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Rudt E, Schneider S, Hayen H. Hyphenation of Liquid Chromatography and Trapped Ion Mobility - Mass Spectrometry for Characterization of Isomeric Phosphatidylethanolamines with Focus on N-Acylated Species. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2024; 35:1584-1593. [PMID: 38842006 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.4c00162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
In prior research, hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (HILIC-MS/MS) has demonstrated applicability for characterizing regioisomers in lipidomics studies, including phosphatidylglycerols (PG) and bis(monoacyl)glycerophosphates (BMP). However, there are other lipid regioisomers, such as phosphatidylethanolamines (PE) and lyso-N-acyl-PE (LNAPE), that have not been studied as extensively. Therefore, hyphenated mass spectrometric methods are needed to investigate PE and LNAPE regioisomers individually. The asymmetric structure of LNAPE favors isomeric species, which can result in coelution and chimeric MS/MS spectra. One way to address the challenge of chimeric MS/MS spectra is through mobility-resolved fragmentation using trapped ion mobility spectrometry (TIMS). Therefore, we developed a multidimensional HILIC-TIMS-MS/MS approach for the structural characterization of isomeric phosphatidylethanolamines in both negative and positive ionization modes. The study revealed the complementary fragmentation pattern and ion mobility behavior of LNAPE in both ionization modes, which was confirmed by a self-synthesized LNAPE standard. With this knowledge, a distinction of regioisomeric PE and LNAPE was achieved in human plasma samples. Furthermore, regioisomeric LNAPE species containing at least one unsaturated fatty acid were noted to exhibit a change in collision cross-section in positive ionization mode, leading to a lipid characterization with respect to fatty acyl positional level. Similar mobility behavior was also observed for the biological LNAPE precursor N-acyl-PE (NAPE). Application of this approach to plasma and cereal samples demonstrated its effectiveness in regioisomeric LNAPE and NAPE species' elucidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward Rudt
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, Münster 48149, Germany
| | - Svenja Schneider
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, Münster 48149, Germany
| | - Heiko Hayen
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, Münster 48149, Germany
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Nobili S, Micheli L, Lucarini E, Toti A, Ghelardini C, Di Cesare Mannelli L. Ultramicronized N-palmitoylethanolamine associated with analgesics: Effects against persistent pain. Pharmacol Ther 2024; 258:108649. [PMID: 38615798 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2024.108649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
Current epidemiological data estimate that one in five people suffers from chronic pain with considerable impairment of health-related quality of life. The pharmacological treatment is based on first- and second-line analgesic drugs, including COX-2 selective and nonselective nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, paracetamol, antidepressants, anti-seizure drugs and opioids, that are characterized by important side effects. N-palmitoylethanolamine (PEA) is a body's own fatty-acid ethanolamide belonging to the family of autacoid local injury antagonist amides. The anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving properties of PEA have been recognized for decades and prompted to depict its role in the endogenous mechanisms of pain control. Together with its relative abundance in food sources, this opened the way to the use of PEA as a pain-relieving nutritional intervention. Naïve PEA is a large particle size lipid molecule with low solubility and bioavailability. Reducing particle size is a useful method to increase surface area, thereby improving dissolution rate and bioavailability accordingly. Micron-size formulations of PEA (e.g., ultramicronized and co-(ultra)micronized) have shown higher oral efficacy compared to naïve PEA. In particular, ultramicronized PEA has been shown to efficiently cross the intestinal wall and, more importantly, the blood-brain and blood-spinal cord barrier. Several preclinical and clinical studies have shown the efficacy, safety and tolerability of ultramicronized PEA. This narrative review summarizes the available pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic data on ultramicronized PEA and focuses to its contribution to pain control, in particular as 'add-on' nutritional intervention. Data showing the ability of ultramicronized PEA to limit opioid side effects, including the development of tolerance, have also been reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Nobili
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health - NEUROFARBA - Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy.
| | - Laura Micheli
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health - NEUROFARBA - Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Elena Lucarini
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health - NEUROFARBA - Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Alessandra Toti
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health - NEUROFARBA - Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Carla Ghelardini
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health - NEUROFARBA - Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Di Cesare Mannelli
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health - NEUROFARBA - Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy.
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Grabacka M, Pierzchalska M, Płonka PM, Pierzchalski P. The Role of PPAR Alpha in the Modulation of Innate Immunity. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:10545. [PMID: 34638886 PMCID: PMC8508635 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 09/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α is a potent regulator of systemic and cellular metabolism and energy homeostasis, but it also suppresses various inflammatory reactions. In this review, we focus on its role in the regulation of innate immunity; in particular, we discuss the PPARα interplay with inflammatory transcription factor signaling, pattern-recognition receptor signaling, and the endocannabinoid system. We also present examples of the PPARα-specific immunomodulatory functions during parasitic, bacterial, and viral infections, as well as approach several issues associated with innate immunity processes, such as the production of reactive nitrogen and oxygen species, phagocytosis, and the effector functions of macrophages, innate lymphoid cells, and mast cells. The described phenomena encourage the application of endogenous and pharmacological PPARα agonists to alleviate the disorders of immunological background and the development of new solutions that engage PPARα activation or suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja Grabacka
- Department of Biotechnology and General Technology of Foods, Faculty of Food Technology, University of Agriculture, ul. Balicka 122, 30-149 Cracow, Poland;
| | - Małgorzata Pierzchalska
- Department of Biotechnology and General Technology of Foods, Faculty of Food Technology, University of Agriculture, ul. Balicka 122, 30-149 Cracow, Poland;
| | - Przemysław M. Płonka
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, ul. Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Cracow, Poland;
| | - Piotr Pierzchalski
- Department of Medical Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Jagiellonian University Medical College, ul. Michałowskiego 12, 31-126 Cracow, Poland;
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The Endocannabinoid System in the Mediterranean Mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis: Possible Mediators of the Immune Activity? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22094954. [PMID: 34066927 PMCID: PMC8125337 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Revised: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Anandamide (AEA) is one of the best characterized members of the endocannabinoid family and its involvement in many pathophysiological processes has been well documented in vertebrates and invertebrates. Here, we report the biochemical and functional characterization of key elements of the endocannabinoid system in hemocytes isolated from the Mediterranean mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. We also show the effects of exogenous AEA, as well as of capsaicin, on the cell ability to migrate and to activate the respiratory burst, upon in vitro stimulation of phagocytosis. Interestingly, our findings show that both AEA and capsaicin suppress the hemocyte response and that the use of selective antagonists of CB2 and TRPV1 receptors revert their inhibitory effects. Overall, present data support previous evidence on the presence of endocannabinoid signaling in mollusks and advance our knowledge about the evolutionary origins of this endogenous system and its role in the innate response of mollusks.
