established analgesic compositions containing TCM derived analgesic alkaloids, which may contribute to the establishment of an alternative drug discovery model.

Clinical Application of Bioextracts in Supporting the Reproductive System of Animals and Humans: Potential and Limitations

There is an increasing demand of spices and herbs in developing countries due to the beneficial effects of plants and herbal preparations as medicines. The basic technological process of obtaining extracts from natural raw materials is extraction, consisting in etching with solvents. Plant extracts are extremely complex, multicomponent mixtures obtained from flowers, fruits, leaves, stems, twigs, or seeds of various plant materials. They are a rich source of polyphenols, flavonoids, phytosterols, carotenoids, and vitamins. The search for alternative methods of treatment is increasingly replacing the scientists' excessive focus on the healing properties of bioextracts. Recent research offers great hope for the development of alternative methods to improve the reproductive system. The use of animal models in experimental research has increased knowledge regarding the beneficial effects of bioextracts on both male and female reproductive systems and reproductive cells. Demonstrating the positive effect of plant extracts creates new opportunities for the use of biowaste, which is a by-product in various production sectors. The aim of this review is to present the functional properties of extracts of natural origin, a cross section of modern methods of their preparation, and a discussion of the possibilities of their use in the auxiliary reproductive system.

Developments in Vaccine Adjuvants

Vaccines, including subunit, recombinant, and conjugate vaccines, require the use of an immunostimulator/adjuvant for maximum efficacy. Adjuvants not only enhance the strength and longevity of immune responses but may also influence the type of response. In this chapter, we review the adjuvants that are available for use in human vaccines, such as alum, MF59, AS03, and AS01. We extensively discuss their composition, characteristics, mechanism of action, and effects on the immune system. Additionally, we summarize recent trends in adjuvant discovery, providing a brief overview of saponins, TLRs agonists, polysaccharides, nanoparticles, cytokines, and mucosal adjuvants.

Saracura-Mirá, a Proposed Brazilian Amazonian Adaptogen from Ampelozizyphus amazonicus

The Amazon Forest is known all over the world for its diversity and exuberance, and for sheltering several indigenous groups and other traditional communities. There, as well as in several other countries, in traditional medical systems, weakness, fatigue and debility are seen as limiting health conditions where medicinal plants are often used in a non-specific way to improve body functions. This review brings together literature data on Ampelozizyphus amazonicus, commonly known in Brazil as "saracura-mirá" and/or "cerveja de índio", as an Amazonian adaptogen, including some contributions from the authors based on their ethnographic and laboratory experiences. Topics such as botany, chemistry, ethnopharmacological and pharmacological aspects that support the adaptogen character of this plant, as well as cultivation, market status and supply chain aspects are discussed, and the gaps to establish "saracura-mirá" as an ingredient for the pharmaceutical purposes identified. The revised data presented good scientific evidence supporting the use of this Amazonian plant as a new adaptogen. Literature data also reveal that a detailed survey on natural populations of this plant is needed, as well as agronomical studies that could furnish A. amazonicus bark as a raw material. Another important issue is the lack of developed quality control methods to assure its quality assessment.

Yucca schidigera Extract Dietary Supplementation Affects Growth Performance, Hematological and Physiological Status of European Seabass

The study herein evaluated the effects of dietary supplementation with different yucca (Yucca schidigera) extract levels on rearing water quality, growth performance, protein utilization, hematological and immunological status, and economic benefits of cultured European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) juveniles. Yucca extract (YE) was incorporated in an experimental diet at levels of 0, 0.25, 0.50, and 1 g YE kg−1, and offered to fish reared in 70-L glass aquaria (15 fish per aquarium; three replicates each). Dietary YE supplementation significantly (P<0.05) decreased ammonia-nitrogen levels in water. Compared with the control, groups fed 0.50 and 1 g YE kg−1 diets showed improved growth performance (by 26.02% and 36.98%, respectively) and protein efficiency ratio (by 31.39% and 37.29%, respectively). In addition, hematological parameters (red blood cells, hemoglobin, hematocrit, white blood cells and neutrophil) and innate immune parameters (globulin fractions and lysozyme activity) improved with increasing dietary YE levels. Growth, hematological, and immunological parameters increased with a polynomial second-order regression models, with curves peak close to 1 g YE kg−1 diet. The cortisol level decreased significantly (P<0.05) with increasing dietary YE levels. The groups fed the 0.50 and 1 g YE kg−1 diets generated significantly (P<0.05) higher revenue than groups fed the 0.25 g YE kg−1 and the control diets. The using of YE is recommended as a dietary feed additive at a level of 1 g kg−1 for reducing the environmental footprint of fish protein production, accelerating growth, and improving health status of cultured seabass in a short-term feeding period.

Pharmacological Efficacy of Ginseng against Respiratory Tract Infections

Respiratory tract infections are underestimated, as they are mild and generally not incapacitating. In clinical medicine, however, these infections are considered a prevalent problem. By 2030, the third most comprehensive reason for death worldwide will be chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), according to the World Health Organization. The current arsenal of anti-inflammatory drugs shows little or no benefits against COPD. For thousands of years, herbal drugs have been used to cure numerous illnesses; they exhibit promising results and enhance physical performance. Ginseng is one such herbal medicine, known to alleviate pro-inflammatory chemokines and cytokines (IL-2, IL-4, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8) formed by macrophages and epithelial cells. Furthermore, the mechanisms of action of ginsenoside are still not fully understood. Various clinical trials of ginseng have exhibited a reduction of repeated colds and the flu. In this review, ginseng’s structural features, the pathogenicity of microbial infections, and the immunomodulatory, antiviral, and anti-bacterial effects of ginseng were discussed. The focus was on the latest animal studies and human clinical trials that corroborate ginseng’s role as a therapy for treating respiratory tract infections. The article concluded with future directions and significant challenges. This review would be a valuable addition to the knowledge base for researchers in understanding the promising role of ginseng in treating respiratory tract infections. Further analysis needs to be re-focused on clinical trials to study ginseng’s efficacy and safety in treating pathogenic infections and in determining ginseng-drug interactions.

