Monkeypox virus: a re-emergent threat to humans

Structural and molecular investigation of the impact of S30L and D88N substitutions in G9R protein on coupling with E4R from Monkeypox virus (MPXV)

Understanding the pathogenesis mechanism of the Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is essential to guide therapeutic development against the Monkeypox virus. In the current study, we investigated the impact of the only two reported substitutions, S30L, D88N, and S30L-D88N on the G9R of the replication complex in 2022 with E4R using structural modeling, simulation, and free energy calculation methods. From the molecular docking and dissociation constant (KD) results, it was observed that the binding affinity did not increase in the mutants, but the interaction paradigm was altered by these substitutions. Molecular simulation data revealed that these mutations are responsible for destabilization, changes in protein packing, and internal residue fluctuations, which can cause functional variance. Additionally, hydrogen bonding analysis revealed that the estimated number of hydrogen bonds are almost equal among the wild-type G9R and each mutant. The total binding free energy for the wild-type G9R with E4R was -85.00 kcal/mol while for the mutants the TBE was -42.75 kcal/mol, -43.68 kcal/mol, and -48.65 kcal/mol respectively. This shows that there is no direct impact of these two reported mutations on the binding with E4R, or it may affect the whole replication complex or any other mechanism involved in pathogenesis. To explore these variations further, we conducted PCA and FEL analyses. Based on our findings, we speculate that within the context of interaction with E4R, the mutations in the G9R protein might be benign, potentially leading to functional diversity associated with other proteins.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Clade I mpox virus genomic diversity in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2018-2024: Predominance of zoonotic transmission

Recent reports raise concerns on the changing epidemiology of mpox in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). High-quality genomes were generated for 337 patients from 14/26 provinces to document whether the increase in number of cases is due to zoonotic spillover events or viral evolution, with enrichment of APOBEC3 mutations linked to human adaptation. Our study highlights two patterns of transmission contributing to the source of human cases. All new sequences from the eastern South Kivu province (n = 17; 4.8%) corresponded to the recently described clade Ib, associated with sexual contact and sustained human-to-human transmission. By contrast, all other genomes are clade Ia, which exhibits high genetic diversity with low numbers of APOBEC3 mutations compared with clade Ib, suggesting multiple zoonotic introductions. The presence of multiple clade I variants in urban areas highlights the need for coordinated international response efforts and more studies on the transmission and the reservoir of mpox.

Transcriptomic and Proteomic Analysis of Monkeypox Virus A5L-Expressing HEK293T Cells

Monkeypox (MPOX) is a zoonotic viral disease caused by the Monkeypox virus (MPXV), which has become the most significant public health threat within the Orthopoxvirus genus since the eradication of the Variola virus (VARV). Despite the extensive attention MPXV has garnered, little is known about its clinical manifestations in humans. In this study, a high-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) approach was employed to investigate the transcriptional and metabolic responses of HEK293T cells to the MPXV A5L protein. RNA-seq analysis identified a total of 1473 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), comprising 911 upregulated and 562 downregulated genes. Additionally, LC-MS/MS analysis revealed 185 cellular proteins with significantly altered abundance ratios that interact with the A5L protein. Here, we perform Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis of the transcriptome and proteome signatures of MPXV A5L-expressing HEK293T cells to gain insights into the virus proteins-host interplay. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that transfection of the MPXV A5L protein modulated genes primarily associated with the cell cycle, ribosome, and DNA replication. Proteomic analysis indicated that this protein predominantly interacted with host ribosomal proteins and cytoskeletal proteins. The combination of transcriptomic and proteomic analysis offers new perspectives for understanding the interaction between pathogens and hosts. Our research emphasizes the significant role of MPXV A5L in facilitating viral internalization and assembly, as well as its impact on the host's translation system.

Long-Lasting Protection and Dose Optimization of MPXV Polyvalent Mpox mRNA Vaccines Against Lethal Vaccinia Virus Challenge in Mice

The outbreak of clade II monkeypox virus (MPXV) and the additional outbreak in Central Africa of clade I virus from 2023 have attracted worldwide attention. The development of a scalable and effective vaccine against the ongoing epidemic of mpox is urgently needed. We previously constructed two bivalent MPXV mRNA vaccines, LBA (B6R-A29L) and LAM (A35R-M1R), and a quadrivalent mRNA vaccine, LBAAM (B6R-A35R-A29L-M1R). These vaccines at a 20 µg dose could induce potential MPXV antigen-specific immune responses and provide protection against lethal VACV challenge. Compared with the individual bivalent mRNA vaccines, the two quadrivalent vaccines LBAAM and LBA& LAM displayed superior protective effects. To characterize these vaccines further, we monitored long-term immunity and protection as long as 28 weeks after initial immunization and optimized the immunization dosages to decrease the cost of production for future clinical use. Our results demonstrated that both the bivalent MPXV mRNA vaccine LAM (A35R-M1R) and the two tetravalent vaccines LBAAM and LBA& LAM could elicit long-lasting antigen-specific IgG antibodies as well as neutralizing antibodies against VACV and MPXV. They all provided complete protection against VACV challenge until 28 weeks post prime immunization. Moreover, the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of the two tetravalent vaccines (LBAAM and LBA& LAM) are dose dependent, and even the low-dose (1 µg) vaccine could provide sufficient protection against lethal VACV challenge. These results provide valuable clues for the further production of MPXV mRNA vaccines for use in humans.

Evolutionary variation of the monkeypox virus detected for the first time in Nantong, Jiangsu

Monkeypox (MPOX) is a zoonotic disease caused by Orthopoxvirus monkeypox (MPXV), belonging to the Orthopoxvirus genus, and exhibits symptoms similar to smallpox. In 2024, the monkeypox outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo continued to develop, raising widespread global public health concerns. In September 2023, the first local monkeypox outbreak was reported in Nantong, Jiangsu Province, China. Whole-genome sequencing of samples from seven confirmed patients identified a new lineage, C.1.1, which may be related to imported cases from Japan. Evolutionary analysis of MPXV showed fewer mutations mediated by Apolipoprotein B mRNA Editing Catalytic polypeptide-like 3 (APOBEC3). Additionally, mutations in the N2L protein disrupted transcription initiation, while changes in the Cytomegalovirus-encoded immunomodulatory protein B (CrmB) led to structural instability of the protein. It is hoped that these findings will provide insights for future research on the evolutionary mechanisms of the monkeypox virus and the development of vaccines.

Immunoinformatics approach: Developing a multi-epitope vaccine with novel carriers targeting monkeypox virus

Since May 2022, the global spread of monkeypox virus (MPXV) has presented a significant threat to public health. Despite this, there are limited preventive measures available. In this study, different computational tools were employed to design a multi-epitope vaccine targeting MPXV. Three key MPXV proteins, M1R, B6R, and F3L, were chosen for epitope selection, guided by bioinformatic analyses to identify immunodominant epitopes for T- and B-cell activation. To enhance immune stimulation and facilitate targeted delivery of the vaccine to specific cells, the selected epitopes were linked to novel carriers, including the extracellular domain of cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4), a 12-mer Clec9a binding peptide (CBP-12), and a Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) peptide ligand. The designed vaccine construct exhibited strong antigenicity along with nonallergenic and nontoxic properties, with favorable physicochemical characteristics. The validated vaccine's tertiary structure underwent evaluation for interactions with CD80/86, Clec9a, and TLR2 through molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation. The results ensured the vaccine's stability and high affinity for the aforementioned receptors. In silico immune simulations studies revealed robust innate and adaptive immune responses, including enhanced mucosal immunity essential for protection against MPXV. Ultimately, the DNA sequence of the vaccine construct was synthesized and successfully cloned into the pET-22b(+) vector. Our study, through integration of computational predictions, suggests the proposed vaccine's potential efficacy in safeguarding against MPXV; however, further in vitro and in vivo validations are imperative to assess real-world effectiveness and safety.