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Clarke TL, Johnson RL, Simone JJ, Carlone RL. The Endocannabinoid System and Invertebrate Neurodevelopment and Regeneration. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:2103. [PMID: 33672634 PMCID: PMC7924210 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22042103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis has long been used for its medicinal and psychoactive properties. With the relatively new adoption of formal medicinal cannabis regulations worldwide, the study of cannabinoids, both endogenous and exogenous, has similarly flourished in more recent decades. In particular, research investigating the role of cannabinoids in regeneration and neurodevelopment has yielded promising results in vertebrate models. However, regeneration-competent vertebrates are few, whereas a myriad of invertebrate species have been established as superb models for regeneration. As such, this review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of the endocannabinoid system, with a focus on current advances in the area of endocannabinoid system contributions to invertebrate neurodevelopment and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tristyn L. Clarke
- Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac brock Way, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada; (T.L.C.); (R.L.J.); (J.J.S.)
| | - Rachael L. Johnson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac brock Way, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada; (T.L.C.); (R.L.J.); (J.J.S.)
| | - Jonathan J. Simone
- Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac brock Way, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada; (T.L.C.); (R.L.J.); (J.J.S.)
- Centre for Neuroscience, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac brock Way, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada
- eCB Consulting Inc., P.O. Box 652, 3 Cameron St. W., Cannington, ON L2S 3A1, Canada
| | - Robert L. Carlone
- Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac brock Way, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada; (T.L.C.); (R.L.J.); (J.J.S.)
- Centre for Neuroscience, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac brock Way, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada
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Petrosino S, Schiano Moriello A. Palmitoylethanolamide: A Nutritional Approach to Keep Neuroinflammation within Physiological Boundaries-A Systematic Review. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E9526. [PMID: 33333772 PMCID: PMC7765232 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21249526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is a physiological response aimed at maintaining the homodynamic balance and providing the body with the fundamental resource of adaptation to endogenous and exogenous stimuli. Although the response is initiated with protective purposes, the effect may be detrimental when not regulated. The physiological control of neuroinflammation is mainly achieved via regulatory mechanisms performed by particular cells of the immune system intimately associated with or within the nervous system and named "non-neuronal cells." In particular, mast cells (within the central nervous system and in the periphery) and microglia (at spinal and supraspinal level) are involved in this control, through a close functional relationship between them and neurons (either centrally, spinal, or peripherally located). Accordingly, neuroinflammation becomes a worsening factor in many disorders whenever the non-neuronal cell supervision is inadequate. It has been shown that the regulation of non-neuronal cells-and therefore the control of neuroinflammation-depends on the local "on demand" synthesis of the endogenous lipid amide Palmitoylethanolamide and related endocannabinoids. When the balance between synthesis and degradation of this bioactive lipid mediator is disrupted in favor of reduced synthesis and/or increased degradation, the behavior of non-neuronal cells may not be appropriately regulated and neuroinflammation exceeds the physiological boundaries. In these conditions, it has been demonstrated that the increase of endogenous Palmitoylethanolamide-either by decreasing its degradation or exogenous administration-is able to keep neuroinflammation within its physiological limits. In this review the large number of studies on the benefits derived from oral administration of micronized and highly bioavailable forms of Palmitoylethanolamide is discussed, with special reference to neuroinflammatory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Petrosino
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Istituto di Chimica Biomolecolare, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Via Campi Flegrei 34, 80078 Napoli, Italy;
- Epitech Group SpA, Via Einaudi 13, 35030 Padova, Italy
| | - Aniello Schiano Moriello
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Istituto di Chimica Biomolecolare, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Via Campi Flegrei 34, 80078 Napoli, Italy;
- Epitech Group SpA, Via Einaudi 13, 35030 Padova, Italy
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Palmitoylethanolamide and Related ALIAmides: Prohomeostatic Lipid Compounds for Animal Health and Wellbeing. Vet Sci 2020; 7:vetsci7020078. [PMID: 32560159 PMCID: PMC7355440 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci7020078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Virtually every cellular process is affected by diet and this represents the foundation of dietary management to a variety of small animal disorders. Special attention is currently being paid to a family of naturally occurring lipid amides acting through the so-called autacoid local injury antagonism, i.e., the ALIA mechanism. The parent molecule of ALIAmides, palmitoyl ethanolamide (PEA), has being known since the 1950s as a nutritional factor with protective properties. Since then, PEA has been isolated from a variety of plant and animal food sources and its proresolving function in the mammalian body has been increasingly investigated. The discovery of the close interconnection between ALIAmides and the endocannabinoid system has greatly stimulated research efforts in this field. The multitarget and highly redundant mechanisms through which PEA exerts prohomeostatic functions fully breaks with the classical pharmacology view of “one drug, one target, one disease”, opening a new era in the management of animals’ health, i.e., an according-to-nature biomodulation of body responses to different stimuli and injury. The present review focuses on the direct and indirect endocannabinoid receptor agonism by PEA and its analogues and also targets the main findings from experimental and clinical studies on ALIAmides in animal health and wellbeing.
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De Luca L, Ferracane R, Vitaglione P. Food database of N-acyl-phosphatidylethanolamines, N-acylethanolamines and endocannabinoids and daily intake from a Western, a Mediterranean and a vegetarian diet. Food Chem 2019; 300:125218. [PMID: 31351254 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.125218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The contents of N-acylphosphatidylethanolamines (NAPEs), N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) and endocannabinoids (ECs) in 43 food products were assessed and daily intakes, based on consumption of Mediterranean, vegetarian and Western diets, were simulated. NAPEs and NAEs were more abundant in plant-based foods than in animal food products; NAPEs were in the ranges 0-4032 vs 4-398 µg/g dw and NAEs were in the ranges 0-35 vs 0.1-0.7 µg/g dw, respectively while ECs were in the range 0-0.1 vs 0-34 µg/g dw. Daily intakes of NAPEs and NAEs were higher from Mediterranean (263 and 0.25 mg/day) and vegetarian (242 and 0.28 mg/day) diets than the Western diet (163 and 0.08 mg/day). Conversely, ECs intakes were higher from Western and Mediterranean diets (0.17 mg/day) than the vegetarian diet (0.01 mg/day). Future studies will evaluate the physiological role of dietary NAPEs, NAEs and ECs in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia De Luca
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples "Federico II", 80055 Portici, Italy
| | - Rosalia Ferracane
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples "Federico II", 80055 Portici, Italy
| | - Paola Vitaglione
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples "Federico II", 80055 Portici, Italy.