The involvement of Parkin-dependent mitophagy in the anti-cancer activity of Ginsenoside

Colon cancer, the third most frequent occurred cancer, has high mortality and extremely poor prognosis. Ginsenoside, the active components of traditional Chinese herbal medicine Panax ginseng, exerts antitumor effect in various cancers, including colon cancer. However, the detailed molecular mechanism of Ginsenoside in the tumor suppression have not been fully elucidated. Here, we chose the representative ginsenoside Rg3 and reported for the first time that Rg3 induces mitophagy in human colon cancer cells, which is responsible for its anticancer effect. Rg3 treatment leads to mitochondria damage and the formation of mitophagosome; when autophagy is inhibited, the clearance of damaged mitochondria can be reversed. Next, our results showed that Rg3 treatment activates the PINK1-Parkin signaling pathway and recruits Parkin and ubiquitin proteins to mitochondria to induce mitophagy. GO analysis of Parkin targets showed that Parkin interacts with a large number of mitochondrial proteins and regulates the molecular function of mitochondria. The cellular energy metabolism enzyme GAPDH is validated as a novel substrate of Parkin, which is ubiquitinated by Parkin. Moreover, GAPDH participates in the Rg3-induced mitophagy and regulates the translocation of Parkin to mitochondria. Functionally, Rg3 exerts the inhibitory effect through regulating the nonglycolytic activity of GAPDH, which could be associated with the cellular oxidative stress. Thus, our results revealed GAPDH ubiquitination by Parkin as a crucial mechanism for mitophagy induction that contributes to the tumor-suppressive function of ginsenoside, which could be a novel treatment strategy for colon cancer.

Panax notoginseng saponins prevent colitis-associated colorectal cancer development: the role of gut microbiota

Gut microbiota dysbiosis is a risk factor for colorectal cancer (CRC) in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In this study, the effects of Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) on colitis-associated CRC progression were evaluated on an azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) mouse model. In vivo, PNS significantly relieved AOM/DSS-induced colon tumorigenesis and development by reducing the disease activity index (DAI) scores and colon tumor load. The 16S rRNA data of fecal samples showed that the microbiome community was obviously destructed, while PNS could recover the richness and diversity of gut microbiota. Especially, PNS could increase the abundance of Akkermansia spp. which was significantly decreased in model group and negatively correlated with the progression of CRC. Moreover, ginsenoside compound K (GC-K) was evaluated on the effects of human CRC cells, which was the main bio-transformed metabolite of PNS by gut microbiota. Our data showed that PNS played important role in the prevention of the progression of CRC, due to their regulation on the microbiome balance and microbial bio-converted product with anti-CRC activity.

Astragalus membranaceus root supplementation improves average daily gain, rumen fermentation, serum immunity and antioxidant indices of Tibetan sheep

The use of antibiotics as supplements in animal feed is restricted due to possible health hazards associated with them. Consequently, there is increasing interest in exploiting natural products to improve health and production of livestock with no detrimental side effects. In this study, we examined the effect of Astragalus membranaceus root (AMT) supplementation on DM intake, growth performance, rumen fermentation and immunity of Tibetan sheep. Twenty-four male Tibetan sheep (31 ± 1.4 kg; 9 months old) were assigned randomly to one of four dietary treatments with different levels of AMT: 0, 20, 50 and 80 g/kg DM (A₀, A₂, A₅ and A₈, respectively) in addition to their basal diets. A₀ acted as a control group, and measurements were recorded over a 56-d feeding period. Sheep fed with AMT had a higher average daily gain and a lower feed:gain ratio than controls (P < 0.001). Rumen concentrations of NH₃-N (P < 0.001), total volatile fatty acids (P = 0.028), acetate (P = 0.017) and propionate (P = 0.031) in A₅ and A₈ were higher than those in A₀. The addition of AMT in the feed significantly increased serum antioxidant and immunity factors of the sheep and increased the concentrations of serum interleukin, immunoglobulin and tumour necrosis factor-α (P = 0.010). We concluded that AMT can be used as a feed additive to improve growth performance and rumen fermentation and enhance the immunity of Tibetan sheep. Some responses exhibited a dose-dependent response, whereas other did not exhibit a pattern, with an increase in AMT. The addition of 50 and 80 g/kg AMT of total DM intake showed the most promising results.

Cholesterol-binding ability of saponin from Japanese starfish

Steroidal gylcosides are the predominant metabolites of starfish and are responsible for various biological activities. Some of these activities are recognized as a part of self-defense mechanism of starfish. Cholesterol-binding ability was evaluated with seven starfish crude extracts, where significantly (p < 0.05) highest ability (34%) was observed in Asterias amurensis and the lowest (16%) was attributed in Distolasterias nippon. To characterize the active compound exists in crude saponin from A. amurensis, the extract was subjected to thin layer chromatography following silica gel column chromatography. As the results, seven fractions (fr. A-G) were separated and frs. D and F demonstrated the highest cholesterol-binding ability (32% and 33%, respectively), equivalent to that of the A. amurensis extract. The isolated component (fr. F) was further separated (fr. F1-F3) for structural analysis. Based on cholesterol-binding ability result (29%), fr. F2 was analysed by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time-of-flight mass spectroscopy (MALDI-TOF MS) and then nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). The compound was identified as thornasteroside A, one of the major bioactive compounds already found in A. amurensis. The discovery of a saponin with cholesterol-binding ability has important implications not only for the utilization of starfish but also for food and pharmaceutical research.