Bioinformatic identification of monkeypox virus phylogenetic gene trees that are representative of its whole-genome phylogenetic tree

Phylogenetic analysis based on whole-genome sequences is the gold standard for monkeypox virus (MPXV) phylogeny. However, genomic epidemiology capability and capacity are lacking or limited in resource poor countries of sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, these make real-time genome surveillance of MPXV virtually impossible. We hypothesized that phylogenetic analysis based on single, conserved genes will produce phylogenetic tree topology consistent with MPXV whole-genome phylogeny, thus serving as a reliable proxy to phylogenomic analysis. In this study, we analyzed 62 conserved MPXV genes and showed that Bayesian phylogenetic analysis based on five genes (OPG 066/E4L, OPG068/E6R, OPG079/I3L, OPG145/A18R, and OPG150/A23R) generated phylogenetic trees with 72.2-96.3% topology similarity index to the reference phylogenomic tree topology. Our results showed that phylogenetic analysis of the identified five genes singly or in combination can serve as surrogate for whole-genome phylogenetic analysis, and thus obviates the need for whole-genome sequencing and phylogenomic analysis in regions where genomic epidemiology competence and capacity are lacking or unavailable. This study is relevant to evolution and genome surveillance of MPXV in resource limited countries.

Nail Disorders in Patients Living with HIV Coinfected with Monkeypox: A Clinical Study in 69 Mexican Cases

Introduction

Several infectious diseases can present nail manifestations, which may be useful for diagnosis and prognosis, and only a few reports have been made regarding monkeypox (mpox). The objective of this study was to describe the clinical characteristics of nail alterations in patients living with HIV coinfected with mpox.

Methods

A prospective, cross-sectional study included patients living with HIV/AIDS, coinfected with mpox. We examined all 20 nails in search of nail plate alterations. Patients were divided into two groups, with and without nail disease, and the CD4 count was noted according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) classification. A χ2 or Fisher's exact test for qualitative variables and Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests with post hoc Bonferroni test for quantitative variables were used to compare them. Data were analyzed with the SPSS Statistics 25 software.

Results

Sixty-nine patients were included. The frequency of nail involvement was 58%. Papulonodular lesions were the most frequent type identified, with 21 cases (30.4%). A significant difference was observed between patients with nail disease versus median CD4 count (160 vs. 700/mm3; p = 0.002) and median HIV viral load (45,000 vs. 900/mL; p = 0.009). When comparing the characteristics of the nail lesions with the CDC Classification System for HIV infection by the CD4 count, a significant difference was observed in foot involvement, splinter hemorrhages, papulo-nodular lesions, anonychia, onychomadesis, acute paronychia, and nail bed ulcer-atrophy (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

The frequency of nail lesions is high in patients living with HIV coinfected with mpox. In addition, they tend to be more destructive in patients with lower CD4 counts and higher viral loads.

An Epidemiological and Clinical Study of Monkeypox in Changsha, China: A Retrospective Analysis of HIV-Infected and Non-HIV-Infected Patients from June to December 2023

Background

The World Health Organization (WHO) declared Human Monkeypox (mpox) as a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) in July 2022. Due to border quarantine and isolation measures implemented from January 2020 to December 2022, Beijing did not report its first locally transmitted case of mpox until May 31, 2023, which represented a delayed occurrence compared to other countries. The aim of this observational analysis is to describe demographical data, symptoms presentation and clinical course till outcome of patients diagnosed with monkeypox (mpox) from June to December 2023 at a tertiary level hospital in Changsha, china.

Patients and Methods

We conducted a retrospective study on 44 confirmed mpox cases and compared laboratory data between HIV-infected and non-HIV-infected patients at a tertiary general hospital in Changsha, China.

Results

All patients were male, with a median age of 33 years. 88.6% patients had sex with men (MSM), and 88.9% HIV-infected patients accepted antiretroviral therapy (ART). The early symptoms of mpox typically include rashes and fever, which usually appear around the penis or anus. There were significant differences were found between HIV-infected and non-HIV-infected patients in laboratory data (P < 0.05), but none were clinically significant.

Conclusion

This study underscores the importance of targeted mpox management strategies in MSM populations, particularly those co-infected with HIV and syphilis. Health authorities should consider proactive prevention and control measures, especially given the overlapping epidemics of HIV, syphilis, and mpox. Further studies are needed to explore the long-term clinical outcomes and potential benefits of vaccination in preventing mpox among high-risk populations.

Exploration of drug repurposing for Mpox outbreaks targeting gene signatures and host-pathogen interactions

Monkeypox (Mpox) is a growing public health concern, with complex interactions within host systems contributing to its impact. This study employs multi-omics approaches to uncover therapeutic targets and potential drug repurposing opportunities to better understand Mpox's molecular pathogenesis. We developed an in silico host-pathogen interaction (HPI) network and applied weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) to explore interactions between Mpox and host proteins. Subtype-specific host-pathogen protein-protein interaction networks were constructed, and key modules from the HPI and WGCNA were integrated to identify significant host proteins. To predict upstream signaling pathways and transcription factors, we used eXpression2Kinases and ChIP-X Enrichment Analysis. The multi-Steiner trees method was applied to compare our findings with those from FDA-approved antiviral drugs. Analysis of 55 differentially expressed genes in Mpox infection revealed 11 kinases and 15 transcription factors as key regulators. We identified 16 potential drug targets, categorized into 8 proviral genes (ESR2, ERK1, ERK2, P38, JNK1, CDK4, GSK3B, STAT3) designated for inhibition, and 8 antiviral genes (IKKA, HDAC1, HIPK2, TF65, CSK21, HIPK2, ESR2, GSK3B) designated for activation. Proviral genes are involved in the AKT, Wnt, and STAT3 pathways, while antiviral genes impact the AP-1, NF-κB, apoptosis, and IFN pathways. Promising FDA-approved candidates were identified, including kinase inhibitors, steroid hormone receptor agonists, STAT3 inhibitors, and notably Niclosamide. This study enhances our understanding of Mpox by identifying key therapeutic targets and potential repurposable drugs, providing a valuable framework for developing new treatments.

Computational discovery of tripeptide inhibitors targeting monkeypox virus A42R profilin-like protein

Monkeypox is an infectious disease caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV), a member of the Orthopoxvirus genus closely related to smallpox. The structure of the A42R profilin-like protein is the first and only available structure among MPXV proteins. Biochemical studies of A42R were conducted in the 1990s and later work also analyzed the protein's function in viral replication in cells. This study aims to screen tripeptides for their potential inhibition of the A42R profilin-like protein using computational methods, with implications for MPXV therapy. A total of 8000 tripeptides underwent molecular docking simulations, resulting in the identification of 20 compounds exhibiting strong binding affinity to A42R. To validate the docking results, molecular dynamics simulations and free energy perturbation calculations were performed. These analyses revealed two tripeptides with sequences TRP-THR-TRP and TRP-TRP-TRP, which displayed robust binding affinity to A42R. Markedly, electrostatic interactions predominated over van der Waals interactions in the binding process between tripeptides and A42R. Three A42R residues, namely Glu9, Ser12, and Arg38, appear to be pivotal in mediating the interaction between A42R and the tripeptide ligands. Notably, tripeptides containing two or three tryptophan residues demonstrate a pronounced binding affinity, with the tripeptide comprising three tryptophan amino acids showing the highest level of affinity. These findings offer valuable insights for the selection of compounds sharing a similar structure and possessing a high affinity for A42R, potentially capable of inhibiting its enzyme activity. The study highlights a structural advantage and paves the way for the development of targeted therapies against MPXV infections.