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Acetylated Nucleoside Derivatives from a Shallow-Water Marine Bivalve Codakia orbicularis. Chem Nat Compd 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10600-019-02814-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Řezanka T, Vítová M, Lukavský J, Sigler K. Lipidomic Study of Precursors of Endocannabinoids in Freshwater Bryozoan Pectinatella magnifica. Lipids 2018; 53:413-427. [PMID: 29709080 DOI: 10.1002/lipd.12039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Revised: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 03/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Freshwater bryozoan Pectinatella magnifica was collected from a sand pit (South Bohemia). The total lipids after extraction from lyophilized bryozoans were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography/high-resolution negative tandem electrospray mass spectrometry. A total of 19 lipid classes were identified, including N-acyl-substituted phospholipids, that is, N-acylphosphatidylethanolamine and N-acylphosphatidylserine in their plasmenyl forms. Based on gas chromatography/mass spectrometry of 3-pyridylcarbonyl (picolinyl) esters, a very unusual fatty acid was identified, namely 24:7n-3 (all-cis-3,6,9,12,15,18,21-tetracosaheptaenoic acid). The presence of polyunsaturated fatty acids in individual classes is very specific: arachidonic and eicosapentaenoic acids being predominantly bound as amides in N-acyl phospholipids, that is, diacyl-N-acylphosphatidylethanolamines (NAPtdEtn), plasmenyl-N-acylphosphatidyl ethanolamines (PlsNAPtdEtn), diacyl-N-acylphosphatidylserines (NAPtdSer), and plasmenyl-N-acylphosphatidylserines (PlsNAPtdSer). While 24:6n-3 was identified in the sn-2 position of several phospholipids, 24:7n-3 was identified in only two plasmalogens, that is, PlsNAPtdEtn and PlsNAPtdSer. Thanks to the tandem mass spectrometry, we managed to identify the position of all acyl groups in both diacyl- and also in alkenyl-acyl-(plasmenyl) molecular species of N-acylphospholipids. The identification of the molecular species of N-acyl-substituted phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine, including their plasmalogen forms, in the freshwater bryozoan P. magnifica has enabled the identification of endogenous cannabinoid precursors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomáš Řezanka
- Laboratory of Fungal Genetics and Metabolism, The Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Microbiology, Vídeňská 1083, 142 20, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Milada Vítová
- Laboratory of Cell Cycles of Algae, Centre Algatech, The Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Microbiology, Opatovický mlýn, 379 81, Třeboň, Czech Republic
| | - Jaromír Lukavský
- Department of Plant Ecology, Biorefinery Centre of Competence, The Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Botany, Dukelská 135, 379 82, Třeboň, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Sigler
- Laboratory of Fungal Genetics and Metabolism, The Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Microbiology, Vídeňská 1083, 142 20, Prague, Czech Republic
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Impellizzeri D, Cordaro M, Bruschetta G, Crupi R, Pascali J, Alfonsi D, Marcolongo G, Cuzzocrea S. 2-pentadecyl-2-oxazoline: Identification in coffee, synthesis and activity in a rat model of carrageenan-induced hindpaw inflammation. Pharmacol Res 2016; 108:23-30. [PMID: 27083308 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2016.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2016] [Revised: 04/11/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) comprise a family of bioactive lipid molecules present in animal and plant tissues, with N-palmitoylethanolamine (PEA) having received much attention owing to its anti-inflammatory, analgesic and neuroprotective activities. 2-Pentadecyl-2-oxazoline (PEA-OXA), the oxazoline of PEA, reportedly modulates activity of N-acylethanolamine-hydrolyzing acid amidase (NAAA), which catabolizes PEA. Because PEA is produced on demand and exerts pleiotropic effects on non-neuronal cells implicated in neuroinflammation, modulating the specific amidases for NAEs (NAAA in particular) could be a way to preserve PEA role in maintaining cellular homeostasis through its rapid on-demand synthesis and equally rapid degradation. This study provides the first description of PEA-OXA in both green and roasted coffee beans and Moka infusions, and its synthesis. In an established model of carrageenan (CAR)-induced rat paw inflammation, PEA-OXA was orally active in limiting histological damage and thermal hyperalgesia 6h after CAR intraplantar injection in the right hindpaw and the accumulation of infiltrating inflammatory cells. PEA-OXA appeared to be more potent compared to ultramicronized PEA given orally at the same dose (10mg/kg). PEA-OXA markedly reduced also the increase in hindpaw myeloperoxidase activity, an index of polymorphonuclear cell accumulation in inflammatory tissues. NAAA modulators like PEA-OXA may serve to maximize availability of NAEs (e.g. PEA) while providing for recycling of the NAE components for further resynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Impellizzeri
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Marika Cordaro
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Bruschetta
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Rosalia Crupi
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Jennifer Pascali
- dto Labs Analytical Excellence Center, Agilent Technologies, Via Fratta 25, 31023, Resana (TV), Italy
| | | | | | - Salvatore Cuzzocrea
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy.
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Palmitoylethanolamide, a Natural Retinoprotectant: Its Putative Relevance for the Treatment of Glaucoma and Diabetic Retinopathy. J Ophthalmol 2015; 2015:430596. [PMID: 26664738 PMCID: PMC4667059 DOI: 10.1155/2015/430596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Revised: 10/11/2015] [Accepted: 11/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinopathy is a threat to the eyesight, and glaucoma and diabetes are the main causes for the damage of retinal cells. Recent insights pointed out a common pathogenetic pathway for both disorders, based on chronic inflammation. Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) is an endogenous cell protective lipid. Since its discovery in 1957 as a biologically active component in foods and in many living organisms, around 500 scientific papers have been published on PEA's anti-inflammatory and neuron-protective properties. PEA has been evaluated for glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, and uveitis, pathological states based on chronic inflammation, respiratory disorders, and various pain syndromes in a number of clinical trials since the 70s of 20th century. PEA is available as a food supplement (PeaPure) and as diet food for medical purposes in Italy (Normast, PeaVera, and Visimast). These products are notified in Italy for the nutritional support in glaucoma and neuroinflammation. PEA has been tested in at least 9 double blind placebo controlled studies, among which two studies were in glaucoma, and found to be safe and effective up to 1.8 g/day, with excellent tolerability. PEA therefore holds a promise in the treatment of a number of retinopathies. We discuss PEA as a putative anti-inflammatory and retinoprotectant compound in the treatment of retinopathies, especially related to glaucoma and diabetes.