Antiproliferative Effect and Cell Cycle Alterations Induced by Salvia officinalis Essential Oil and Its Three Main Components in Human Colon Cancer Cell Lines

Colon cancer is one of the most common human malignancies, and chemotherapy cannot yet prevent recurrence in all patients. Essential oils are phytocomplexes with antiproliferative properties. In this study, we elucidated the antiproliferative properties and the effect on cell cycle progression of Sicilian Salvia officinalis essential oil and its three main compounds, α-thujone, 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) and camphor, on three human colon cancer cell lines. The essential oil was obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by gas chromatography. Cell proliferation was evaluated by MTT assay, and the cell cycle distribution was determined by flow cytometry. Thirty-four compounds were identified in the tested essential oil. Growth inhibition was observed after 72 h, with an impact on cell cycle progression and no effect on the viability of normal colonic epithelial cells. The study shows that S. officinalis essential oil and its three main components have an in vitro antiproliferative effect on colon cancer cells.

Immunological regulatory effect of flavonoid baicalin on innate immune toll-like receptors

As an essential component of the innate immune system, Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of well-recognized ligand-binding receptors found in various organisms and initiate host immune responses. Activation of TLRs signaling pathways lead to the induction of numerous genes that function in host defense. Baicalin is a natural compound from the dry raw root of Scutellaria baicalensis (S. baicalensis) and it has been found to exhibit several pharmaceutical actions, such as anti-inflammation, anti-tumor and antivirus. These biological activities are mainly related to the regulatory effect of baicalin on the host immune response. In this review, we provide an overview of the regulation of baicalin on TLRs signaling pathways in various pathological conditions, and highlight potential targets for the development of the regulatory effect of natural compound from traditional Chinese medicine on innate immune system.

Enhancement in humoral response against inactivated Newcastle disease vaccine in broiler chickens administered orally with plant-derived soyasaponin

The present study aimed to evaluate the immunopotentiating effect of plant-derived soyasaponin and its immunogenicity in chickens challenged with Newcastle disease virus (NDV). Soyasaponin was extracted from soybean seeds and detected using the phytochemical tests, followed by quantification through the dry-weight method. One-day-old broiler chicks (n = 90) were divided into 3 groups, named as A, B, and C. Group A birds were orally administrated with soyasaponin (5 mg/kg), followed by immunization with inactivated ND vaccine intramuscularly (IM), whereas group B birds were vaccinated with inactivated ND vaccine alone. Group C birds were kept unvaccinated. A booster dose on day 21 was also administered IM to group A and B birds. At day 35, all 3 groups were challenged with NDV. To determine the immunogenicity potential of soyasaponin, antibody titer was measured using the hemagglutination inhibition test before and after the NDV challenge. Histochemical examination was performed to determine the pathological changes associated with NDV infection. Foam formation and hemolytic activity confirmed the presence of saponin in soya bean extract. Group A birds showed a higher antibody response compared with group B and C birds. The disease challenge study showed that soyasaponin-adjuvanted NDV vaccine provided complete protection to group A birds against ND. Moreover, no side effects of soyasaponin were observed on the growth performance of birds during the experiment. Therefore, we can conclude that soyasaponin is a potential immunogenic agent and therefore could be a promising candidate to launch a protective humoral response against ND in chickens.

Ginseng alleviates microbial infections of the respiratory tract: a review

The detrimental impact of air pollution as a result of frequent exposure to fine particles posed a global public health risk mainly to the pulmonary disorders in pediatric and geriatric population. Here, we reviewed the current literature regarding the role of ginseng and/or its components as antimicrobials, especially against pathogens that cause respiratory infections in animal and in vitro models. Some of the possible mechanisms for ginseng-mediated viral inhibition suggested are improvements in systemic and mucosa-specific antibody responses, serum hemagglutinin inhibition, lymphocyte proliferation, cell survival rate, and viral clearance in the lungs. In addition, ginseng reduces the expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8) and chemokines produced by airway epithelial cells and macrophages, thus preventing weight loss. In case of bacterial infections, ginseng acts by alleviating inflammatory cytokine production, increasing survival rates, and activating phagocytes and natural killer cells. In addition, ginseng inhibits biofilm formation and induces the dispersion and dissolution of mature biofilms. Most clinical trials revealed that ginseng, at various dosages, is a safe and effective method of seasonal prophylaxis, relieving the symptoms and reducing the risk and duration of colds and flu. Taken together, these findings support the efficacy of ginseng as a therapeutic and prophylactic agent for respiratory infections.

Simultaneous Administration of <i>Boesenbergia pandurata</i> Extract and Vaccination to Stimulate Immune Response in Tilapia, <i>Oreochromis niloticus</i>

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

The use of adjuvants or immunostimulants is often necessary to increase vaccine efficacy, in this study we evaluated the improvement of the immune response in tilapia treated by either oral and immersion administration with vaccine and Boesenbergia pandurata extract (BPE).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The initial concentration of BPE and the cell density of vaccine were 900 mg L-1 and 104 CFU mL-1 for oral administration while 106 CFU mL-1 for immersion, respectively. The extract and vaccine were mixed homogeneously in a ratio of 1:1. Further, the mixture was supplemented to feed at 1 mL g-1 feed. Tilapia with average initial body weight of 15 g were fed containing vaccine and BPE 3 times a day. The other group of fish was immersed with vaccine and BPE for 20 min. After 7th (d7), 14th (d14) and21th (d21) days of treatment, a challenge test was conducted by intramuscularly injection of 0.1 mL of Aeromonas hydrophila and Pseudomonas fluorescens mixture (1:1) at a density of 105 CFU mL-1. Antibody levels, total white blood cell (WBC) and phagocytic activity (PA) were evaluated to determine the immune improvement of the fish. Furthermore, relative percent survival (RPS) and the survival rate (SR) were evaluated at week 2 and 4 after challenge test.

RESULT

Results indicated that the all parameters of tilapia immune system were increased (p<0.05) after 2-4 weeks of both administration methods. Meanwhile, the efficacy of the vaccine has increased by combining BPE treatment using immersion method better than oral method. The RPS of vaccination plus extract by immersion was 83-100% and by oral administration was 83-87%.