What the pox? Review of poxviruses affecting humans

The re-emergence of human mpox with the multi-country outbreak and a recent report of borealpox (previously Alaskapox) resulting in one death has heightened awareness of the significance of the Poxviridae family and their zoonotic potential. This review examines various poxviruses affecting humans, with discussion of less commonly encountered Poxviridae members, including pathogenesis, epidemiology, and diagnostic methods. Poxvirus treatment is beyond the intended scope of this review and will not be discussed.

An mpox quadrivalent mRNA vaccine protects mice from lethal vaccinia virus challenge

The outbreak of 2022 monkeypox virus (MPXV) infection in nonendemic regions is a global public health concern. A highly effective and safe MPXV vaccine that is available to the general public is urgently needed to control the mpox pandemic. Here, we developed a multivalent mRNA vaccine candidate, MPXV-1103, which expresses the full-length B6, A35, A29 and M1 proteins with three flexible linkers (G4S1)3 in a single sequence. Compared with the monovalent MPXV mRNA vaccine candidates or the quadrivalent mRNA vaccine from mixtures of the four monovalent MPXV mRNA vaccines, MPXV-1103 elicits a robust humoral response and an MPXV-specific T-cell response and protects mice from lethal vaccinia virus (VACV) challenge, with no live virus detected in the nasal or lungs even at dosages as low as 1 μg. Furthermore, analysis of complete blood counts and photomicrographs of tissue from the main organs of mice vaccinated with MPXV-1103 at doses of 5 μg and 20 μg revealed that two doses of MPXV-1103 did not cause any observable pathological changes in the mice. Collectively, our results suggest that MPXV-1103, with features of high efficacy, safety and a simplified manufacturing process, is a promising vaccine candidate for defending against MPXV infection.

The monkeypox virus-host interplays

Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is a DNA virus belonging to the Orthopoxvirus genus within the Poxviridae family which can cause a zoonotic infection. The unexpected non-endemic outbreak of mpox in 2022 is considered as a new global threat. It is imperative to take proactive measures, including enhancing our understanding of MPXV's biology and pathogenesis, and developing novel antiviral strategies. The host immune responses play critical roles in defensing against MPXV infection while the virus has also evolved multiple strategies for immune escape. This review summarizes the biological features, antiviral immunity, immune evasion mechanisms, pathogenicity, and prevention strategies for MPXV.

The unique immune evasion mechanisms of the mpox virus and their implication for developing new vaccines and immunotherapies

Mpox is an infectious and contagious zoonotic disease caused by the mpox virus (MPXV), which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. Since 2022, MPXV has posed a significant threat to global public health. The emergence of thousands of cases across the Western Hemisphere prompted the World Health Organization to declare an emergency. The extensive coevolutionary history of poxviruses with humans has enabled these viruses to develop sophisticated mechanisms to counter the human immune system. Specifically, MPXV employs unique immune evasion strategies against a wide range of immunological elements, presenting a considerable challenge for treatment, especially following the discontinuation of routine smallpox vaccination among the general population. In this review, we start by discussing the entry of the mpox virus and the onset of early infection, followed by an introduction to the mechanisms by which the mpox virus can evade the innate and adaptive immune responses. Two caspase-1 inhibitory proteins and a PKR escape-related protein have been identified as phylogenomic hubs involved in modulating the immune environment during the MPXV infection. With respect to adaptive immunity, mpox viruses exhibit unique and exceptional T-cell inhibition capabilities, thereby comprehensively remodeling the host immune environment. The viral envelope also poses challenges for the neutralizing effects of antibodies and the complement system. The unique immune evasion mechanisms employed by MPXV make novel multi-epitope and nucleic acid-based vaccines highly promising research directions worth investigating. Finally, we briefly discuss the impact of MPXV infection on immunosuppressed patients and the current status of MPXV vaccine development. This review may provide valuable information for the development of new immunological treatments for mpox.

Exploring Monkeypox: prospects for therapeutics through computational-aided drug discovery

Monkeypox virus (MPXV) has emerged as a significant public health concern due to its potential for human transmission and its severe clinical manifestations. This review synthesizes findings from peer-reviewed articles spanning the last two decades, shedding light on diverse aspects of MPXV research. The exploration commences with an analysis of transmission dynamics, including zoonotic and human-to-human transmission, and potential reservoir hosts. Detailed insights into viral replication mechanisms illuminate its influence on disease progression and pathogenicity. Understanding the genomic and virion structure of MPXV is pivotal for targeted interventions. Genomic characteristics contributing to virulence are examined, alongside recent advancements in virion structure elucidation through cutting-edge imaging techniques. Emphasizing combat strategies, the review lists potential protein targets within the MPXV lifecycle for computer-aided drug design (CADD). The role of protein-ligand interactions and molecular docking simulations in identifying potential drug candidates is highlighted. Despite the absence of approved MPXV medications, the review outlines updates on ongoing small molecules and vaccine development efforts, spanning traditional and innovative platforms. The evolving landscape of computational drug research for MPXV is explored, encompassing advanced algorithms, machine learning, and high-performance computing. In conclusion, this review offers a holistic perspective on MPXV research by integrating insights spanning transmission dynamics to drug design. Equipping researchers with multifaceted understanding underscore the importance of innovative methodologies and interdisciplinary collaborations in addressing MPXV's challenges as research advances.

In-silico investigation of E8 surface protein of the monkeypox virus to identify potential therapeutic agents

The re-emergence of the monkeypox virus (MPXV) in 2022 has become a global issue. The virus was first found in Denmark in 1958. The first human MPXV disease was reported in 1980 in Congo, caused by a rare zoonotic virus belonging to the genus Orthopoxvirus and the family Poxviridae. Like SARS-CoV, there are no specific drugs to treat this infection. Taking cues from the successful implementation of drug repositioning for the Covid-19 pandemic using in silico drug discovery. We employed structure-based drug design in the study to repurpose the existing drug and natural product derivatives libraries against MPXV. The E8 protein was chosen as a therapeutic target because it is a surface membrane protein involved in viral entry and adhesion to the host cell surface membrane. Our study was bifurcated into the following steps; determining and analyzing the structure of the E8, followed by structure-based virtual screening of different datasets (natural products obtained from bacteria and fungi and FDA-approved drugs) to identify the hits. Based on the best binding affinities and protein-ligand interactions, we further proceeded for molecular dynamic (MD) studies of the identified hits, which revealed Gabosine D (docking score = -8.469 kcal/mol, MM/GBSA dG bind = -41.6729 kcal/mol) and Edoxudine (docking score = -6.372 kcal/mol, MM/GBSA dG bind = -35.8291 kcal/mol) as the best lead molecules. MD simulation for 100 ns was performed in triplicate, and post MM/GBSA analysis was conducted, which proves the stability of the identified leads. In addition, their ADME profiles also confirmed their suitability as therapeutic options for the treatment of monkeypox.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Exploring the chemical space for potential inhibitors against cell surface binding protein of Mpox virus using molecular fingerprint based screening approach

Mpox virus is the latest member of the Poxviridae family of which small pox virus is a member. Monekypox virus has led to thousands of infections across the globe. Poxvirus gains entry into the cell making use of glycosaminoglycans like chondroitin sulphate and heparan sulphate. The interaction of the Mpox virus protein E8L also called cell surface binding protein is crucial for host cell attachment, membrane fusion and viral entry into the host cell leading to establishment of infection thus making this protein a very attractive therapeutic target. In this study we have tried to utilize the chondroitin sulphate binding groove present in the protein and identify molecules which are structurally similar to chondroitin sulphate. These molecules can thus occupy the same pocket but with a better binding affinity than chondroitin sulphate in order to outcompete the latter molecule from binding to the E8L protein and thus prevent it from performing its function. This study may pave the way for development of highly efficient therapeutics against the Mpox virus and further curb its infective potential.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Computational investigations of potential inhibitors of monkeypox virus envelope protein E8 through molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations

The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared the monkeypox outbreak a public health emergency, as there is no specific therapeutics for monkeypox virus (MPXV) disease. This study focused on docking various commercial drugs and plant-derived compounds against the E8 envelope protein crucial for MPXV attachment and pathogenesis. The target protein structure was modeled based on the vaccinia virus D8L protein. Notably, maraviroc and punicalagin emerged as potential ligands, with punicalagin exhibiting higher binding affinity (- 9.1 kcal/mol) than maraviroc (- 7.8 kcal/mol). Validation through 100 ns molecular dynamics (MD) simulations demonstrated increased stability of the E8-punicalagin complex, with lower RMSD, RMSF, and Rg compared to maraviroc. Enhanced hydrogen bonding, lower solvent accessibility, and compact motions also attributed to higher binding affinity and stability of the complex. MM-PBSA calculations revealed van der Waals, electrostatic, and non-polar solvation as principal stabilizing energies. The binding energy decomposition per residue favored stable interactions between punicalagin and the protein's active site residues (Arg20, Phe56, Glu228, Tyr232) compared to maraviroc. Overall study suggests that punicalagin can act as a potent inhibitor against MPXV. Further research and experimental investigations are warranted to validate its efficacy and safety.