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Blancaflor EB, Kilaru A, Keereetaweep J, Khan BR, Faure L, Chapman KD. N-Acylethanolamines: lipid metabolites with functions in plant growth and development. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2014; 79:568-583. [PMID: 24397856 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2013] [Revised: 12/18/2013] [Accepted: 12/23/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Twenty years ago, N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) were considered by many lipid chemists to be biological 'artifacts' of tissue damage, and were, at best, thought to be minor lipohilic constituents of various organisms. However, that changed dramatically in 1993, when anandamide, an NAE of arachidonic acid (N-arachidonylethanolamine), was shown to bind to the human cannabinoid receptor (CB1) and activate intracellular signal cascades in mammalian neurons. Now NAEs of various types have been identified in diverse multicellular organisms, in which they display profound biological effects. Although targets of NAEs are still being uncovered, and probably vary among eukaryotic species, there appears to be remarkable conservation of the machinery that metabolizes these bioactive fatty acid conjugates of ethanolamine. This review focuses on the metabolism and functions of NAEs in higher plants, with specific reference to the formation, hydrolysis and oxidation of these potent lipid mediators. The discussion centers mostly on early seedling growth and development, for which NAE metabolism has received the most attention, but also considers other areas of plant development in which NAE metabolism has been implicated. Where appropriate, we indicate cross-kingdom conservation in NAE metabolic pathways and metabolites, and suggest areas where opportunities for further investigation appear most pressing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elison B Blancaflor
- Plant Biology Division, The Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation Inc., 2510 Sam Noble Parkway, Ardmore, OK, 73401, USA
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McPartland JM, Guy GW, Di Marzo V. Care and feeding of the endocannabinoid system: a systematic review of potential clinical interventions that upregulate the endocannabinoid system. PLoS One 2014; 9:e89566. [PMID: 24622769 PMCID: PMC3951193 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2013] [Accepted: 01/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The “classic” endocannabinoid (eCB) system includes the cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2, the eCB ligands anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), and their metabolic enzymes. An emerging literature documents the “eCB deficiency syndrome” as an etiology in migraine, fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, psychological disorders, and other conditions. We performed a systematic review of clinical interventions that enhance the eCB system—ways to upregulate cannabinoid receptors, increase ligand synthesis, or inhibit ligand degradation. Methodology/Principal Findings We searched PubMed for clinical trials, observational studies, and preclinical research. Data synthesis was qualitative. Exclusion criteria limited the results to 184 in vitro studies, 102 in vivo animal studies, and 36 human studies. Evidence indicates that several classes of pharmaceuticals upregulate the eCB system, including analgesics (acetaminophen, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, opioids, glucocorticoids), antidepressants, antipsychotics, anxiolytics, and anticonvulsants. Clinical interventions characterized as “complementary and alternative medicine” also upregulate the eCB system: massage and manipulation, acupuncture, dietary supplements, and herbal medicines. Lifestyle modification (diet, weight control, exercise, and the use of psychoactive substances—alcohol, tobacco, coffee, cannabis) also modulate the eCB system. Conclusions/Significance Few clinical trials have assessed interventions that upregulate the eCB system. Many preclinical studies point to other potential approaches; human trials are needed to explore these promising interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M. McPartland
- GW Pharmaceuticals, Porton Down Science Park, Salisbury, Wiltshire, United Kingdom
- Department of Family Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Geoffrey W. Guy
- GW Pharmaceuticals, Porton Down Science Park, Salisbury, Wiltshire, United Kingdom
| | - Vincenzo Di Marzo
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Istituto di Chimica Biomoleculare, CNR, Via Campi Flegrei, Pozzuoli, Napoli, Italy
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Skaper SD, Facci L, Giusti P. Glia and mast cells as targets for palmitoylethanolamide, an anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective lipid mediator. Mol Neurobiol 2013; 48:340-52. [PMID: 23813098 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-013-8487-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2013] [Accepted: 06/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Glia are key players in a number of nervous system disorders. Besides releasing glial and neuronal signaling molecules directed to cellular homeostasis, glia respond also to pro-inflammatory signals released from immune-related cells, with the mast cell being of particular interest. A proposed mast cell-glia communication may open new perspectives for designing therapies to target neuroinflammation by differentially modulating activation of non-neuronal cells normally controlling neuronal sensitization-both peripherally and centrally. Mast cells and glia possess endogenous homeostatic mechanisms/molecules that can be upregulated as a result of tissue damage or stimulation of inflammatory responses. Such molecules include the N-acylethanolamines, whose principal family members are the endocannabinoid N-arachidonoylethanolamine (anandamide), and its congeners N-stearoylethanolamine, N-oleoylethanolamine, and N-palmitoylethanolamine (PEA). A key role of PEA may be to maintain cellular homeostasis when faced with external stressors provoking, for example, inflammation: PEA is produced and hydrolyzed by microglia, it downmodulates mast cell activation, it increases in glutamate-treated neocortical neurons ex vivo and in injured cortex, and PEA levels increase in the spinal cord of mice with chronic relapsing experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Applied exogenously, PEA has proven efficacious in mast cell-mediated experimental models of acute and neurogenic inflammation. This fatty acid amide possesses also neuroprotective effects, for example, in a model of spinal cord trauma, in a delayed post-glutamate paradigm of excitotoxic death, and against amyloid β-peptide-induced learning and memory impairment in mice. These actions may be mediated by PEA acting through "receptor pleiotropism," i.e., both direct and indirect interactions of PEA with different receptor targets, e.g., cannabinoid CB2 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen D Skaper
- Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Padova, Largo "Egidio Meneghetti" 2, 35131, Padova, Italy,
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Skaper SD, Facci L. Mast cell-glia axis in neuroinflammation and therapeutic potential of the anandamide congener palmitoylethanolamide. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2013; 367:3312-25. [PMID: 23108549 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2011.0391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Communication between the immune and nervous systems depends a great deal on pro-inflammatory cytokines. Both astroglia and microglia, in particular, constitute an important source of inflammatory mediators and may have fundamental roles in central nervous system (CNS) disorders from neuropathic pain and epilepsy to neurodegenerative diseases. Glial cells respond also to pro-inflammatory signals released from cells of immune origin. In this context, mast cells are of particular relevance. These immune-related cells, while resident in the CNS, are able to cross a compromised blood-spinal cord and blood-brain barrier in cases of CNS pathology. Emerging evidence suggests the possibility of mast cell-glia communication, and opens exciting new perspectives for designing therapies to target neuroinflammation by differentially modulating the activation of non-neuronal cells normally controlling neuronal sensitization-both peripherally and centrally. This review aims to provide an overview of recent progress relating to the pathobiology of neuroinflammation, the role of glia, neuro-immune interactions involving mast cells and the possibility that glia-mast cell interactions contribute to exacerbation of acute symptoms of chronic neurodegenerative disease and accelerated disease progression, as well as promotion of pain transmission pathways. Using this background as a starting point for discussion, we will consider the therapeutic potential of naturally occurring fatty acid ethanolamides, such as palmitoylethanolamide in treating systemic inflammation or blockade of signalling pathways from the periphery to the brain in such settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen D Skaper
- Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Padova, Largo 'Egidio Meneghetti' 2, 35131 Padova, Italy.
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Keppel Hesselink JM, Kopsky DJ. Treatment of chronic regional pain syndrome type 1 with palmitoylethanolamide and topical ketamine cream: modulation of nonneuronal cells. J Pain Res 2013; 6:239-45. [PMID: 23658493 PMCID: PMC3643547 DOI: 10.2147/jpr.s42417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic regional pain syndrome (CRPS) can be intractable to treat and patients sometimes suffer
for many years. Therefore, new treatment strategies are needed to alleviate symptoms in CRPS
patients. This case report describes a patient suffering from intractable CRPS type 1 for 13 years.
Due to her swollen painful feet and left knee she is wheelchair-bound. The combination of
palmitoylethanolamide and ketamine 10% cream reduced her pain by more than 50% after
1 month of treatment, and a marked reduction in swelling and skin discoloration was noticed.
Furthermore, she could walk independently again and she experienced no side effects. Thus,
palmitoylethanolamide and topical ketamine could be a combination therapy option for treating CRPS
patients.