CONCLUSION

The present results implied that B. pandurata extract boost the efficacy of the Pseudomonas sp. vaccine by increasing the immune system and diseases resistance in tilapia.

Application of red clover isoflavone extract as an adjuvant in mice

In the present study, the safety of red clover isoflavone extract (RCIE) and its potential adjuvant effects on the cellular and humoral immune responses to ovalbumin (OVA) were evaluated using an ICR mouse model. On day 1, the mice were first subcutaneously immunized with 100 µg OVA, 100 µg OVA + 200 µg aluminum hydroxide gel (alum) or OVA + 50, 100 or 200 µg RCIE (RCIE + OVA), following which booster immunization was performed on day 15. After 2 weeks, the stimulation of splenocyte proliferation and levels of serum antibodies were measured. No notable stress responses were observed after the initial and booster immunization. Splenocyte proliferation was significantly increased in mice immunized with OVA + 100 µg RCIE (P<0.01). The levels of IgG, IgG1 and IgG2a antibodies in serum were also significantly increased in OVA + RCIE groups compared with the OVA control group (P<0.05). In the OVA + RCIE groups, serum levels of interleukin (IL)-2, interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and IL-10 were increased, and the mRNA expression levels of IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-10, T-bet and GATA-3 were also significantly increased compared with the OVA control group (P<0.05) in splenocytes. In addition, as an adjuvant, RCIE significantly increased the survival rates of mice inoculated with an E. coli vaccine and enhanced the early immune protection against pathogenic E. coli. In conclusion, these findings suggest that RCIE can be used as a safe vaccine adjuvant and supports its use in clinical applications.

Quantification of Panax notoginseng saponins metabolites in rat plasma with in vivo gut microbiota-mediated biotransformation by HPLC-MS/MS

Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) are the major components of Panax notoginseng, with multiple pharmacological activities but poor oral bioavailability. PNS could be metabolized by gut microbiota in vitro, while the exact role of gut microbiota of PNS metabolism in vivo remains poorly understood. In this study, pseudo germ-free rat models were constructed by using broad-spectrum antibiotics to validate the gut microbiota-mediated transformation of PNS in vivo. Moreover, a high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS) was developed for quantitative analysis of four metabolites of PNS, including ginsenoside F1 (GF1), ginsenoside Rh2 (GRh2), ginsenoside compound K (GCK) and protopanaxatriol (PPT). The results showed that the four metabolites could be detected in the control rat plasma, while they could not be determined in pseudo germ-free rat plasma. The results implied that PNS could not be biotransformed effectively when gut microbiota was disrupted. In conclusion, gut microbiota plays an important role in biotransformation of PNS into metabolites in vivo.

Adjuvant activity of ethanol extract of Hippophae rhamnoides leaves with inactivated rabies virus antigen

CONTEXT

Hippophae rhamnoides L. (Elaeagnaceae), commonly known as seabuckthorn (SBT), is known for its medicinal and nutritional properties.

OBJECTIVE

Evaluation of in vivo adjuvant activity of SBT leaf extract (SBTE) with inactivated rabies virus antigen (Rb).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Swiss albino mice were immunized with aqueous-alcoholic SBTE (100 mg/kg body weight) or algel (aluminium hydroxide gel) with or without Rb (5% v/v). After priming, booster was administered on day 14. Rabies virus neutralizing antibody (RVNA) titers were estimated by rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test in sera samples collected on days 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35. Effect of adjuvant administration on cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), memory T cells, plasma and CD11c⁺ cells was studied by flow cytometry. In vitro hemolysis was assayed in human RBC.

RESULTS

RVNA titers were significantly enhanced (p < 0.05) after booster administration in mice immunized with SBTE + Rb as compared to the controls. In combination, SBTE, algel and Rb, enhanced the RVNA titers. CTLs significantly increased (p < 0.05) in SBTE + Rb immunized mice. Memory T cells and plasma cells were 27.9 and 15.9%, respectively, in SBTE + Rb immunized mice as compared to that of 20.3 and 11.3%, respectively, in Rb immunized group. SBTE + Rb enhanced peritoneal CD11c⁺ cells (25.8%) as compared to 9.4% cells in Rb immunized mice, showed 3.2-fold increment in LPS induced IL-1β. No RBC hemolysis was observed with SBTE.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates the potential adjuvant activity of SBTE with Rb by increasing RVNA titers and CTL response.

Humoral immune and adjuvant responses of mucosally-administered Tinospora cordifolia immunomodulatory protein in BALB/c mice

Background

In traditional medicine, guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia) is considered as an adaptogen with immunomodulatory prowess. A 25 kDa protein from guduchi stem has been characterized as an immunomodulatory protein (ImP).

Objectives

The aim of this study was to evaluate the intrinsic immunogenicity of guduchi ImP and adjuvant activity using ovalbumin (OVA) as antigen in BALB/c mice.

Materials and Methods

Mice were given guduchi ImP (30 and 60 μg) by intranasal administration to respective groups (n = 6) on days 1, 14 and thereafter weekly till day 42. Immunogenic response was monitored by serum IgG/IgA levels (days 14, 35 and 50). The adjuvant activity was measured by serum anti-OVA IgG/IgA responses to administration of 30 μg OVA with guduchi ImP. The effect of guduchi ImP on the spleen status was examined by splenic weight (day 50).

Results

Guduchi ImP administration displayed a significant increase in anti-guduchi ImP IgG (5–7 fold) and anti-guduchi ImP IgA (3–4 fold) on day 50 vs. control. Guduchi ImP showed a significant increase in anti-OVA IgG (6–7 fold) and anti-OVA IgA (4–5 fold) on day 50 vs. control. The splenic index of guduchi ImP group increased significantly in both the immune and adjuvant response groups; however, the splenic index in the adjuvant response group was markedly higher.

Conclusion

The results indicate that guduchi ImP is a strong immunogen by itself and enhances the immunogenicity of mucosally-administered antigen in BALB/c mice. Based on the results of this animal study, it appears that guduchi ImP shows a potential for future studies in humans.