A novel multi-epitope peptide vaccine targeting immunogenic antigens of Ebola and monkeypox viruses with potential of immune responses provocation in silico

The emergence or reemergence of monkeypox (Mpox) and Ebola virus (EBOV) agents causing zoonotic diseases remains a huge threat to human health. Our study aimed at designing a multi-epitope vaccine (MEV) candidate to target both the Mpox and EBOV agents using immunoinformatics tools. Viral protein sequences were retrieved, and potential nonallergenic, nontoxic, and antigenic epitopes were obtained. Next, cytotoxic and helper T-cell (CTL and HTL, respectively) and B-cell (BCL) epitopes were predicted, and those potential epitopes were fused utilizing proper linkers. The in silico cloning and expression processes were implemented using Escherichia coli K12. The immune responses were prognosticated using the C-ImmSim server. The MEV construct (29.53 kDa) included four BCL, two CTL, and four HTL epitopes and adjuvant. The MEV traits were pertinent in terms of antigenicity, non-allergenicity, nontoxicity, physicochemical characters, and stability. The MEV candidate was also highly expressed in E. coli K12. The strong affinity of MEV-TLR3 was confirmed using molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation analyses. Immune simulation analyses unraveled durable activation and responses of cellular and humoral arms alongside innate immune responses. The designed MEV candidate demonstrated appropriate traits and was promising in the prediction of immune responses against both Mpox and EBOV agents. Further experimental assessments of the MEV are required to verify its efficacy.

Identification of novel potential inhibitors of monkeypox virus thymidine kinase using molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation and MM/PBSA methods

The monkeypox spread has been announced a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) by the World Health Organization (WHO). Both monkeypox and smallpox viruses are placed in the genus Orthopoxvirus. Despite recommendations for the administration of smallpox drugs versus monkeypox, no specific drug for monkeypox has yet been introduced. A reliable and effective method against this outbreak can be the use of natural products. This study aimed for identification of natural flavonoid derivatives as potential thymidine kinase inhibitors, the main drug target of monkeypox virus. Thymidine kinase protein structure was predicted by homology modeling and the quality of generated model was evaluated. Then, the interaction between natural flavonoids and the modeled thymidine kinase was explored by molecular docking. Based on docking results, more than half of the flavonoids with higher docking scores compared to reference drug (ganciclovir) were exhibited better binding affinities toward the protein. In addition, stability of the top flavonoids including eupatorin, fisetin, rhamnetin and scutellarein, was confirmed by MD simulations and binding free energy calculations using MM/PBSA analysis. These selected compounds were also shown acceptable results for drug likeness and ADMET analysis. Therefore, the results of the study showed that these flavonoids could be considered as potential thymidine kinase inhibitors for use against monkeypox virus.

The Generation and Characterization of Monoclonal Antibodies against the MPXV A29L Protein

Mpox (formerly known as monkeypox) is a zoonotic disease caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV), a DNA virus belonging to the Orthopoxvirus genus, in the Poxviridae family. The disease constitutes a moderate risk to public health at the global level. The MPXV A29L protein plays a crucial role in coordinating virion assembly and facilitating important virus-host interactions. This study focused on the expression, purification, and recombinant protein synthesis of the A29L protein of MPXV using prokaryotic systems. Using hybridoma technology, we successfully generated the monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) 1E12 and 4B2, which specifically recognize the A29L protein. These mAbs were found to be suitable for use in indirect immunofluorescence assays (IFA), Western blotting, and immunoprecipitation (IP). Our investigation also revealed that mAbs 1E12 and 4B2 could detect the A27L protein, a homologous protein found in the vaccinia virus Western Reserve (VACV WR) strain, using IFA, Western blotting, and immunoprecipitation (IP). Using mAbs 1E12 and 4B2 as primary immunological probes, A27L protein expression was detected as early as 6 h postinfection with VACV WR, with increasing protein levels being observed throughout the infection. This study enhances our understanding of the protein structure and function of MPXV and contributes to the development of specific MPXV detection methods.

Rapid and highly sensitive colorimetric LAMP assay and integrated device for visual detection of monkeypox virus

BACKGROUND

The monkeypox virus (MPXV) is a linear double-stranded DNA virus with a large genome that causes tens of thousands of infections and hundreds of deaths in at least 40 countries and regions worldwide. Therefore, timely and accurate diagnostic testing could be an important measure to prevent the ongoing spread of MPXV and widespread epidemics.

RESULTS

Here, we designed multiple sets of primers for the target region of MPXV for loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) detection and identified the optimal primer set. Then, the specificity in fluorescent LAMP detection was verified using the plasmids containing the target gene, pseudovirus and other DNA/RNA viruses. We also evaluated the sensitivity of the colorimetric LAMP detection system using the plasmid and pseudovirus samples, respectively. Besides, we used monkeypox pseudovirus to simulate real samples for detection. Subsequent to the establishment and introduction of a magnetic beads (MBs)-based nucleic acid extraction technique, an integrated device was developed, characterized by rapidity, high sensitivity, and remarkable specificity. This portable system demonstrated a visual detection limit of 137 copies/mL, achieving sample-to-answer detection within 1 h.

SIGNIFICANCE

The device has the advantages of integration, simplicity, miniaturization, and visualization, which help promote the realization of accurate, rapid, portable, and low-cost testing. Meanwhile, this platform could facilitate efficient, cost-effective and easy-operable point-of-care testing (POCT) in diverse resource-limited settings in addition to the laboratory.

Advancing Vaccinology Capacity: Education and Efforts in Vaccine Development and Manufacturing across Africa

Africa, home to the world's second-largest population of approximately 1.3 billion, grapples with significant challenges in meeting its medical needs, particularly in accessing quality healthcare services and products. The continent faces a continuous onslaught of emerging infectious diseases, exacerbating the strain on its already fragile public health infrastructure. The COVID-19 crisis highlighted the urgency to build local vaccine production capacity and strengthen the health infrastructure in general. The risks associated with a heavy reliance on imported vaccines were exposed during the COVID-19 pandemic, necessitating the need to nurture and strengthen the local manufacturing of vaccines and therapeutic biologics. Various initiatives addressing training, manufacturing, and regulatory affairs are underway, and these require increasing dedicated and purposeful financial investment. Building vaccine manufacturing capacity requires substantial investment in training and infrastructure. This manuscript examines the current state of education in vaccinology and related sciences in Africa. It also provides an overview of the continent's efforts to address educational needs in vaccine development and manufacturing. Additionally, it evaluates the initiatives aimed at strengthening vaccine education and literacy, highlighting successful approaches and ongoing challenges. By assessing the progress made and identifying the remaining obstacles, this review offers insights into how Africa can enhance its vaccine manufacturing capacity to respond to vaccine-preventable disease challenges.