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18
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Elphick MR. The evolution and comparative neurobiology of endocannabinoid signalling. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2012; 367:3201-15. [PMID: 23108540 PMCID: PMC3481536 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2011.0394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
CB(1)- and CB(2)-type cannabinoid receptors mediate effects of the endocannabinoids 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and anandamide in mammals. In canonical endocannabinoid-mediated synaptic plasticity, 2-AG is generated postsynaptically by diacylglycerol lipase alpha and acts via presynaptic CB(1)-type cannabinoid receptors to inhibit neurotransmitter release. Electrophysiological studies on lampreys indicate that this retrograde signalling mechanism occurs throughout the vertebrates, whereas system-level studies point to conserved roles for endocannabinoid signalling in neural mechanisms of learning and control of locomotor activity and feeding. CB(1)/CB(2)-type receptors originated in a common ancestor of extant chordates, and in the sea squirt Ciona intestinalis a CB(1)/CB(2)-type receptor is targeted to axons, indicative of an ancient role for cannabinoid receptors as axonal regulators of neuronal signalling. Although CB(1)/CB(2)-type receptors are unique to chordates, enzymes involved in biosynthesis/inactivation of endocannabinoids occur throughout the animal kingdom. Accordingly, non-CB(1)/CB(2)-mediated mechanisms of endocannabinoid signalling have been postulated. For example, there is evidence that 2-AG mediates retrograde signalling at synapses in the nervous system of the leech Hirudo medicinalis by activating presynaptic transient receptor potential vanilloid-type ion channels. Thus, postsynaptic synthesis of 2-AG or anandamide may be a phylogenetically widespread phenomenon, and a variety of proteins may have evolved as presynaptic (or postsynaptic) receptors for endocannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurice R Elphick
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK.
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Dietary linoleic acid elevates endogenous 2-arachidonoylglycerol and anandamide in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) and mice, and induces weight gain and inflammation in mice. Br J Nutr 2012; 109:1508-17. [PMID: 22883314 DOI: 10.1017/s0007114512003364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Dietary intake of linoleic acid (LA) has increased dramatically during the twentieth century and is associated with a greater prevalence of obesity. Vegetable oils are recognised as suitable alternatives to fish oil (FO) in feed for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) but introduce high amounts of LA in the salmon fillet. The effect on fish consumers of such a replacement remains to be elucidated. Here, we investigate the effect of excessive dietary LA from soyabean oil (SO) on endocannabinoid levels in Atlantic salmon and mice, and study the metabolic effects in mice when SO replaces FO in feed for Atlantic salmon. Atlantic salmon were fed FO and SO for 6 months, and the salmon fillet was used to produce feed for mice. Male C57BL/6J mice were fed diets of 35% of energy as fat based on FO- and SO-enriched salmon for 16 weeks. We found that replacing FO with SO in feed for Atlantic salmon increased LA, arachidonic acid (AA), decreased EPA and DHA, elevated the endocannabinoids 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and anandamide (AEA), and increased TAG accumulation in the salmon liver. In mice, the SO salmon diet increased LA and AA and decreased EPA and DHA in the liver and erythrocyte phospholipids, and elevated 2-AG and AEA associated with increased feed efficiency, weight gain and adipose tissue inflammation compared with mice fed the FO salmon diet. In conclusion, excessive dietary LA elevates endocannabinoids in the liver of salmon and mice, and increases weight gain and counteracts the anti-inflammatory properties of EPA and DHA in mice.
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Coulon D, Faure L, Salmon M, Wattelet V, Bessoule JJ. Occurrence, biosynthesis and functions of N-acylphosphatidylethanolamines (NAPE): Not just precursors of N-acylethanolamines (NAE). Biochimie 2012; 94:75-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2011.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 04/29/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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21
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Hoyle CH. Evolution of neuronal signalling: Transmitters and receptors. Auton Neurosci 2011; 165:28-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.autneu.2010.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2009] [Revised: 05/09/2010] [Accepted: 05/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Angarano MB, McMahon RF, Schetz JA. Cannabinoids inhibit zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) byssal attachment: a potentially green antifouling technology. BIOFOULING 2009; 25:127-138. [PMID: 19037826 DOI: 10.1080/08927010802592743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Macrofouling by zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) has serious environmental, economic and legal consequences for freshwater shipping and raw water facilities. Current antifouling technologies, such as organometallics or aggressive oxidisers, have negative environmental impacts limiting their application. As part of an effort to discover antifoulants with a reduced environmental footprint, the endocannabinoid, anandamide and nine other compounds sharing structural or functional features were tested for their ability to inhibit zebra mussel byssal attachment. A byssal attachment bioassay identified six efficacious compounds; four compounds also had no negative impact on mussels at concentrations maximally inhibiting byssal attachment and three of them had no significant cumulative toxicity towards a non-target organism, Daphnia magna. This discovery demonstrates that both naturally occurring and synthetic cannabinoids can serve as non-toxic efficacious zebra mussel antifoulants. Applications with this technology may lead to a new genre of cleaner antifoulants, because the strategy is to prevent attachment rather than to poison mussels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maj-Britt Angarano
- Department of Biology, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas, USA
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23
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Lemak MS, Bravarenko NI, Bobrov MY, Bezuglov VV, Ierusalimsky VN, Storozhuk MV, Malyshev AY, Balaban PM. Cannabinoid regulation in identified synapse of terrestrial snail. Eur J Neurosci 2008; 26:3207-14. [PMID: 18028114 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05945.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In the terrestrial snail a direct monosynaptic glutamatergic connection between the primary sensory neuron and a premotor interneuron involved in withdrawal behaviour can be functionally identified using electrophysiological techniques. We investigated the involvement of cannabinoids in regulation of this synaptic contact. The results demonstrate that the specific binding sites for agonists to mammalian type 1 cannabinoid receptors (CB1Rs) exist in the snail's nervous system. Application of a synthetic cannabinoid agonist anandamide selectively changed the efficacy of synaptic contacts between the identified neurons. A decrease in the long-term synaptic facilitation of the synaptic contact elicited by high-frequency nerve tetanization in the presence of cannabinoid agonist anandamide was observed, suggesting a possible role of endocannabinoids in regulation of plasticity at this synaptic site. The selective antagonist of CB1Rs [N-(piperidin-1-yl)-5-(4-iodophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamide] AM251 bath application was changing the efficacy of the synaptic contact only when the postsynaptic neuron had been intracellularly activated before its application. This observation implies an involvement of endocannabinoids in plasticity phenomena induced by activity in the postsynaptic target. Additional support of endocannabinoid involvement in synaptic function at this site was given by experiments in which AM251 blocked the short-term suppression of synaptic excitation evoked by low-frequency nerve tetanization, a phenomenon qualitatively similar to cannabinoid-dependent synaptically evoked suppression of excitation demonstrated in the mammalian nervous system. The results of the present study suggest an involvement of cannabinoids in the regulation of synaptic efficacy. Further, anandamide could be a candidate for an endogenous neuromessenger involved in plasticity processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Lemak
- Department of Cellular Neurobiology, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology RAS, Moscow, Russia
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Vagias C, Tsitsimpikou C, Rapti T, Roussis V. 1,1′-Dimethyl-[2,2′]-Bipyridyldiium Salt from the BivalveCallista chione. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1080/10575630008043779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Melamede R. Harm reduction--the cannabis paradox. Harm Reduct J 2005; 2:17. [PMID: 16179090 PMCID: PMC1261530 DOI: 10.1186/1477-7517-2-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2004] [Accepted: 09/22/2005] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
This article examines harm reduction from a novel perspective. Its central thesis is that harm reduction is not only a social concept, but also a biological one. More specifically, evolution does not make moral distinctions in the selection process, but utilizes a cannabis-based approach to harm reduction in order to promote survival of the fittest. Evidence will be provided from peer-reviewed scientific literature that supports the hypothesis that humans, and all animals, make and use internally produced cannabis-like products (endocannabinoids) as part of the evolutionary harm reduction program. More specifically, endocannabinoids homeostatically regulate all body systems (cardiovascular, digestive, endocrine, excretory, immune, nervous, musculo-skeletal, reproductive). Therefore, the health of each individual is dependant on this system working appropriately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Melamede
- Biology Department, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, 80918, USA.
