Changes in glucose metabolism and reversion of genes expression in the liver of insulin-resistant rats exposed to malathion. The protective effects of N-acetylcysteine

Sex-specific neurobehavioral and biochemical effects of developmental exposure to Malathion in offspring mice

Malathion is an organophosphate pesticide (OP) commonly used in agriculture, industry, and veterinary medicine. Sex is a crucial factor in responding to neurotoxicants, yet the sex-specific effects of OP exposure, particularly neurological impairments following chronic low-level exposure remains limited. Our study aims to evaluate the neurobehavioral and biochemical effects of developmental exposure to Malathion across sexes. Pregnant mice were exposed to a low oral dose of Malathion from gestation up to the weaning of the pups, which were individually gavaged with a similar dose regimen until postnatal day 70. Our results show that Malathion decreased body weight and food intake, reduced locomotor activity and recognition memory. Motor coordination and special memory were only altered in females, whereas we found a male-specific effect of Malathion on social behavior and marble burying. These alterations were accompanied by increased malondialdehyde (MDA), decreased brain acetylcholinesterase activity (AChE), and disrupted brain redox homeostasis. Our findings about the effects of Malathion exposure across sexes may, in part, contribute to understanding the dimorphic susceptibilities observed in neurological disorders.

The diabetogenic effects of pesticides: Evidence based on epidemiological and toxicological studies

While the use of pesticides has improved grain productivity and controlled vector-borne diseases, the widespread use of pesticides has resulted in ubiquitous environmental residues that pose health risks to humans. A number of studies have linked pesticide exposure to diabetes and glucose dyshomeostasis. This article reviews the occurrence of pesticides in the environment and human exposure, the associations between pesticide exposures and diabetes based on epidemiological investigations, as well as the diabetogenic effects of pesticides based on the data from in vivo and in vitro studies. The potential mechanisms by which pesticides disrupt glucose homeostasis include induction of lipotoxicity, oxidative stress, inflammation, acetylcholine accumulation, and gut microbiota dysbiosis. The gaps between laboratory toxicology research and epidemiological studies lead to an urgent research need on the diabetogenic effects of herbicides and current-use insecticides, low-dose pesticide exposure research, the diabetogenic effects of pesticides in children, and assessment of toxicity and risks of combined exposure to multiple pesticides with other chemicals.

Acute and chronic effects of the organophosphate malathion on the pancreatic α and β cell viability, cell structure, and voltage-gated K+ currents

Studies indicate that the pesticide malathion may have a role in diabetes. Herein, we determined the effects of different concentrations of malathion on survival, ultrastructure, and electrophysiologic islet cell parameters. Acutely, high concentrations of malathion (0.5 or 1 mM) increased cell death in rat islet cells, while low concentrations (0.1 mM) caused signs of cell damage in pancreatic α and β cells. Exposure of RINm5F cells to malathion for 24 or 48 h confirmed the reduction in β-cell viability at lower concentrations (0.001-100 µM). Chronic exposure of mouse pancreatic α and β cells to 3 nM of malathion led to increased voltage-gated K⁺ (K_v) currents in α-cells. Our findings show a time and concentration dependency for the malathion effect on the reduction of islet cell viability and indicate that pancreatic α cells are more sensitive to malathion effects on K_v currents and cell death.

Preconception exposure to malathion and glucose homeostasis in rats: Effects on dams during pregnancy and post-term periods, and on their progeny