CRISPR/Cas12a antifouling nanocomposite electrochemical biosensors enable amplification-free detection of Monkeypox virus in complex biological fluids

The escalating global threat of infectious diseases, including monkeypox virus (MPXV), necessitates advancements in point-of-care diagnostics, moving beyond the constraints of conventional methods tethered to centralized laboratories. Here, we introduce multiple CRISPR RNA (crRNA)-based biosensors that can directly detect MPXV within 35 minutes without pre-amplification, leveraging the enhanced sensitivity and antifouling attributes of the BSA-based nanocomposite. Multiple crRNAs, strategically targeting diverse regions of the F3L gene of MPXV, are designed and combined to amplify Cas12a activation and its collateral cleavage of reporter probes. Notably, our electrochemical sensors exhibit the detection limit of 669 fM F3L gene without amplification, which is approximately a 15-fold improvement compared to fluorescence detection. This sensor also shows negligible changes in peak current after exposure to complex biological fluids, such as whole blood and serum, maintaining its sensitivity at 682 fM. This sensitivity is nearly identical to the conditions when only the F3L gene was present in PBS. In summary, our CRISPR-based electrochemical biosensors can be utilized as a high-performance diagnostic tool in resource-limited settings, representing a transformative leap forward in point-of-care testing. Beyond infectious diseases, the implications of this technology extend to various molecular diagnostics, establishing itself as a rapid, accurate, and versatile platform for detection of target analytes.

Differential diagnosis of exanthematous viruses during the 2022 Mpox outbreak in Minas Gerais, Brazil

The monkeypox virus (MPXV) outbreak, primarily endemic to Africa, has spread globally, with Brazil reporting the second-highest number of cases. The emergence of MPXV in non-endemic areas has raised concerns, particularly due to the co-circulation of other exanthematous viruses such as varicella-zoster virus (VZV) and molluscum contagiosum virus (MOCV). To perform an accurate differential diagnosis of MPXV during the ongoing outbreak in Minas Gerais, Brazil, a 5PLEX qPCR assay targeting orthopoxviruses (OPV), VZV, and MOCV was used to retrospectively analyze all clinical samples that tested negative for MPXV in the initial screening conducted at Funed. In summary, our study analyzed 1,175 clinical samples received from patients suspected of MPXV infection and found a positivity rate of 33.8% (397 samples) for MPXV using the non-variola qPCR assay. Testing the 778 MPXV-negative clinical samples using the 5PLEX qPCR assay revealed that 174 clinical samples (22.36%) tested positive for VZV. MOCV DNA was detected in 13 and other OPV in 3 clinical samples. The sequencing of randomly selected amplified clinical samples confirmed the initial molecular diagnosis. Analysis of patient profiles revealed a significant difference in the median age between groups testing positive for MPXV and VZV and a male predominance in MPXV cases. The geographic distribution of positive cases was concentrated in the most populous mesoregions of Minas Gerais state. This study highlights the challenges posed by emerging infectious diseases. It emphasizes the importance of epidemiological surveillance and accurate diagnosis in enabling timely responses for public health policies and appropriate medical care.

IMPORTANCE

Brazil ranks second in the number of cases during the global monkeypox epidemic. The study, conducted in Minas Gerais, the second most populous state in Brazil with over 20 million inhabitants, utilized differential diagnostics, revealing a significant number of positive cases for other exanthematous viruses and emphasizing the need for accurate diagnoses. During the study, we were able to assess the co-circulation of other viruses alongside monkeypox, including varicella-zoster virus, molluscum contagiosum virus, and other orthopoxviruses. The significance of the research is underscored by the concentration of positive cases in populous areas, highlighting the challenges posed by emerging infectious diseases. This demographic context further amplifies the importance of the research in guiding public health policies and medical interventions, given the substantial population at risk. The study not only addresses a global concern but also holds critical implications for a state with such a large population and geographic expanse within Brazil. Overall, the study emphasizes the pivotal role of surveillance and precise diagnosis in guiding effective public health responses and ensuring appropriate medical interventions.

MpoxNet: dual-branch deep residual squeeze and excitation monkeypox classification network with attention mechanism

While the world struggles to recover from the devastation wrought by the widespread spread of COVID-19, monkeypox virus has emerged as a new global pandemic threat. In this paper, a high precision and lightweight classification network MpoxNet based on ConvNext is proposed to meet the need of fast and safe detection of monkeypox classification. In this method, a two-branch depth-separable convolution residual Squeeze and Excitation module is designed. This design aims to extract more feature information with two branches, and greatly reduces the number of parameters in the model by using depth-separable convolution. In addition, our method introduces a convolutional attention module to enhance the extraction of key features within the receptive field. The experimental results show that MpoxNet has achieved remarkable results in monkeypox disease classification, the accuracy rate is 95.28%, the precision rate is 96.40%, the recall rate is 93.00%, and the F1-Score is 95.80%. This is significantly better than the current mainstream classification model. It is worth noting that the FLOPS and the number of parameters of MpoxNet are only 30.68% and 31.87% of those of ConvNext-Tiny, indicating that the model has a small computational burden and model complexity while efficient performance.

Circular RNA vaccines against monkeypox virus provide potent protection against vaccinia virus infection in mice

Since the outbreak of monkeypox (mpox) in 2022, widespread concern has been placed on imposing an urgent demand for specific vaccines that offer safer and more effective protection. Using an efficient and scalable circular RNA (circRNA) platform, we constructed four circRNA vaccines that could induce robust neutralizing antibodies as well as T cell responses by expressing different surface proteins of mpox virus (MPXV), resulting in potent protection against vaccinia virus (VACV) in mice. Strikingly, the combination of the four circular RNA vaccines demonstrated the best protection against VACV challenge among all the tested vaccines. Our study provides a favorable approach for developing MPXV-specific vaccines by using a circular mRNA platform and opens up novel avenues for future vaccine research.

Update on monkeypox virus infection: Focusing current treatment and prevention approaches

BACKGROUND

While the world is still facing the global pandemic COVID-19, another zoonosis monkeypox (Mpox) has emerged posing a great threat to society. Insight into the pathogenesis, symptoms, and management strategies will aid in the development of potent therapeutics for the treatment of monkeypox virus infection.

OBJECTIVES

To get insight into the current treatment and prevention strategies will aid in effectively coping with the disease.

METHODS

For obtaining information regarding the ongoing treatment and prevention strategies and the drugs under pipeline, we referred to Google Scholar, Pub Med, Pub Chem, and WHO official site.

RESULTS

There are a few drugs that came out to be effective for the treatment of Mpox. Tecovirimat acts by inhibiting viral replication and viral wrapping. Another drug is cidofovir, which hinders the activity of viral DNA polymerase but has the drawback of nephrotoxicity. To overcome this, a conjugate of cidofovir is being used-known as brincidofovir-which has a similar mechanism as cidofovir but lesser toxicity. Ribavirin acts via inhibiting inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDPH) thus disrupting viral translation. It also interferes with helicase activity. Tiazofurin, Adenosine N1 oxide, and HPMPA have shown efficacy in in-vitro studies by inhibiting IMPDH, DNA polymerase, and viral mRNA translation respectively. In-silico studies have proven the effect of nilotinib, simeprevir, and dihydroergotamine for Mpox treatment. They have shown binding affinity for proteins required for the growth and release of MPXV. Vaccines have also been employed for the prevention of Mpox, which includes JYNNEOS, ACAM2000, and VIGIV.

CONCLUSION

This review highlights the pathogenesis of the virus, disease manifestations, drugs, and vaccines that are being used and those under pipeline for the treatment and prevention of Mpox.