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26
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Matias I, McPartland JM, Di Marzo V. Occurrence and possible biological role of the endocannabinoid system in the sea squirt Ciona intestinalis. J Neurochem 2005; 93:1141-56. [PMID: 15934935 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03103.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A cannabinoid receptor orthologue (CiCBR) has been described in the sea squirt Ciona intestinalis. Here we report that CiCBR mRNA expression is highest in cerebral ganglion, branchial pharynx, heart and testis of C. intestinalis, and that this organism also contains cannabinoid receptor ligands and some of the enzymes for ligand biosynthesis and inactivation. Using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, the endocannabinoid anandamide was found in all tissues analysed (0.063-5.423 pmol/mg of lipid extract), with the highest concentrations being found in brain and heart. The endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) was fivefold more abundant than anandamide, and was most abundant in stomach and intestine and least abundant in heart and ovaries (2.677-50.607 pmol/mg of lipid extract). Using phylogenomic analysis, we identified orthologues of several endocannabinoid synthesizing and degrading enzymes. In particular, we identified and partly sequenced a fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) orthologue, showing 44% identity with human FAAH and containing nearly all the amino acids necessary for a functional FAAH enzyme. Ciona intestinalis also contained specific binding sites for cannabinoid receptor ligands, and an amidase enzyme with pH-dependency and subcellular/tissue distribution similar to mammalian FAAHs. Finally, a typical C. intestinalis behavioural response, siphon reopening after closure induced by mechanical stimulation, was inhibited by the cannabinoid receptor agonist HU-210, and this effect was significantly attenuated by mammalian cannabinoid receptor antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Matias
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Pozzuoli (Napoli), Italy
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McPartland JM. Phylogenomic and chemotaxonomic analysis of the endocannabinoid system. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 45:18-29. [PMID: 15063097 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2003.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/04/2003] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system consists of two cannabinoid (CB) receptors, seven ligands, and ligand-catabolizing enzymes such as fatty acid amid hydrolase (FAAH) and monoglyceride lipase (MGL). The system's phylogenetic distribution is poorly known. The ligands cannot be molecularly investigated because they are not polypeptides and their specific synthetic enzymes have not been identified, so no sequences are available. Ligand phylogenetics can be inferred, nonetheless, by their presence in a range of extant organisms. Thus a meta-analysis of ligand extraction studies was performed (chemotaxonomy), and compared to a molecular search for homologs of CB receptors, vanilloid receptors (VR1), FAAH, and MGL in the genomes of sequenced organisms (phylogenomics). Putative homologs underwent functional mapping to ascertain the presence of critical amino acid motifs known to impart protein functionality. From an evolutionary perspective it appears that (1) endocannabinoid ligands evolved before CB receptors; (2) the ligands evolved independently multiple times; (3) CB receptors evolved prior to the metazoan-bilaterian divergence (ie, between extant Hydra and leech), but were secondarily lost in the Ecdysozoa; (4) VR1 may predate CB receptors but its affinity for endocannabinoids is a recent acquisition, appearing after the lower vertebrate-mammal divergence; (5) MGL may be as old as the ligands, whereas FAAH evolved recently, after the appearance of vertebrates. FAAH's emergence correlates with VR1's newly-found affinity for anandamide; this overlap in evolutionary time is recapitulated by complementary distribution patterns of FAAH, VR1, and anandamide in the brain. Linking FAAH, VR1, and anandamide implies a coupling among the remaining "older" parts of the endocannabinoid system, MGL, CB receptors, and 2-AG.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M McPartland
- GW Pharmaceuticals Ltd., Porton Down Science Park, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4 0JQ, UK.
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Fezza F, Dillwith JW, Bisogno T, Tucker JS, Di Marzo V, Sauer JR. Endocannabinoids and related fatty acid amides, and their regulation, in the salivary glands of the lone star tick. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2003; 1633:61-7. [PMID: 12842196 DOI: 10.1016/s1388-1981(03)00087-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The salivary glands and saliva from the lone star tick Amblyomma americanum (L.) were analyzed for the presence of the two endogenous agonists of cannabinoid receptors, N-arachidonoylethanolamine (anandamide) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), as well as of the anandamide congener, N-palmitoylethanolamine (PEA), an anti-inflammatory and analgesic mediator that is inactive at cannabinoid receptors. Two very sensitive mass-spectrometric techniques were used for this purpose. Both 2-AG and PEA, as well as other N-acylethanolamines (NAEs), were identified in salivary glands, but anandamide was below detection. The levels of 2-AG were considerably higher in the salivary glands of partially fed than replete females. Ex vivo gland stimulation with arachidonic acid increased the levels of 2-AG, but not of PEA or other NAEs, and caused the formation of anandamide and of the potent analgesic compound N-arachidonoylglycine. Instead, the amounts of anandamide, 2-AG and PEA were not influenced by treatment of salivary glands with dopamine, which stimulates saliva secretion. The possible biosynthetic precursors of anandamide, PEA and other NAEs were also detected in salivary glands, whereas only PEA was detected in tick saliva. These data demonstrate for the first time that the salivary glands of an obligate ectoparasite species can make endocannabinoids and/or related congeners with analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity, which possibly participate in the inhibition of the host defense reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filomena Fezza
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Istituto di Chimica Biomolecolare, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche-Via Campi Flegrei 34, Comprensorio Olivetti, Fabbricato 70, I-80078 Pozzuoli, Napoli, Italy
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Schmid HHO, Schmid PC, Berdyshev EV. Cell signaling by endocannabinoids and their congeners: questions of selectivity and other challenges. Chem Phys Lipids 2002; 121:111-34. [PMID: 12505695 DOI: 10.1016/s0009-3084(02)00157-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The major endocannabinoids, anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamide, 20:4n-6 N-acylethanolamine) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) are structurally and functionally similar, but they are produced by different metabolic pathways and their levels must therefore be regulated by different mechanisms. Both endocannabinoids are accompanied by cannabinoid receptor-inactive, saturated and mono- or di-unsaturated congeners which can influence their metabolism and function. Here we review published data on the presence and production of anandamide and 2-AG and their congeners in mammalian cells and discuss this information in terms of their proposed signaling functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harald H O Schmid
- The Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, 801-16th Avenue N E, Austin, MN 55912, USA.