Understanding the individual and global impact of pesticides on human physiology and the different stages of life is still a challenge in environmental health. We analyzed here whether administration of the organophosphate insecticide malathion before pregnancy could affect glucose homeostasis during pregnancy and, in addition, generate possible later consequences in mothers and offspring. For this, adult Wistar rats were allocated into two groups and were treated daily (intragastric) with malathion (14 or 140 mg/kg, body mass (bm)) for 21-25 days. Corn oil was used as vehicle in the Control group. Subgroups were defined based on the absence (nulliparous) or presence (pregnant) of a copulatory plug. Pregnant rats were followed by an additional period of 2 months after the term (post-term), without continuing malathion treatment. Fetuses and adult offspring of males and females were also evaluated. We ran an additional experimental design with rats exposed to malathion before pregnancy at a dose of 0.1 mg/kg bm. Malathion exposure resulted in glucose intolerance in the mothers during pregnancy and post-term period, regardless of the exposure dose. This was accompanied by increased visceral adipose tissue mass, dyslipidemia, unchanged pancreatic β-cell mass, and varying insulin responses to glucose in vivo. The number of total newborns and birthweight was not affected by malathion exposure. Adult offspring from both sexes also became glucose-intolerant, regardless of the pesticide dose their dams were exposed to. This alteration could be associated with changes at the epigenomic level, as reduced hepatic mRNA content of DNA methylases and demethylases was found. We demonstrated that periconceptional exposure to malathion with doses aiming to mimic from work environment to indirect contamination predisposes progenitors and offspring rats to glucose intolerance. Thus, we conclude that subchronic exposure to malathion is a risk factor for gestational diabetes and prediabetes later in life.

Exposure to organophosphates in association with the development of insulin resistance: Evidence from in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies

Insulin resistance is an underlying condition prior to the development of several diseases, including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, cognitive impairment, and cerebrovascular complications. Organophosphates (OPs) are one of several factors thought to induce insulin resistance. Previous studies showed that the exposure to OPs pesticides induced insulin resistance through the impairment of hepatic glucose metabolism, pancreatic damage, and disruption of insulin signaling of both adipose tissues and skeletal muscles. Several studies reported possible mechanisms associated with OPs-induced insulin resistance in different models in in vivo studies including those in adult animals, obese animals, and offspring models, as well as in clinical studies. In addition, pharmacological interventions in OPs-induced insulin resistance have been previously investigated. This review aims to summarize and discuss all the evidence concerning OPs-induced insulin resistance in different models including in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies. The interventions of OPs-induced insulin resistance are also discussed. Any contradictory findings also considered. The information from this review will provide insight for possible therapeutic approaches to OPs-induced insulin resistance in the future.

Astilbin attenuates apoptosis induced by cadmium through oxidative stress in carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) head kidney lymphocyte

As a kind of environmental pollutant, heavy metal Cadmium (Cd) exists widely in the environment. It is well known that Cd can accumulate and cause damage in liver, kidney and other organs. However, there are few studies on the immune cytotoxicity of Cd to fish. In particular, there are few studies on the toxicity of Cd to the head kidney lymphocytes of common carp. In order to further explore these mechanisms, we established an Cd exposure model in vitro. At the same time, we used the natural antioxidant astilbin (AST) to treat the cells to study its antagonistic effect on the toxicity of Cd. After exposure to Cd, the level of oxidative stress in head kidney lymphocytes increased, and the mRNA and protein expression of apoptosis-related markers Fas, FADD, Caspase8 and Caspase3 increased significantly (P < 0.05), which led to lymphocytes apoptosis. Hoechst staining and AO/EB staining also showed that the level of apoptosis increased after exposure to Cd. This is consistent with our previous research results. AST treatment reduced oxidative stress and apoptosis induced by Cd. In addition, oxidative stress inhibitor NAC could also reduce head kidney lymphocytes apoptosis induced by Cd, indicating that oxidative stress was involved in this process. Our results suggested that AST can alleviate the apoptosis of carp head kidney lymphocytes induced by Cd through oxidative stress. This study enriches the theoretical mechanism of Cd toxicity to fish head kidney lymphocytes, and puts forward a method to solve the toxicity of Cd, which provides a theoretical and research basis for the in vivo study of animal models in the future.