Evaluation of monkeypox- and vaccinia-virus neutralizing antibodies before and after smallpox vaccination: A sero-epidemiological study

Since May 2022, several countries outside of Africa experienced multiple clusters of monkeypox virus (MPXV)-associated disease. In the present study, anti-MPXV and anti-vaccinia virus (VACV) neutralizing antibody responses were evaluated in two cohorts of subjects from the general Italian population (one half born before the WHO-recommended end of smallpox vaccination in 1980, the other half born after). Higher titers (either against MPXV or VACV) were observed in the cohort of individuals born before the interruption of VACV vaccination. An association between VACV and MPXV antibody levels was observed, suggesting that the smallpox vaccination may confer some degree of cross-protection against MPXV infection. Results from this study highlight low levels of immunity toward the assessed Orthopoxviruses, especially in young adults, advocating the introduction of a VACV- or MPXV-specific vaccine in case of resurgence of monkeypox disease outbreaks.

Insights into the emergence and evolution of monkeypox virus: Historical perspectives, epidemiology, genetic diversity, transmission, and preventative measures

In 2022, just before the COVID-19 pandemic ended, many countries noticed a viral monkeypox outbreak. Monkeypox virus, a zoonotic pathogen, causes a febrile illness in humans and resembles smallpox. Prevention strategies encompass vaccination, strict infection control measures, and avoiding contact with infected persons. As monkeypox and related poxviruses continue to pose challenges, ongoing surveillance, early diagnosis, prompt isolation, and effective control measures are crucial for limiting transmission and mitigating the impact of outbreaks on public health. This review provides valuable insights into the evolution of the monkeypox virus and its various modes of transmission, including postmortem transmission, and offers an overall perspective on the guidelines issued by the Government of India to prevent and effectively control the spread of this disease.

Two noncompeting human neutralizing antibodies targeting MPXV B6 show protective effects against orthopoxvirus infections

The recent outbreak of mpox epidemic, caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV), poses a new threat to global public health. Here, we initially assessed the preexisting antibody level to the MPXV B6 protein in vaccinia vaccinees born before the end of the immunization program and then identified two monoclonal antibodies (MAbs), hMB621 and hMB668, targeting distinct epitopes on B6, from one vaccinee. Binding assays demonstrate that both MAbs exhibit broad binding abilities to B6 and its orthologs in vaccinia (VACV), variola (VARV) and cowpox viruses (CPXV). Neutralizing assays reveal that the two MAbs showed potent neutralization against VACV. Animal experiments using a BALB/c female mouse model indicate that the two MAbs showed effective protection against VACV via intraperitoneal injection. Additionally, we determined the complex structure of B6 and hMB668, revealing the structural feature of B6 and the epitope of hMB668. Collectively, our study provides two promising antibody candidates for the treatment of orthopoxvirus infections, including mpox.

Exploring monkeypox virus proteins and rapid detection techniques

Monkeypox (mpox) is an infectious disease caused by the mpox virus and can potentially lead to fatal outcomes. It resembles infections caused by viruses from other families, challenging identification. The pathogenesis, transmission, and clinical manifestations of mpox and other Orthopoxvirus species are similar due to their closely related genetic material. This review provides a comprehensive discussion of the roles of various proteins, including extracellular enveloped virus (EEV), intracellular mature virus (IMV), and profilin-like proteins of mpox. It also highlights recent diagnostic techniques based on these proteins to detect this infection rapidly.

Mpox-AISM: AI-mediated super monitoring for mpox and like-mpox

Swift and accurate diagnosis for earlier-stage monkeypox (mpox) patients is crucial to avoiding its spread. However, the similarities between common skin disorders and mpox and the need for professional diagnosis unavoidably impaired the diagnosis of earlier-stage mpox patients and contributed to mpox outbreak. To address the challenge, we proposed "Super Monitoring", a real-time visualization technique employing artificial intelligence (AI) and Internet technology to diagnose earlier-stage mpox cheaply, conveniently, and quickly. Concretely, AI-mediated "Super Monitoring" (mpox-AISM) integrates deep learning models, data augmentation, self-supervised learning, and cloud services. According to publicly accessible datasets, mpox-AISM's Precision, Recall, Specificity, and F1-score in diagnosing mpox reach 99.3%, 94.1%, 99.9%, and 96.6%, respectively, and it achieves 94.51% accuracy in diagnosing mpox, six like-mpox skin disorders, and normal skin. With the Internet and communication terminal, mpox-AISM has the potential to perform real-time and accurate diagnosis for earlier-stage mpox in real-world scenarios, thereby preventing mpox outbreak.

Mpox: An Overview of Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Public Health Implications

Mpox, caused by viruses of the genus Orthopoxvirus, is an emerging threat to human and animal health. With increasing urbanization and more frequent interaction between humans and wild animals, the risk of Mpox transmission to humans has increased significantly. This review aims to examine in depth the epidemiology, pathogenesis, and diagnosis of Mpox, with a special focus on recent discoveries and advances in understanding the disease. Molecular mechanisms involved in viral replication will be examined, as well as risk factors associated with interspecific transmission and spread of the disease in human populations. Currently available diagnostic methods will also be discussed, with a critical analysis of their limitations and possible future directions for improving the accuracy and timeliness of diagnosis. Finally, this review will explore the public health implications associated with Mpox, emphasizing the importance of epidemiological surveillance, vaccination, and emergency preparedness to prevent and manage possible outbreaks. Understanding the epidemiology and control strategies for Mpox is critical to protecting the health of human and animal communities and mitigating the risk of interspecific transmission and spread of the disease.

Isolation and characterization of mpox virus from the first mpox case in Shenzhen, China

•We reported the first MPXV strain hMpxV/China/SZ-SZTH42/2023 isolated in southern China. •The isolate SZTH42 belongs to C.1 lineage of clade IIb, representing the currently prevalent IIb branch strain worldwide. •This study provides key resources and technical platforms for the development of antiviral drugs and vaccines.

Knowledge, Attitude and Associated Factors of Monkeypox Infection Among Healthcare Workers in Injibara General Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia

Background

Fighting health threats, especially the rise of new infectious diseases, is one of the main responsibilities of healthcare workers. However, their knowledge and attitudes toward monkeypox have not yet been assessed. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the knowledge, attitude, and factors associated with monkeypox infection among healthcare workers at Injibara General Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia.

Methods

Institution-based cross-sectional study was conducted from December 1-30, 2022. Data were collected using a structured self-administered questionnaire. A simple random sampling technique was used to select study participants. Descriptive statistics and multivariable logistic regression analyses were computed. The degree of association was interpreted using an odds ratio with a 95% confidence interval and a p-value < 0.05.

Results

Among the 200 healthcare workers who participated, 38.5% (95% CI: 32.5%-45%) and 62% (95% CI: 55-68.5%) had good knowledge and positive attitudes regarding monkeypox respectively. Having a master's degree or above (AOR = 11.25: 95% CI: 2.03-62.33), being vaccinated against COVID-19 (AOR = 2.60: 95% CI: 1.37-4.94), and having access to information about monkeypox (AOR = 3.37: 95% CI: 1.33-8.50) were the factors associated with good knowledge. Furthermore, a positive attitude was significantly associated with being 30 years of age or older (AOR = 2.95: 95% CI: 1.55-5.60) and having access to information about monkeypox (AOR = 4.14: 95% CI: 2.06, 8.30).

Conclusion

Both good knowledge and positive attitudes were relatively low among healthcare workers. Factors such as age, education level, COVID-19 vaccination status, and access to information about monkeypox were significantly associated with the knowledge and attitude of healthcare workers. To enhance the knowledge and attitude of healthcare workers, hospitals should consider offering educational upgrades, hosting educational events like seminars, conferences, webinars, and campaigns, and ensuring comprehensive coverage of the topic in medical curricula.

Evaluation of monkeypox knowledge and attitudes among Chinese medical students

BACKGROUND

Monkeypox is a zoonotic disease caused by the monkeypox virus and is increasingly recognized as a serious public health concern worldwide. Our aim was to investigate the knowledge and attitudes of Chinese medical students regarding monkeypox.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted among 8,897 college students from China. An e-questionnaire was used to collect data on knowledge (17 items), attitudes (12 items), and baseline criteria. The relationships between a range of factors and knowledge and attitudes were studied using univariate and multivariate analyses.