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Onaivi ES, Leonard CM, Ishiguro H, Zhang PW, Lin Z, Akinshola BE, Uhl GR. Endocannabinoids and cannabinoid receptor genetics. Prog Neurobiol 2002; 66:307-44. [PMID: 12015198 DOI: 10.1016/s0301-0082(02)00007-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This review presents the remarkable advances that have been achieved in marijuana (cannabinoid) research, with the discovery of specific receptors and the existence of naturally occurring cannabis-like substances in the human body and brain. The last decade has seen more rapid progress in marijuana research than any time in the thousands of years that marijuana has been used by humans, particularly in cannabinoid genomics. The cDNA and genomic sequences encoding G protein-coupled cannabinoid receptors (Cnrs) from several species have now been cloned. Endogenous cannabinoids (endocannabinoids), synthetic and hydrolyzing enzymes and transporters that define neurochemically-specific cannabinoid brain pathways have been identified. Endocannabinoid lipid signaling molecules alter activity at G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) and possibly at anandamide-gated ion channels, such as vanilloid receptors. Availability of increasingly-specific CB1 and CB2 Cnr antagonists and of CB1 and CB2 Cnr knockout mice have increased our understanding of these cannabinoid systems and provides tantalizing evidence for even more G protein-coupled Cnrs. Initial studies of the Cnr gene structure, regulation and polymorphisms whet our appetite for more information about these interesting genes, their variants and roles in vulnerabilities to addictions and other neuropsychiatric disorders. Behavioral studies of cannabinoids document the complex interactions between rewarding and aversive effects of these drugs. Pursuing cannabinoid-related molecular, pharmacological and behavioral leads will add greatly to our understanding of endogenous brain neuromodulator systems, abused substances and potential therapeutics. This review of CB1 and CB2 Cnr genes in human and animal brain and their neurobiological effects provide a basis for many of these studies. Therefore, understanding the physiological cannabinoid control system in the human body and brain will contribute to elucidating this natural regulatory mechanism in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel S Onaivi
- Department of Biology, William Paterson University, 07470, Wayne, NJ, USA.
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Schmid HHO, Berdyshev EV. Cannabinoid receptor-inactive N-acylethanolamines and other fatty acid amides: metabolism and function. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2002; 66:363-76. [PMID: 12052050 DOI: 10.1054/plef.2001.0348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Although it is now generally accepted that long-chain N-acylethanolamines and their precursors, N-acylethanolamine phospholipids, exist as trace constituents in virtually all vertebrate cells and tissues, their possible biological functions are just emerging. While anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamine) has received much attention due to its ability to bind to and activate cannabinoid receptors, the saturated and monounsaturated N-acylethanolamines, which usually represent the vast majority, are cannabinoid receptor-inactive but appear to interact with endocannabinoids and to have other signaling functions as well. Also, primary fatty acid amides, including the amide of oleic acid, which acts as a sleep-inducing agent, do not interact with cannabinoid receptors but are catabolically related to endocannabinoids. Here we review published information on the occurrence, metabolism, and possible signaling functions of the cannabinoid receptor-inactive N-acylethanolamines and primary fatty acid amides.
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Affiliation(s)
- H H O Schmid
- The Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, 801-16th Avenue NE, Austin, MN 55912, USA.
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Abstract
Many aspects of the physiology and pharmacology of anandamide (arachidonoyl ethanol amide), the first endogenous cannabinoid ligand ("endocannabinoid") isolated from pig brain, have been studied since its discovery in 1992. Ethanol amides from other fatty acids have also been identified as endocannabinoids with similar in vivo and in vitro pharmacological properties. 2-Arachidonoyl glycerol and noladin ether (2-arachidonyl glyceryl ether), isolated in 1995 and 2001, respectively, so far, display pharmacological properties in the central nervous system, similar to those of anandamide. The endocannabinoids are widely distributed in brain, they are synthesized and released upon neuronal stimulation, undergo reuptake and are hydrolyzed intracellularly by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). For therapeutic purposes, inhibitors of FAAH may provide more specific cannabinoid activities than direct agonists, and several such molecules have already been developed. Pharmacological effects of the endocannabinoids are very similar, yet not identical, to those of the plant-derived and synthetic cannabinoid receptor ligands. In addition to pharmacokinetic explanations, direct or indirect interactions with other receptors have been considered to explain some of these differences, including activities at serotonin and GABA receptors. Binding affinities for other receptors such as the vanilloid receptor, have to be taken into account in order to fully understand endocannabinoid physiology. Moreover, possible interactions with receptors for the lysophosphatidic acids deserve attention in future studies. Endocannabinoids have been implicated in a variety of physiological functions. The areas of central activities include pain reduction, motor regulation, learning/memory, and reward. Finally, the role of the endocannabinoid system in appetite stimulation in the adult organism, and perhaps more importantly, its critical involvement in milk ingestion and survival of the newborn, may not only further our understanding of the physiology of food intake and growth, but may also find therapeutic applications in wasting disease and infant's "failure to thrive".
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Affiliation(s)
- E Fride
- Department of Behavioral Sciences, College of Judea and Samaria, Ariel, 44837 Israel.
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Abstract
What is the role of the cannabinoid system in invertebrates and can it tell us something about the human system? We discuss in this review the possible presence of the cannabinoid system in invertebrates. Endocannabinoid processes, i.e., enzymatic hydrolysis, as well as cannabinoid receptors and endocannabinoids, have been identified in various species of invertebrates. These signal molecules appear to have multiple roles in invertebrates; diminishing sensory input, control of reproduction, feeding behavior, neurotransmission and antiinflammatory actions. We propose that since this system worked so well, it was retained during evolution, and that invertebrates can serve as a model to study endogenous cannabinoid signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Salzet
- Laboratoire de Neuroimmunologie des Annélides, LIMR CNRS 8017, IFR 17 INSERM, Université des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, Villeneuve d' Ascq, France
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Gonzalez M, Caride B, Lamas A, Taboada C. Nutritional value of the marine invertebrates Anemonia viridis and Haliothis tuberculata and effects on serum cholesterol concentration in ratsopen star. J Nutr Biochem 2001; 12:512-517. [PMID: 11834211 DOI: 10.1016/s0955-2863(01)00167-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the nutritional value of diets with protein from two marine species (Haliotis tuberculata and Anemonia viridis) as compared to a high-quality protein reference based on casein or casein supplemented with olive oil. We also investigated the effects of these diets on serum lipid levels. Male rats were fed these diets for 23 days. Protein quality indicators (true digestibility, net protein utilization, biological value) were similar to those obtained for casein-based feeds except for lower true digestibility and net protein utilization values for the Anemonia viridis feed. HDL-cholesterol level was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the groups fed marine species or casein supplemented with olive oil than in the casein group. Total-cholesterol level was higher in the group fed Haliotis tuberculata fed than in the other groups. These results suggest that these marine species are a good protein source, and that they may have positive effects on serum cholesterol level.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Gonzalez
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Santiago, Spain