Triazophos and its metabolite diethyl phosphate have different effects on endocrine hormones and gut health in rats

Organophosphorus pesticide (OP) residues present in food can be metabolized into diethylphosphate (DEP) in vivo. Epidemiological studies of OPs have usually focused on these metabolites, while animal studies mainly assessed the OPs. Here, we compared the health risks of a frequently detected OP, triazophos (TAP), and its major metabolite, DEP, in rats. Levels of serum lipids and, sex hormones were measured using immunoassay kits. Gut hormones and inflammatory cytokines were assessed using a multiplexing kit, and the gut microbiota was evaluated by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. After a 24-week exposure period, both TAP and DEP significantly decreased serum levels of triglycerides, cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and IL-6 (p < 0.05). However, DEP exposure had a stronger effect on serum estradiol (p < 0.05) than TAP, whereas only TAP inhibited the secretion of gut hormones. Both TAP and DEP enriched the pathogenic genera Oscillibacter, Peptococcus and Paraprevotella in the gut, and TAP also enriched enteritis-related genera Roseburia and Oscillibacter, which may affect the secretion of gut hormones. These findings indicate that the use of dialkyl phosphates as markers of OPs to examine the correlations of OP exposure with diseases may only provide partial information, especially for diseases related to gut health and the endocrine system.

Ameliorative Effects of Honey, Propolis, Pollen, and Royal Jelly Mixture against Chronic Toxicity of Sumithion Insecticide in White Albino Rats

Sumithion (Fenitrothion) (SUM) is an organophosphorus insecticide used to combat a wide variety of plant pests. Exposure to SUM causes significant toxicity to the brain, liver, kidney, and reproductive organs through, for example, binding to DNA, and it induces DNA damage, which ends with oxidative stress. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the protective role of bee products: a mixture of honey, propolis, palm pollen, and royal jelly (HPPJ) against SUM-induced toxicity. Twenty-four male albino rats (Rattus norvegicus) were classified into four groups, each containing six rats: control (corn oil), SUM (85 mg/kg; 1/20 LD₅₀), HPPJ, and SUM + HPPJ once daily for 28 consecutive days. Blood samples were gently collected in sterilized ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) tubes for blood picture analyses and tubes without anticoagulant for serum isolation. Serum was used for assays of enzymatic and biochemical characteristics. The results revealed that SUM increased the weights of the liver, kidney, and brain as well as the enzymatic activity of glutathione peroxidase (GP), serum superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione-S-transferase (GST). Additionally, SUM significantly increased the activity of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and γ-glutamyltransferase (γ-GT) and glucose, uric acid, and creatinine contents, while decreasing the acetylcholine esterase (AChE) activity and total lipids and total protein content. Furthermore, because of the inclusion of phenolic, flavonoids, terpenoids, and sugars, the HPPJ mixture counteracted the hematological, renal, and hepatic toxicity of SUM exposure.

Organophosphorus pesticides can influence the development of obesity and type 2 diabetes with concomitant metabolic changes

Widespread use and the bioaccumulation of pesticides in the environment lead to the contamination of air, water, soil and agricultural resources. A huge body of evidence points to the association between the pesticide exposure and increase in the incidence of chronic diseases, e.g. cancer, birth defects, reproductive disorders, neurodegenerative, cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, developmental disorders, metabolic disorders, chronic renal disorders or autoimmune diseases. Organophosphorus compounds are among the most widely used pesticides. A growing body of evidence is suggesting the potential interdependence between the organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) exposure and risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This article reviews the current literature to highlight the latest in vitro and in vivo evidences on the possible influence of OPs on obesity and T2DM development, as well as epidemiological evidence for the metabolic toxicity of OPs in humans. The article also draws attention to the influence of maternal OPs exposure on offspring. Summarized studies suggest that OPs exposure is associated with metabolic changes linked with obesity and T2DM indicated that such exposures may increase risk or vulnerability to other contributory components.