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Evaluated the immune responses of guduchi immunomodulatory protein (ImP) in BALB/c mice.

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Guduchi ImP (30/60 μg) given intranasally on days 1, 14; thereafter, weekly till day 42.

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Increase in anti-guduchi ImP IgG (5–7 fold) and anti-guduchi ImP IgA (3–4 fold) on day 50.

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Increase in ovalbumin-specific IgG (6–7 fold) and IgA (4–5 fold) on day 50 vs. control.

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Splenic index of guduchi ImP group increased in the immune/adjuvant response groups.

Achyranthes bidentata polypeptide k improves long-term neurological outcomes through reducing downstream microvascular thrombosis in experimental ischemic stroke

Achyranthes bidentata Bl. (A. bidentata) occupies an important position in traditional Chinese medicine owing to the property of promoting the circulation of blood and removing stasis. Achyranthes bidentata polypeptide k (ABPPk) is one of the active components isolated from A. bidentata. We previously demonstrated that ABPPk has potent neuroprotective effects against neuronal apoptosis both in vitro and in vivo, but the roles and mechanisms of ABPPk on long-term functional recovery after ischemic stroke remain unknown. In the current study, we investigated the neuroprotective effects of ABPPk on filament transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) rats and found that ABPPk reduced the infarct volume and maintained the neuronal integrity in the ischemic penumbra. Moreover, we found that ABPPk might reduce the formation of downstream microthrombus through preventing ischemic-induced oxidative damage of brain endothelial cells and activation of tissue factor (TF), plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), and NF-κB. ABPPk also inhibited polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) infiltration and matrix metalloproteinase-2/-9 (MMP-2/-9) activation in the ischemic penumbra. Morris water maze, foot fault test, and modified neurological severity score were assessed for a period of 6 weeks following tMCAO. ABPPk improved long-term recognition abilities and neurological outcomes after stroke compared with saline-treated rats. Taken together, these results suggested that ABPPk is beneficial to the improvement of long-term outcomes after transient cerebral ischemia injury and can be used as a potential neuroprotective agent.

An immunopotentiator, ophiopogonin D, encapsulated in a nanoemulsion as a robust adjuvant to improve vaccine efficacy

As an ingredient of vaccines, adjuvants are indispensable for enhancing and directly inducing robust and extensive adaptive immune responses associated with vaccine antigens. In this study, we initially determined that a new molecular immunopotentiator, ophiopogonin D (OP-D), enhanced the antibody response to antigen. Because OP-D has certain disadvantages, including poor solubility, we next encapsulated OP-D in a nanoemulsion adjuvant (nanoemulsion-encapsulated OP-D, NOD) using low-energy emulsification methods. The NOD thus produced was small, with an average size of 76.45 nm, and exhibited good distribution (PdI value 0.16), significantly increasing the solubility of OP-D. Furthermore, NOD exhibited reduced cellular toxicity and acute toxicity. Our results showed that a fusion antigen of MRSA (HlaH_35LIsdB_348-465) formulated with NOD significantly improved humoral and cellular immune responses compared to those observed in the antigen/OP-D and antigen/AlPO₄ groups. Compared with antigen/OP-D, the antigen formulated with NOD more effectively promoted antigen uptake by dendritic cells (DCs) and the activation of antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Moreover, the NOD-formulated antigen had ideal protective efficacy in a MRSA sepsis model by inducing more potent antibody responses and a Th1/Th17-biased CD4⁺ T cell immune response. Therefore, these results suggest that NOD is a promising and robust adjuvant platform for a MRSA vaccine.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

We first identified a new powerful immunopotentiator, Ophiopogonin D, among dozens of natural products and then used nanotechnology to construct a highly efficient and low toxic adjuvant system (NOD). Our approach intersects natural medicinal chemistry, nanomaterials and immunology, revealing that a strong adjuvant activity of this adjuvant system was verified in vitro and in vivo, and the application of MRSA subunit vaccine model for survival experiments achieved a 100% protection rate. This research illustrate that NOD is a promising and robust adjuvant platform for subunit vaccines.

Astragalus Saponins and Liposome Constitute an Efficacious Adjuvant Formulation for Cancer Vaccines

Cancer vaccines mostly aim to induce cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) against tumors. An appropriate adjuvant is of fundamental importance for inducing cellular immune response. Since the antigen in particulate form is substantially more immunogenic than soluble form antigen, it is beneficial to interact with antigen-presenting cells membrane to induce robust CD8⁺ T cell activation following vaccination. Based on previous research, we designed an adjuvant formulation by combining Astragalus saponins, cholesterol, and liposome to incorporate antigen into a particulate delivery system, so as to enhance cellular immune response. Meanwhile, angiogenesis contributes to tumor growth and metastasis, and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) is involved in tumor angiogenesis. Therefore, using lipo-saponins adjuvant formulation and a human recombinant bFGF antigen protein, we tried to induce bFGF-specific CTL response to inhibit tumor angiogenesis to achieve antitumor activity. After five immunizations, the lipo-saponins/bFGF complex elicited robust antibody response and markedly higher amount of interferon-γ in BALB/c mice, resulting in superior antitumor activities. Decreased microvessel density in CD31 immunohistochemistry and the lysis of vascular endothelial cells by the T lymphocytes from the immunized mice indicated that the immunity inhibited the angiogenesis of tumors and further led to the inhibition of tumors. Our data suggest that the approach to construct adjuvant formulation between liposome and Astragalus saponins appeared highly desirable, and that Astragalus saponins may be utilized as a valuable additive for enhancing the effectiveness of vaccines and stimulating an appropriate immune response that can benefit tumor therapy.