RESULTS

A total of 79.33% of the study participants were female, 89.10% were of Han ethnicity, 72.50% were from rural areas, 50.39% were in their first year, and 80.65% were medical majors. A total of 50.88% had good knowledge of monkeypox, and 57.11% had a positive attitude towards monkeypox knowledge. Univariate analysis revealed that origin and major were the factors affecting the knowledge level of monkeypox among participants. Rural students had more knowledge of monkeypox than urban students, and nonmedical students had greater awareness of monkeypox than did medical students. Moreover, sex and grade were the factors influencing participants' attitudes towards monkeypox; men had more positive attitudes than women did, and senior students had more positive attitudes than junior students did. Multivariate analysis revealed that major and the origin of the students independently influenced the monkeypox knowledge of Chinese medical students, while sex, grade and monkeypox knowledge were significantly related to attitudes towards monkeypox.

CONCLUSION

This study revealed that nearly half of the Chinese medical students had good knowledge and a positive attitude towards monkeypox. Student origin and major independently influenced the knowledge of Chinese medical students of monkeypox, while sex, grade and knowledge were independently related to the attitudes of Chinese medical students towards monkeypox.

Elucidating the evolution of monkeypox virus genomes through phylo-geo-network and haplogroup analysis

BACKGROUND

As the world settles down from the COVID-19 pandemic, many countries are faced with an unexpected outbreak of monkeypox infection. Monkeypox is a zoonotic disease caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV), which is an enveloped, double stranded DNA virus belonging to the Poxviridae family. Presently, we construct and analyze the phylo-geo-network and the corresponding haplogroups. Presently, we performed the haplogroup analysis with their defining mutations and phylogenetic lineage study along with geographical distributions with the aim to understand the evolutionary path of the MPXV across the world.

RESULTS

Information about 719 full length genomes of MPXV were collected from GISAID repository and the sequences extracted from NCBI. The alignment of 719 MPXV genomes and their subsequent analysis revealed a total of 1530 segregating sites of which 330 were parsimony informative (PI) sites. The variations had a positive value of Tajima's D statistic indicating some mutations being prevalent and hence balancing selection. A total of 39 haplogroups were observed in the phylo-geo-network and their defining mutations along with the evolutionary path has been discussed. The phylo-geo-network revealed the nodal haplogroup is represented by GISAID ID 13889450, haplogroup A1, an isolate from Germany, having a total of 296 identical sequences in the study incident across 22 countries. The localized evolution is highlighted by country specific sequences and haplogroups. USA had a total of 58 genomes and 13 haplogroups as compared to Peru (89 genomes, 7 haplogroups) and Germany (26 genomes, 6 haplogroups).

CONCLUSIONS

The evolution of MPXV can be happening in a localized manner and hence accumulation of variations in the MPXV genomes needs to be monitored in order to be prepared for any possible threats.

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification coupled with nanoparticle-based lateral flow biosensor for monkeypox virus detection

Monkeypox virus (MPXV) infection is currently an evolving public health concern, highlighting an urgent need for early and rapid detection of MPXV. Here, we present a diagnostic test called MPXV-LAMP-LFB, which combines loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and nanoparticle-based lateral flow biosensor (LFB) for the simple, sensitive and specific detection of MPXV and differentiation of its two clades. The MPXV-LAMP-LFB can be conducted at a heating block and the detection results can be visually indicated with the biosensor without any specialized apparatus. Two sets of LAMP primers targeting the D14L and ATI genes were designed for the Central and West African MPXV isolates, respectively. The optimal amplification condition was 64 °C for 40 min. Thus, the MPXV-LAMP-LFB test can be completed within 1 h, incorporating rapid DNA extraction (∼15 min), LAMP reaction (∼40 min) and result indicating (∼5 min). The MPXV-LAMP-LFB assay could detect down to 5 copies of plasmid template and 12.5 copies of pseudotyped virus in simulated blood samples. Furthermore, the MPXV-LAMP-LFB assay correctly identified all the positive controls and successfully avoided cross-reactivity with the non-MPXV pathogens or clinical samples, demonstrating its high specificity. Overall, the MPXV-LAMP-LFB test developed in this study showed great promise as a rapid, sensitive and accurate molecular tool for diagnosing MPXV infection.

Compositional features analysis by machine learning in genome represents linear adaptation of monkeypox virus

Introduction: The global headlines have been dominated by the sudden and widespread outbreak of monkeypox, a rare and endemic zoonotic disease caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV). Genomic composition based machine learning (ML) methods have recently shown promise in identifying host adaptability and evolutionary patterns of virus. Our study aimed to analyze the genomic characteristics and evolutionary patterns of MPXV using ML methods. Methods: The open reading frame (ORF) regions of full-length MPXV genomes were filtered and 165 ORFs were selected as clusters with the highest homology. Unsupervised machine learning methods of t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE), Principal Component Analysis (PCA), and hierarchical clustering were performed to observe the DCR characteristics of the selected ORF clusters. Results: The results showed that MPXV sequences post-2022 showed an obvious linear adaptive evolution, indicating that it has become more adapted to the human host after accumulating mutations. For further accurate analysis, the ORF regions with larger variations were filtered out based on the ranking of homology difference to narrow down the key ORF clusters, which drew the same conclusion of linear adaptability. Then key differential protein structures were predicted by AlphaFold 2, which meant that difference in main domains might be one of the internal reasons for linear adaptive evolution. Discussion: Understanding the process of linear adaptation is critical in the constant evolutionary struggle between viruses and their hosts, playing a significant role in crafting effective measures to tackle viral diseases. Therefore, the present study provides valuable insights into the evolutionary patterns of the MPXV in 2022 from the perspective of genomic composition characteristics analysis through ML methods.

Natural compounds inhibit Monkeypox virus methyltransferase VP39 in silico studies

VP39, an essential 2'-O-RNA methyltransferase enzyme discovered in Monkeypox virus (MPXV), plays a vital role in viral RNA replication and transcription. Inhibition of the enzyme may prevent viral replication. In this context, using a combination of molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MDs) simulations, the inhibitory ability of NCI Diversity Set VII natural compounds to VP39 protein was investigated. It should be noted that the computed binding free energy of ligand via molecular docking and linear interaction energy (LIE) approaches are in good agreement with the corresponding experiments with coefficients of R = 0.72 and 0.75, respectively. NSC 319990, NSC 196515 and NSC 376254 compounds were demonstrated that can inhibit MPVX methyltransferase VP39 protein with the similar affinity compared to available inhibitor sinefungin. Moreover, nine residues involving Gln39, Gly68, Gly72, Asp95, Arg97, Val116, Asp138, Arg140 and Asn156 may be argued that they play an important role in binding process of inhibitors to VP39.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Molecular Methods for Diagnosis of Monkeypox: A Mini-review

BACKGROUND

Monkeypox is a global public health issue caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV). As of October 28, 2022, a total of 77,115 laboratoryconfirmed cases and 3,610 probable cases, including 36 deaths, were reported, with 9,070 cases reported in Brazil, the second most affected country. The need to develop national technologies for the rapid diagnosis of emerging diseases for mass testing of the population is evident, as observed in the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.

OBJECTIVE

With that in mind, this article provides an overview of current methods, techniques, and their applications in the molecular detection of monkeypox, focusing the search on real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and polymerase chain reaction-enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (PCRELISA).

METHODS

The relevant documents or papers covered in this study were selected by a search in international bibliographic databases. The search terms used in the databases were aimed at summarizing existing knowledge on molecular diagnostic methods, such as monkeypox; MPX, MPXV, qPCR, PCR, PCR-ELISA, diagnosis and detection searched separately or together using the Boolean operator "AND" either in the title or abstract. The searches took place in September 2022, and the corresponding articles were selected between 2012 and 2022.