(3Z)-5-Chloro-3-(Hydroxyimino)indolin-2-one attenuates hyperglycemia, increased hepatic glycogen content and hepatic damage induced by malathion acute exposure in rats

BACKGROUND

Organophosphorus pesticides (OP's) are heavily constituted in agriculture, gardens, home and veterinary and although it is useful, there are concerns about the environment, safety and health of human and animals. In this study, we investigated the effects of a new oxime, (3Z)-5-Chloro-3-(Hydroxyimino)indolin-2-one (OXIME) against the alterations induced by malathion, an OP insecticide, acute exposure on markers of hepatic damage, glucose homeostasis, oxidative stress in rats cholinesterase (ChE) activity in rats.

METHODS

Adult male Wistar rats were divided into four groups: Control; Malathion; OXIME; and Malathion+OXIME. Twelve hours after co-treatment with malathion (250 mg/kg, i.p.) and/or OXIME (50 mg/kg, i.g.), the plasma and liver samples were collected for biochemical analyses.

RESULTS

The OXIME blocked the increase of plasma markers of hepatic function (AST and ALP) and the enzymatic inhibition of catalase and glutathione reductase in the liver of malathion-treated rats. Moreover, the hepatic cholinesterases inhibition induced by malathion acute exposure was suppressed by OXIME treatment. As assessed, a single dose of OXIME lowered the glycemia levels and hepatic glycogen content enhanced by malathion.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests promise effects of (3Z)-5-Chloro-3-(Hydroxyimino) indolin-2-one against the hyperglycemia and the hepatic damage induced by malathion acute exposure, as well as its use as a ChE activity reactivator.

The protective effects of the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) against oxidative stress-associated apoptosis evoked by the organophosphorus insecticide malathion in normal human astrocytes

Malathion is one of the most widely used organophosphorus insecticides in agriculture. However, malathion may be involved in the etiology of human brain dysfunction. Induction of ROS has been proposed as a mechanism of malathion-induced poisoning cases, but there are few data regarding the effects of malathion on oxidative stress-associated neurotoxicity in human glial cells. The aim was to explore the mechanism underlying effects of malathion on neurotoxicity in Gibco^® Human Astrocytes (GHA cells) and evaluate the protective effects of the antioxidant (N-acetylcysteine, NAC). Cell viability was measured by the cell proliferation reagent (WST-1). Antioxidant enzymes (glutathione peroxidase and catalase) were measured by an ELISA reader. Cell cycle distribution and ROS productions were detected by flow cytometry. Cell cycle-related protein levels (cyclin E1, CDK2, cyclin A2, CDK1/CDC2, or cyclin B1) and apoptotic protein levels (Bcl-2, Bax, and cleaved caspase-9/caspase-3) were analyzed by Western blotting. In GHA cells, treatment with malathion (10-25 μM) for 24 h concentration-dependently induced cytotoxicity and cell cycle arrest. In terms of oxidative stresses, malathion elevated intracellular ROS levels, but reduced glutathion and antioxidant enzyme levels. Treatment with NAC (5 μM) reversed malathion-induced oxidative stress responses, and prevented malathion-evoked apoptosis by regulating apoptotic protein expressions. Together, in GHA cells, NAC mediated inhibition of malathion-activated mitochondrial apoptotic pathways that involved cell cycle arrest and ROS responses. These data provide further insights into the molecular mechanisms behind malathion poisoning, and might suggest that NAC with its protective effects may be a potential compound for prevention of malathion-induced brain injury.

Insecticide Exposure and Development of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the prevalent liver disease resulting from metabolic disorder, which is highly associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes. Emerging evidence has shown that insecticide exposure disrupts lipid and glucose metabolism and results in obesity and type 2 diabetes. However, the potential impact of insecticide exposure on the liver functions related to NAFLD development is largely unknown. Thus, this perspective focused on the current knowledge of the effect of insecticides on the liver functions, particularly lipid and glucose metabolism, as well as other liver functions to correlate insecticide exposure and the development of NAFLD.