From Plant Compounds to Botanicals and Back: A Current Snapshot

This work aims at giving an updated picture of the strict interaction between main plant biologically active compounds and botanicals. The main features of the emerging class of dietary supplements, the botanicals, are highlighted. Focus is also on the definition of actual possibilities of study approach and research strategies. Examples of innovative directions are given: assessment of interaction of bioactive compounds, chemometrics and the new goal of biorefineries. Current models of existing databases, such as plant metabolic pathways, food composition, bioactive compounds, dietary supplements, and dietary markers, are described as usable tools for health research. The need for categorization of botanicals as well as for the implementation of specific and dedicated databases emerged, based on both analytical data and collected data taken from literature throughout a harmonized and standardized approach for the evaluation of an adequate dietary intake.

Physicochemical properties of anti Vibrio harveyi egg yolk antibody (IgY) and its immunological influence in Indian white shrimp Fenneropenaeus indicus

Edible antibodies specific to host pathogens is an attractive approach to establish protective immunity, especially against gastrointestinal pathogens both in humans and animals. The edible antibody of anti-Vibrio harveyi IgY (anti-V. h IgY) was produced by antigen mixed with immunoadjuvant Asparagus racemosus and Glycine max. Hens were immunized and eggs were collected five weeks after the immunization. Anti-V. harveyi IgY stability in different digestive enzymes such as trypsin and chymotrypsin were evaluated to determine its ability to withstand in the gastrointestinal tract of F. indicus. Specific binding activity and concentration (average 9.5% of total IgY content) of the anti-V. h IgY were determined by the ELISA using V. harveyi antigen. Further the anti-V. h IgY diets including V.h wo, V.h A, V.h G and control diets were fed to F. indicus for 60 days. After 30 and 60 of feeding, group of shrimps were challenged with virulent V. harveyi. After the respective days of feeding, haematological and immunological changes were studied. The parameters including total haemocyte count (THC), coagulase activity, oxyhaemocyanin level, prophenoloxidase, intracellular superoxide anion production, lysozyme, phagocytosis and bacterial agglutinin had significantly (P ≤ .001) increased in the experimental groups in comparission with the control diet fed shrimps. The anti-V. h IgY coated diets helped to reduce the Vibrio load and boosted the immune system in F. indicus's against V. harveyi challenge. The research work shows the potential applications of egg yolk antibodies as anti-bacterial prophylactic uses for infectious diseases and suggests an edible antibody concept as an alternative to conventional antibiotics.

Enhanced immunization via dissolving microneedle array-based delivery system incorporating subunit vaccine and saponin adjuvant

Purpose

To enhance the immunogenicity of the model subunit vaccine, ovalbumin (OVA) was combined with platycodin (PD), a saponin adjuvant. To reduce the toxicity of PD, OVA, and adjuvant were loaded together into liposomes before being incorporated into a dissolving microneedle array.

Methods

OVA- and PD-loaded liposomes (OVA-PD-Lipos) were prepared using the film dispersion method. Their uptake behavior, toxicity to mouse bone marrow dendritic cells (BMDCs), and hemolytic activity to rabbit red blood cells (RBCs) were evaluated. The OVA-PD-Lipos were incorporated into a dissolving microneedle array. The chemical stability of OVA and the physical stability of OVA-PD-Lipos in microneedle arrays were investigated. The immune response of Institute of Cancer Research mice and potential skin irritation reaction of rabbits to OVA-PD-Lipos-MNs were evaluated.

Results

The uptake of OVA by mouse BMDCs was greatly enhanced when OVA was prepared as OVA-PD-Lipos, and in this form, the toxicity of PD was dramatically reduced. OVA was chemically stable as OVA-PD-Lipos, when OVA-PD-Lipos was incorporated into a dissolving microneedle array. Institute of Cancer Research mice treated with OVA-PD-Lipos-MNs showed a significantly enhanced immune response. PD combined with OVA elicited a balanced Th1 and Th2 humoral immune response in mice, with minimal irritation in rabbit skin.

Conclusion

The dissolving microneedle array-based system is a promising delivery vehicle for subunit vaccine and its adjuvant.

A novel technology coupling extraction and foam fractionation for separating the total saponins from Achyranthes bidentata

A novel technology coupling extraction and foam fractionation was developed for separating the total saponins from Achyranthes bidentata. In the developed technology, the powder of A. bidentata was loaded in a nylon filter cloth pocket with bore diameter of 180 µm. The pocket was fixed in the bulk liquid phase for continuously releasing saponins. Under the optimal conditions, the concentration and the extraction rate of the total saponins in the foamate by the developed technology were 73.5% and 416.2% higher than those by the traditional technology, respectively. The foamates obtained by the traditional technology and the developed technology were analyzed by ultraperformance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry to determine their ingredients, and the results appeared that the developed technology exhibited a better performance for separating saponins than the traditional technology. The study is expected to develop a novel technology for cost effectively separating plant-derived materials with surface activity.

Effect of Korean Red Ginseng intake on the survival duration of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 patients

Background

Long-term ginseng intake can increase longevity in healthy individuals. Here, we examined if long-term treatment with Panax ginseng Meyer (Korean Red Ginseng, KRG) can also enhance survival duration (SD) in patients with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection.

Methods

We retrospectively analyzed 252 HIV-1 patients diagnosed from 1986 to 2013 prior to the initiation of antiretroviral therapy. Overall, 162 patients were treated with KRG (3,947 ± 4,943 g) for 86 ± 63 mo. The effects of KRG on SD were analyzed according to the KRG intake level and the length of the follow-up period.

Results

There were significant correlations between the total amount of KRG and SD in the KRG intake group (r = 0.64, p < 0.0001) as well as between total amount of KRG and mean annual decrease in CD4⁺ T-cell count in all 252 patients (r = −0.17, p < 0.01). The annual decrease in CD4⁺ T-cell count (change in cells/μL) was significantly slower in KRG-treated patients than in patients receiving no KRG (48 ± 40 vs. 106 ± 162; p < 0.001). The SD (in months) was also significantly longer in the KRG group than in the no-KRG group (101 ± 64 vs. 59 ± 40, p < 0.01).

Conclusion

KRG prolongs survival in HIV-1 patients, possibly by slowing the decrease in CD4⁺ T-cell count.