RESULTS

We found 256 documents in total and twelve studies addressing the molecular diagnosis of monkeypox were classified as possible sources for this review.

CONCLUSION

It is evident there is a pressing need to develop national technologies for rapid diagnosis of emerging diseases for mass testing of the population. It is also extremely important to have national detection kits with greater diagnostic capacity to assist in developing effective public policies in countries affected by this disease.

The Overview of Potential Antiviral Bioactive Compounds in Poxviruses

Poxviruses belong to the family of double-stranded DNA viruses, and it is pathogenic for humans and spread worldwide. These viruses cause infections and various diseases in human. So, it is required to develop new drugs for the treatment of smallpox or other poxvirus infections. Very few potential compounds for the treatment of poxvirus such as smallpox, chickenpox, and monkeypox have been reported. Most of the compounds has used as vaccines. Cidofovir is most commonly used as a vaccine for the treatment of poxviruses. There are no phytochemicals reported for the treatment of poxviruses. Very few phytochemicals are under investigation for the treatment of poxviruses.

Ocular involvement secondary to Monkeypox virus infection

We present the case of a 37-year-old male patient with symptoms compatible with adenoviral conjunctivitis of 5 days' evolution. Topical corticosteroids, lubricants and removal of pseudomembranes were prescribed. PCR analysis of conjunctival exudate was positive for Monkeypox virus. During follow-up, the patient developed corneal ulcers with a torpid course, requiring admission for treatment with Tecovirimat. Ocular involvement by Monkeypox virus is usually mild and self-limiting. Cases with severe visual involvement have been described when there is corneal damage, as exemplified in this case. After admission to hospital for systemic treatment, the patient progressed favourably.

Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) Infection: A Review

Monkeypox is a viral disease; its outbreak was recently declared a global emergency by the World Health Organization. For the first time, a monkeypox virus (MPXV)-infected patient was found in India. Various researchers back-to-back tried to find the solution to this health emergency just after COVID-19. In this review, we discuss the current outbreak status of India, its transmission, virulence factors, symptoms, treatment, and the preventive guidelines generated by the Indian Health Ministry. We found that monkeypox virus (MPXV) disease is different from smallpox, and the age group between 30-40 years old is more prone to MPXV disease. We also found that, besides homosexuals, gays, bisexuals, and non-vegetarians, it also affects normal straight men and women who have no history of travel. Close contact should be avoided from rats, monkeys and sick people who are affected by monkeypox. To date, there are no monkeypox drugs, but Tecovirimat is more effective than other drugs that are used for other viral diseases like smallpox. Therefore, we need to develop an effective antiviral agent against the virulence factor of MXPV.

Type I Interferon: Monkeypox/Mpox Viruses Achilles Heel?

Poxviruses are notorious for having acquired/evolved numerous genes to counteract host innate immunity. Chordopoxviruses have acquired/evolved at least three different inhibitors of host necroptotic death: E3, which blocks ZBP1-dependent necroptotic cell death, and vIRD and vMLKL that inhibit necroptosis downstream of initial cell death signaling. While this suggests the importance of the necroptotic cell death pathway in inhibiting chordopoxvirus replication, several chordopoxviruses have lost one or more of these inhibitory functions. Monkeypox/mpox virus (MPXV) has lost a portion of the N-terminus of its E3 homologue. The N-terminus of the vaccinia virus E3 homologue serves to inhibit activation of the interferon-inducible antiviral protein, ZBP1. This likely makes MPXV unique among the orthopoxviruses in being sensitive to interferon (IFN) treatment in many mammals, including humans, which encode a complete necroptotic cell death pathway. Thus, IFN sensitivity may be the Achille's Heel for viruses like MPXV that cannot fully inhibit IFN-inducible, ZBP1-dependent antiviral pathways.

Rizk J, Makkar D, Roozbeh N, Ghelichpour S, Zarei A. Managing Monkeypox Virus Infections: A Contemporary Review

Monkeypox is an infectious and contagious zoonotic disease caused by the Orthopoxvirus species and was first identified in Africa. Recently, this infectious disease has spread widely in many parts of the world. Fever, fatigue, headache, and rash are common symptoms of monkeypox. The presence of lymphadenopathy is another prominent and key symptom of monkeypox, which distinguishes this disease from other diseases and is useful for diagnosing the disease. This disease is transmitted to humans through contact with or eating infected animals as well as objects infected with the virus. One of the ways to diagnose this disease is through PCR testing of lesions and secretions. To prevent the disease, vaccines such as JYNNEOS and ACAM2000 are available, but they are not accessible to all people in the world, and their effectiveness and safety need further investigation. However, preventive measures such as avoiding contact with people infected with the virus and using appropriate personal protective equipment are mandatory. The disease therapy is based on medicines such as brincidofovir, cidofovir, and Vaccinia Immune Globulin Intravenous. The injectable format of tecovirimat was approved recently, in May 2022. Considering the importance of clinical care in this disease, awareness about the side effects of medicines, nutrition, care for conjunctivitis, skin rash, washing and bathing at home, and so on can be useful in controlling and managing the disease.

Electrochemical Paper-Based Nanobiosensor for Rapid and Sensitive Detection of Monkeypox Virus

Monkeypox virus (MPXV) infection was classified as a public health emergency of international concern by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2022, being transmitted between humans by large respiratory droplets, in contact with skin lesions, fomites, and sexually. Currently, there are no available accessible and simple-to-use diagnostic tests that accurately detect MPXV antigens for decentralized and frequent testing. Here, we report an electrochemical biosensor to detect MPXV antigens in saliva and plasma samples within 15 min using accessible materials. The electrochemical system was manufactured onto a paper substrate engraved by a CO2 laser machine, modified with gold nanostructures (AuNS) and a monoclonal antibody, enabling sensitive detection of A29 viral protein. The diagnostic test is based on the use of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and can be run by a miniaturized potentiostat connected to a smartphone. The impedimetric biosensing method presented excellent analytical parameters, enabling the detection of A29 glycoprotein in the concentration ranging from 1 × 10-14 to 1 × 10-7 g mL-1, with a limit of detection (LOD) of 3.0 × 10-16 g mL-1. Furthermore, it enabled the detection of MPXV antigens in the concentration ranging from 1 × 10-1 to 1 × 104 PFU mL-1, with an LOD of 7.8 × 10-3 PFU mL-1. Importantly, no cross-reactivity was observed when our device was tested in the presence of other poxvirus and nonpoxvirus strains, indicating the adequate selectivity of our nanobiosensor for MPXV detection. Collectively, the nanobiosensor presents high greenness metrics associated with the use of a reproducible and large-scale fabrication method, an accessible and sustainable paper substrate, and a low volume of sample (2.5 μL), which could facilitate frequent testing of MPXV at point-of-care (POC).

Beyond Borders: Monkeypox Case on Madeira Island

Human infection with monkeypox virus (MPXV) is characterized by a pox-like rash in various areas, including the anogenital region, and is accompanied by fever, headaches, fatigue, myalgias, and lymphadenopathy. These symptoms may occur a few days before the rash or simultaneously. Nonspecific and vague symptoms, particularly in the recent outbreak of the MPXV, have led to unrecognized or very mild prodromes, which can delay diagnosis. Diagnosis involves laboratory confirmation through polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The symptomatology of MPX is self-limiting, resolving in about two to four weeks. Therefore, the therapeutic approach includes supportive care, monitoring, intervention for possible complications (e.g., bacterial superinfection, cellulitis, and bronchopneumonia), and the implementation of preventive contact measures.  This clinical case emphasizes the importance of conducting a thorough medical history and maintaining a high level of clinical suspicion, even in the absence of a history of contact with suspected or confirmed cases and in regions without active or suspected infectious cases.