Malathion induced oxidative stress leads to histopathological and biochemical toxicity in the liver of rohu (Labeo rohita, Hamilton) at acute concentration

Organophosphorus pesticides form a diverse group of chemicals, having a wide range of physicochemical properties with crucial toxicological actions and endpoints. These are extensively used to control pests of different food (fruits, vegetables, tea, etc.) and non-food (tobacco, cotton, etc.) crops. Malathion is an important widely used organophosphorus pesticide but its hepatotoxic effects on fish are not well studied. Therefore, the current study was designed to investigate the hepatotoxic effects of Malathion on rohu (Labeo rohita) fish in a semi-static system using different parameters. The LC₅₀ of Malathion was found to be 5 µg/L for rohu for 96 h through Probit analysis and was used for further toxicity testing. To find the hepatotoxic effects of Malathion, changes in different biochemical indices including protein contents, Lipid Peroxidation (LPO), activities of four protein metabolic enzymes [Aspartate Aminotransferase (AAT), Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH), Alanine Aminotransferase (AlAT), and Glutamate Dehydrogenase (GDH)], seven antioxidant enzymes [Catalase (CAT), Superoxide Dismutase (SOD), Peroxidase (POD), Glutathione (GSH), Glutathione Reductase (GR), Glutathione-s-transferase (GST), and Glutathione Peroxidase (GSH-Px)], DNA damage [in term of comet tail length, tail moment, DNA percentage in tail, and olive tail moment], reactive oxygen species (ROS), and Histopathological alterations were assayed. Malathion exposure led to a time-reliant significant (P < 0.05) decrease in protein contents and a significant (P < 0.05) increase in ROS, LPO, enzymatic activities, and DNA damage. The histopathological examination of the liver showed different changes including hepatic necrosis, fatty infiltration, hemorrhage vacuolation, glycogen vacuolation, congestion, and cellular swelling. The current study clearly revealed Malathion as a potent hepatotoxic pesticide; therefore the injudicious, indiscriminate and extensive use of Malathion should be prohibited or at least reduced and strictly monitored.

Metabolic Effects of a Chronic Dietary Exposure to a Low-Dose Pesticide Cocktail in Mice: Sexual Dimorphism and Role of the Constitutive Androstane Receptor

BACKGROUND

Epidemiological evidence suggests a link between pesticide exposure and the development of metabolic diseases. However, most experimental studies have evaluated the metabolic effects of pesticides using individual molecules, often at nonrelevant doses or in combination with other risk factors such as high-fat diets.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to evaluate, in mice, the metabolic consequences of chronic dietary exposure to a pesticide mixture at nontoxic doses, relevant to consumers' risk assessment.

METHODS

A mixture of six pesticides commonly used in France, i.e., boscalid, captan, chlorpyrifos, thiofanate, thiacloprid, and ziram, was incorporated in a standard chow at doses exposing mice to the tolerable daily intake (TDI) of each pesticide. Wild-type (WT) and constitutive androstane receptor-deficient (CAR-/-) male and female mice were exposed for 52 wk. We assessed metabolic parameters [body weight (BW), food and water consumption, glucose tolerance, urinary metabolome] throughout the experiment. At the end of the experiment, we evaluated liver metabolism (histology, transcriptomics, metabolomics, lipidomics) and pesticide detoxification using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS).

RESULTS

Compared to those fed control chow, WT male mice fed pesticide chow had greater BW gain and more adiposity. Moreover, these WT males fed pesticide chow exhibited characteristics of hepatic steatosis and glucose intolerance, which were not observed in those fed control chow. WT exposed female mice exhibited fasting hyperglycemia, higher reduced glutathione (GSH):oxidized glutathione (GSSG) liver ratio and perturbations of gut microbiota-related urinary metabolites compared to WT mice fed control chow. When we performed these experiments on CAR-/- mice, pesticide-exposed CAR-/- males did not exhibit BW gain or changes in glucose metabolism compared to the CAR-/- males fed control chow. Moreover, CAR-/- females fed pesticide chow exhibited pesticide toxicity with higher BWs and mortality rate compared to the CAR-/- females fed control chow.