Saponaria officinalis L. extract: Surface active properties and impact on environmental bacterial strains

Plant-derived surfactants are characterised by low toxicity, high biodegradability and environmental compatibility. They therefore have many applications; for instance, they can be used in bioremediation to accelerate biodegradation processes, especially of hydrophobic pollutants. This paper analyses the properties of an extract from Saponaria officinalis L. containing saponins and its impact on bacterial strains isolated from soil, as well as its potential for application in hydrocarbon bioremediation. The tested extract from Saponaria officinalis L. contains gypsogenin, hederagenin, hydroxyhederagenin and quillaic acid aglycone structures and demonstrates good emulsification properties. Contact with the extract led to modification of bacterial cell surface properties. A decrease in cell surface hydrophobicity and an increase in membrane permeability were recorded in the experiments. An increase of up to 63% in diesel oil biodegradation was also recorded for Pseudomonas putida DA1 on addition of 1gL^-1 of saponins from Saponaria officinalis L. Saponaria extract showed no toxic impact on the tested environmental bacterial strains at the concentration used in the biodegradation process.

QS-21 enhances the early antibody response to oil adjuvant foot-and-mouth disease vaccine in cattle

Purpose

One of the most important tools against foot-and-mouth disease, a highly contagious and variable viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals, is vaccination. However, the effectiveness of foot-and-mouth disease vaccines on slowing the spread of the disease is questionable. In contrast, high potency vaccines providing early protection may solve issues with the spread of the disease, escaping mutants, and persistency. To increase the potency of the vaccine, additives such as saponin and aluminium hydroxide are used. However, the use of saponin with an oil adjuvant is not common and is sometimes linked to toxicity. QS-21, which is less toxic than Quil A, has been presented as an alternative for use with saponin. In this study, the addition of QS-21 to a commercially available foot-and-mouth disease water-in-oil-in-water emulsion vaccine was evaluated in cattle.

Materials and Methods

After vaccination, serum samples were collected periodically over 3 months. Sera of the QS-21 and normal oil vaccine groups were compared via serum virus neutralization antibody titre and liquid phase blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay antibody titre.

Results

The results showed that there was a significant early antibody increase in the QS-21 group.

Conclusion

Strong early virus neutralizing antibody response will be useful for emergency or ring vaccinations against foot-and-mouth disease in target animals.

Chinese vegetative materia medica in a venereological treatise by Jean Astruc from 1740

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Historical medical sources can be still queried for forgotten cures and remedies. Traditional Chinese medicine has dealt with lues venerea (syphilis) since the Five Dynasties period (10th century). Chinese indigenous materia medica and remedies recorded, studied or imported by the Europeans can reveal known or quite unknown medicinal plants. The studied Jean Astruc's work is a published ethnopharmacological survey carried out in Beijing in the 1730s and it deserves a modern interpretation.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This is the first proposal to identify historical Chinese medicinal plants listed in a scarcely known medical treatise De Morbis venereis… ('On venereal diseases…') by Jean Astruc from 1740. I searched for the current uses and position of the taxonomically identified herbal stock in both traditional Chinese and official medical knowledge, with special attention to syphilis.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Chinese names of drugs and their botanical identities (originally expressed by means of pre-Linnaean polynomials, and now interpreted as accepted binomials) were independently cross-checked with younger till most recent taxonomical and ethnopharmacological sources. Plants and drugs identified this way were queried for their modern applications in traditional Chinese and official medicine with special attention to sexually transmitted diseases (STD) and other uses which are similar to the 18th-century understanding of venereology.

RESULTS

For 24 items of medicinal stock, 34 medicinal plants have been identified or suspected: Acacia catechu, Achyranthes bidentata, Akebia quinata, Angelica dahurica, A. sinensis, Aquilaria sinensis, Aralia cordata, Aristolochia fangchi, Chaenomeles sinensis, Ch. speciosa, Clematis vitalba, Coix lacryma-jobi, Commiphora myrrha, Cydonia oblonga, Daemonorops draco, D. jenkinsiana, Dictamnus dasycarpus, Dryobalanops sumatrensis, Forsythia suspensa, Glycyrrhiza uralensis, Lonicera confusa, L. hypoglauca, L. japonica, Ligusticum striatum (=L. chuanxiong), Piper kadsura, Pterocarpus officinalis, Saposhnikovia divaricata, Sassafras tzumu, Smilax china, S. glabra, Stephania tetrandra, Styphnolobium japonicum, Trichosanthes japonica, T. kirilowii; China wax is also mentioned. Out of them, only Lonicera japonica is being used in China in late syphilis, Achyranthes bidentata in gonorrhoea, and Dictamnus dasycarpus in gynaecological problems. In the Astruc's study, 3 medicinal plant species and 5 further plant genera are correctly determined; other plant parts were misidentified.

CONCLUSIONS

Antisyphilitic actions ascribed to the Chinese medical formulas and their constituents studied by Astruc, seem to have come from Hg or As compounds rather than from vegetative materia medica. The formulas contained only one species still known in TCM as a remedy for syphilis.

Assessment of potential adjuvanticity of Cry proteins

Genetically modified (GM) crops have achieved success in the marketplace and their benefits extend beyond the overall increase in harvest yields to include lowered use of insecticides and decreased carbon dioxide emissions. The most widely grown GM crops contain gene/s for targeted insect protection, herbicide tolerance, or both. Plant expression of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crystal (Cry) insecticidal proteins have been the primary way to impart insect resistance in GM crops. Although deemed safe by regulatory agencies globally, previous studies have been the basis for discussions around the potential immuno-adjuvant effects of Cry proteins. These studies had limitations in study design. The studies used animal models with extremely high doses of Cry proteins, which when given using the ig route were co-administered with an adjuvant. Although the presumption exists that Cry proteins may have immunostimulatory activity and therefore an adjuvanticity risk, the evidence shows that Cry proteins are expressed at very low levels in GM crops and are unlikely to function as adjuvants. This conclusion is based on critical review of the published literature on the effects of immunomodulation by Cry proteins, the history of safe use of Cry proteins in foods, safety of the Bt donor organisms, and pre-market weight-of-evidence-based safety assessments for GM crops.