CONCLUSIONS

To our knowledge, we are the first to demonstrate a sexually dimorphic obesogenic and diabetogenic effect of chronic dietary exposure to a common mixture of pesticides at TDI levels, and to provide evidence for a partial role for CAR in an in vivo mouse model. This raises questions about the relevance of TDI for individual pesticides when present in a mixture. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP2877.

Effects of exposure to malathion on blood glucose concentration: a meta-analysis

Exposure to malathion (an organophosphate pesticide widely used around the world) has been associated with alterations in blood glucose concentration in animal models. However, the results are inconsistent. The aim of this meta-analysis was to evaluate whether malathion exposure can disturb the concentrations of blood glucose in exposed rats. We performed a literature search of online databases including PubMed, EBSCO, and Google Scholar and reviewed original articles that analyzed the relation between malathion exposure and glucose levels in animal models. The selection of articles was based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. The database search identified thirty-five possible articles, but only eight fulfilled our inclusion criteria, and these studies were included in the meta-analysis. The effect of malathion on blood glucose concentration showed a non-monotonic dose-response curve. In addition, pooled analysis showed that blood glucose concentrations were 3.3-fold higher in exposed rats than in the control group (95% CI, 2-5; Z = 3.9; p < 0.0001) in a random-effect model. This result suggested that alteration of glucose homeostasis is a possible mechanism of toxicity associated with exposure to malathion.

Adverse effects of organophosphorus pesticides on the liver: a brief summary of four decades of research

Organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) are widely used volatile pesticides that have harmful effects on the liver in acute and chronic exposures. This review article summarises and discusses a wide collection of studies published over the last 40 years reporting on the effects of OPs on the liver, in an attempt to propose general mechanisms of OP hepatotoxicity and possible treatment. Several key biological processes have been reported as involved in OP-induced hepatotoxicity such as disturbances in the antioxidant defence system, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and mitochondrial and microsomal metabolism. Most studies show that antioxidants can attenuate oxidative stress and the consequent changes in liver function. However, few studies have examined the relationship between OP structures and the severity and mechanism of their action. We hope that future in vitro, in vivo, and clinical trials will answer the remaining questions about the mechanisms of OP hepatotoxicity and its management.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals and the regulation of energy balance

Energy balance involves the adjustment of food intake, energy expenditure and body fat reserves through homeostatic pathways. These pathways include a multitude of biochemical reactions, as well as hormonal cues. Dysfunction of this homeostatic control system results in common metabolism-related pathologies, which include obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Metabolism-disrupting chemicals (MDCs) are a particular class of endocrine-disrupting chemicals that affect energy homeostasis. MDCs affect multiple endocrine mechanisms and thus different cell types that are implicated in metabolic control. MDCs affect gene expression and the biosynthesis of key enzymes, hormones and adipokines that are essential for controlling energy homeostasis. This multifaceted spectrum of actions precludes compensatory responses and favours metabolic disorders. Herein, we review the main mechanisms used by MDCs to alter energy balance. This work should help to identify new MDCs, as well as novel targets of their action.

Biodegradation of malathion, α- and β-endosulfan by bacterial strains isolated from agricultural soil in Veracruz, Mexico

The objective of this study was to evaluate the capacity of two bacterial strains isolated, cultivated, and purified from agricultural soils of Veracruz, Mexico, for biodegradation and mineralisation of malathion (diethyl 2-(dimethoxyphosphorothioyl) succinate) and α- and β-endosulfan (6,7,8,9,10,10-hexachloro-1,5,5a,6,9,9a-hexahydro-6-9-methano-2,4,3-benzodioxathiepine-3-oxide). The isolated bacterial strains were identified using biochemical and morphological characterization and the analysis of their 16S rDNA gene, as Enterobacter cloacae strain PMM16 (E1) and E. amnigenus strain XGL214 (M1). The E1 strain was able to degrade endosulfan, whereas the M1 strain was capable of degrading both pesticides. The E1 strain degraded 71.32% of α-endosulfan and 100% of β-endosulfan within 24 days. The absence of metabolites, such as endosulfan sulfate, endosulfan lactone, or endosulfan diol, would suggest degradation of endosulfan isomers through non-oxidative pathways. Malathion was completely eliminated by the M1 strain. The major metabolite was butanedioic acid. There was a time-dependent increase in bacterial biomass, typical of bacterial growth, correlated with the decrease in pesticide concentration. The CO₂ production also increased significantly with the addition of pesticides to the bacterial growth media, demonstrating that, under aerobic conditions, the bacteria utilized endosulfan and malathion as a carbon source. Here, two bacterial strains are shown to metabolize two toxic pesticides into non-toxic intermediates.

Antioxidant therapy for treatment of inflammatory bowel disease: Does it work?

Oxidative stress (OS) is considered as one of the etiologic factors involved in several signals and symptoms of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) that include diarrhea, toxic megacolon and abdominal pain. This systematic review discusses approaches, challenges and perspectives into the use of nontraditional antioxidant therapy on IBD, including natural and synthetic compounds in both human and animal models. One hundred and thirty four papers were identified, of which only four were evaluated in humans. Some of the challenges identified in this review can shed light on this fact: lack of standardization of OS biomarkers, absence of safety data and clinical trials for the chemicals and biological molecules, as well as the fact that most of the compounds were not repeatedly tested in several situations, including acute and chronic colitis. This review hopes to stimulate researchers to become more involved in this fruitful area, to warrant investigation of novel, alternative and efficacious antioxidant-based therapies.

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Major biomarkers used for evaluation of antioxidant therapy were MPO, TBARS/MDA and glutathione levels.

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Challenges were identified for the yet poor use of antioxidant therapy in IBD.

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This review stimulates the investigation of alternative and efficacious antioxidant therapies.

Hepatoprotective and Renoprotective Effects of Lavender (Lavandula stoechas L.) Essential Oils Against Malathion-Induced Oxidative Stress in Young Male Mice

We aimed in the present study to investigate the hepato- and nephroprotective effects of Lavandula stoechas essential oils (LSEO) against malathion-induced oxidative stress in young male mice as well as the possible mechanism implicated in such protection. Animals were divided into eight groups of 12 each: Control, malathion (200 mg/kg b.w.); Various doses of LSEO (10, 30, and 50 mg/kg b.w.), malathion+various doses of LSEO. Malathion and LSEO were daily per orally (p.o.) administered by intragastric gavage during 30 days. We initially found that malathion treatment induced body weight gain decrease as well as a clear nephro- and hepatotoxicity as assessed by significant relative liver and kidney weight increase and related hemodynamic parameters deregulation. Malathion exposure of mice also induced a considerable perturbation of metabolic parameters. On the other hand, we showed that malathion administration was accompanied by an oxidative stress status assessed by an increase of malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) levels as well as a depletion of sulfhydril group content (-SH) and antioxidant enzyme activities such as catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), total superoxide dismutase (SOD), Cu/Zn-SOD, Mn-SOD, and Fe-SOD in the kidney and liver. More importantly, LSEO treatment abolished all malathion-induced body gain loss, liver and kidney relative weight increase, hemodynamic and metabolic disorders, as well as hepatic and renal oxidative stress. In conclusion, our data suggest that LSEO exerted potential hepato- and nephroprotective effects against malathion-induced oxidative stress in mice. The beneficial effect of LSEO might be related, in part, to its antioxidant properties.