Adjuvant Effect of Quillaja saponaria Saponin (QSS) on Protective Efficacy and IgM Generation in Turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) upon Immersion Vaccination

The adjuvant effect of Quillaja saponaria saponin (QSS) on protection of turbot fry was investigated with immersion vaccination of formalin-killed Vibrio anguillarum O1 and various concentrations of QSS (5, 25, 45 and 65 mg/L). Fish were challenged at days 7, 14 and 28 post-vaccination. Significantly high relative percent of survival (RPS) ((59.1 ± 13.6)%, (81.7 ± 8.2)%, (77.8 ± 9.6)%) were recorded in the fish that received bacterins immersion with QSS at 45 mg/L, which is comparable to the positive control group vaccinated by intraperitoneal injection (IP). Moreover, a remarkably higher serum antibody titer was also demonstrated after 28 days in the vaccinated fish with QSS (45 mg/L) than those vaccinated fish without QSS (p < 0.05), but lower than the IP immunized fish (p < 0.05). Significant upregulation of IgM gene expression has also been identified in the tissues of skin, gill, spleen and kidney from the immunized fish in comparison to the control fish. Taken together, the present study indicated that QSS was able to dramatically evoke systemic and mucosal immune responses in immunized fish. Therefore, QSS might be a promising adjuvant candidate for fish vaccination via an immersion administering route.

Soya Saponins Induce Enteritis in Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar L.)

Soybean meal-induced enteritis (SBMIE) is a well-described condition in the distal intestine of salmonids, and saponins have been implicated as the causal agent. However, the question remains whether saponins alone cause SBMIE. Moreover, the dose-response relationship has not been described. In a 10 week feeding trial with Atlantic salmon, a highly purified (95%) soya saponin preparation was supplemented (0, 2, 4, 6, or 10 g/kg) to two basal diets, one containing fishmeal as the major protein source (FM) and the other 25% lupin meal (LP). Saponins caused dose-dependent increases in the severity of inflammation independent of the basal diet, with concomitant alterations in digestive functions and immunological marker expression. Thus, saponins induced inflammation whether the diet contained other legume components or not. However, responses were often the same or stronger in fish fed the corresponding saponin-supplemented LP diets despite lower saponin exposure, suggesting potentiation by other legume component(s).

Evaluation of cytotoxicity and immune modulatory activities of soyasaponin Ab: an in vitro and in vivo study

To improve the immune efficacy of protein subunit vaccines, novel adjuvants are needed to elicit a suitable protective immune response and to promote long term immunologic memory. In this work, soyasaponin Ab, a major constituent among group A soyasaponins in soybeans was purified and prepared from soy hypocotyls. The immunomodulatory effects of soyasaponin Ab both in vitro and in vivo were investigated, and its pro-immunomodulatory molecular mechanism was also studied. For in vitro assays, with mouse macrophage cell line RAW264.7 as the studying model, both cytotoxicity and immune stimulatory activity were investigated to evaluate the potential of soyasaponin Ab as the vaccine adjuvant. The results indicated that soyasaponin Ab could be significantly safer than Quillaja saponins (QS). Soyasaponin Ab showed no toxicities over the tested concentration ranges compared to QS. Soyasaponin Ab was proved able to promote releases of inflammatory cytokines like TNFα and IL-1β in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, NF-κB signalling was also activated by soyasaponin Ab effectively. In addition, with TLR4 gene expression of RAW264.7 cell inhibited by RNA interference, immune stimulatory effects by soyasaponin Ab dropped down significantly. On the other hand, the in vivo experiment results showed that anti-ovalbumin (OVA) IgG, IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b were significantly enhanced by the soyasaponin Ab and QS groups (p<0.05 or p<0.01). The results suggested that compared to QS, soyasaponin Ab may represent a viable candidate for effective vaccine adjuvant. TLR4 receptor dependent pathway may be involved in immune stimulatory effects of soyasaponin Ab.

Enhanced immune responses of chickens to oral vaccination against infectious bursal disease by ginseng stem-leaf saponins

Infectious bursal disease (IBD), caused by infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), is an immunosuppressive infectious disease of global economic importance in poultry. This study was designed to evaluate the effect of oral administration of ginseng stem-leaf saponins (GSLS) on humoral and gut mucosal immunity in chickens vaccinated with live IBDV vaccine, and furthermore, to test its protective efficacy against virulent IBDV challenge following vaccination. In experiment 1, chickens were orally administered with GSLS at 5 mg/kg of BW for 7 d, and then immunized with live IBDV vaccine via the oral route. Serum was sampled on 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 wk postvaccination for detecting antibody titers by ELISA, and intestinal tissues were collected on 0, 1, 3, and 5 wk postvaccination for measurement of IgA-positive cells and intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes by immunohistochemical and hematoxylin-eosin staining, respectively. Result showed that antibody titers, IgA-positive cells and intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes were significantly higher in chickens drinking GSLS than the control, suggesting an enhanced effect of GSLS on humoral and gut mucosal immune responses. In experiment 2, chickens were delivered with GSLS and then vaccinated in the same way as in experiment 1. The birds were challenged with virulent IBDV at wk 3 postvaccination. Then the birds were weighed, bled, and necropsied at d 3 postchallenge and the bursae were sampled for gross and histopathological examination. Results demonstrated that GSLS provided a better protection against virulent IBDV challenge following vaccination than the control. In conclusion, oral administration of GSLS enhances both humoral and gut mucosal immune responses to IBDV and offers a better protection against virulent IBDV challenge. Considering its immunomodulatory properties to IBDV vaccine, GSLS might be a promising oral adjuvant for vaccination against infectious diseases in poultry.