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Matias I, Bisogno T, Melck D, Vandenbulcke F, Verger-Bocquet M, De Petrocellis L, Sergheraert C, Breton C, Di Marzo V, Salzet M. Evidence for an endocannabinoid system in the central nervous system of the leech Hirudo medicinalis. BRAIN RESEARCH. MOLECULAR BRAIN RESEARCH 2001; 87:145-59. [PMID: 11245916 DOI: 10.1016/s0169-328x(00)00290-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In invertebrates, like Hydra and sea urchins, evidence for a functional cannabinoid system was described. The partial characterization of a putative CB1 cannabinoid receptor in the leech Hirudo medicinalis led us to investigate the presence of a complete endogenous cannabinoid system in this organism. By using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, we demonstrate the presence of the endocannabinoids anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamine, 21.5+/-0.7 pmol/g) and 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol (147.4+/-42.7 pmol/g), and of the biosynthetic precursor of anandamide, N-arachidonylphosphatidyl-ethanolamine (16.5+/-3.3 pmol/g), in the leech central nervous system (CNS). Anandamide-related molecules such as N-palmitoylethanolamine (32.4+/-1.6 pmol/g) and N-linolenoylethanolamine (5.8 pmol/g) were also detected. We also found an anandamide amidase activity in the leech CNS cytosolic fraction with a maximal activity at pH 7 and little sensitivity to typical fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitors. Using an antiserum directed against the amidase signature sequence, we focused on the identification and the localization of the leech amidase. Firstly, leech nervous system protein extract was subjected to Western blot analysis, which showed three immunoreactive bands at ca. approximately 42, approximately 46 and approximately 66 kDa. The former and latter bands were very faint and were also detected in whole homogenates from the coelenterate Hydra vulgaris, where the presence of CB1-like receptors, endocannabinoids and a FAAH-like activity was reported previously. Secondly, amidase immunocytochemical detection revealed numerous immunoreactive neurons in the CNS of three species of leeches. In addition, we observed that leech amidase-like immunoreactivity matches to a certain extent with CB1-like immunoreactivity. Finally, we also found that stimulation by anandamide of this receptor leads, as in mammals, to inhibition of cAMP formation, although this effect appeared to be occurring through the previously described anandamide-induced and CB1-mediated activation of nitric oxide release. Taken together, these results suggest the existence of a complete and functional cannabinoid system in leeches.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Matias
- Laboratoire d'Endocrinologie et immunité des Annélides UPRES-A CNRS 8017, SN3-USTL, 59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
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González M, Caride B, Lamas MA, Taboada MC. Effects of sea urchin-based diets on serum lipid composition and on intestinal enzymes in rats. J Physiol Biochem 2000; 56:347-52. [PMID: 11321529 DOI: 10.1007/bf03179803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The dietary effects of two high protein diets from two species of sea urchin (Paracentrotus lividus and Echinus esculentus) as compared to a reference protein such as casein on serum lipid levels and on intestinal disaccharidases and alkaline phosphatase were studied. After 23 days, the containing the two sea urchins as diets compared to casein decreased the cholesterol level and significantly increased the HDL-cholesterol in serum. The consumption of Echinus esculentus meal produced a significant decrease in lactase activity. The intestinal alkaline phosphatase activity increased not significantly in animals fed on the sea urchin meal.
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Affiliation(s)
- M González
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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Schmid HH. Pathways and mechanisms of N-acylethanolamine biosynthesis: can anandamide be generated selectively? Chem Phys Lipids 2000; 108:71-87. [PMID: 11106783 DOI: 10.1016/s0009-3084(00)00188-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Long-chain N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) and their precursors, N-acylethanolamine phospholipids, are ubiquitous trace constituents of animal and human cells, tissues and body fluids. Their cellular levels appear to be tightly regulated and they accumulate as the result of injury. Saturated and monounsaturated congeners which represent the vast majority of cellular NAEs can have cytoprotective effects while polyunsaturated NAEs, especially 20:4n-6 NAE (anandamide), elicit physiological effects by binding to and activating cannabinoid receptors. It is the purpose of this article to review published data on the pathways and mechanisms of NAE biosynthesis in mammals and to evaluate this information for its physiological significance. The generation and turnover of NAE via N-acyl PE through the transacylation-phosphodiesterase pathway may represent a novel cannabinoid receptor-independent signalling system, analogous to and possibly related to ceramide-mediated cell signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- H H Schmid
- The Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, 801 16th Ave NE, Austin, MN 55912, USA.
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Salzet M, Breton C, Bisogno T, Di Marzo V. Comparative biology of the endocannabinoid system possible role in the immune response. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 2000; 267:4917-27. [PMID: 10931174 DOI: 10.1046/j.1432-1327.2000.01550.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In this review we discuss data showing that the endogenous cannabinoid system, represented by cannabinoid receptors, endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligands and enzymes for the biosynthesis and degradation of these ligands, is conserved throughout evolution from coelenterates to man. This signaling system has been suggested to play several roles in animals, including the regulation of cell development and growth, nervous functions, reproduction and feeding behavior. In this article, however, we shall describe with more detail the possible function of the endogenous cannabinoid system in the modulation of immune response in organisms from the lower to the higher levels of animal evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Salzet
- Laboratoire d'Endocrinologie des Annélides, Université des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
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Tripathy S, Venables BJ, Chapman KD. N-Acylethanolamines in signal transduction of elicitor perception. Attenuation Of alkalinization response and activation of defense gene expression. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 1999; 121:1299-308. [PMID: 10594117 PMCID: PMC59497 DOI: 10.1104/pp.121.4.1299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/1999] [Accepted: 09/02/1999] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
In a recent study of N-acylphosphatidylethanolamine (NAPE) metabolism in elicitor-treated tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) cells, we identified a rapid release and accumulation of medium-chain N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) (e.g. N-myristoylethanolamine or NAE 14:0) and a compensatory decrease in cellular NAPE (K.D. Chapman, S. Tripathy, B. Venables, A.D. Desouza [1998] Plant Physiol 116: 1163-1168). In the present study, we extend this observation and report a 10- to 50-fold increase in NAE 14:0 content in leaves of tobacco (cv Xanthi) plants treated with xylanase or cryptogein elicitors. Exogenously supplied synthetic NAE species affected characteristic elicitor-induced and short- and long-term defense responses in cell suspensions of tobacco and long-term defense responses in leaves of intact tobacco plants. In general, synthetic NAEs inhibited elicitor-induced medium alkalinization by tobacco cells in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. Exogenous NAE 14:0 induced expression of phenylalanine ammonia lyase in a manner similar to fungal elicitors in both cell suspensions and leaves of tobacco. NAE 14:0, but not myristic acid, activated phenylalanine ammonia lyase expression at submicromolar concentrations, well within the range of NAE 14:0 levels measured in elicitor-treated plants. Collectively, these results suggest that NAPE metabolism, specifically, the accumulation of NAE 14:0, are part of a signal transduction pathway that modulates cellular defense responses following the perception of fungal elicitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Tripathy
- University of North Texas, Department of Biological Sciences, Division of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Denton, Texas 76203-5220, USA
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De Petrocellis L, Melck D, Bisogno T, Milone A, Di Marzo V. Finding of the endocannabinoid signalling system in Hydra, a very primitive organism: possible role in the feeding response. Neuroscience 1999; 92:377-87. [PMID: 10392859 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(98)00749-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Hydra (Cnidaria) is the first animal organism to have developed a neural network, which has been proposed to control, inter alia, the "feeding response", i.e. a mechanism through which the coelenterate opens and then closes its mouth in the presence of prey and/or glutathione. Here, we report that Hydra contains: (i) selective cannabinoid binding sites; (ii) the endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand, anandamide (arachidonoylethanolamide); (iii) a fatty acid amide hydrolase-like activity catalysing anandamide hydrolysis; and (iv) the putative biosynthetic precursor of anandamide, N-arachidonoylphosphatidylethanolamine. We suggest that this "endogenous cannabinoid system" is involved in the modulation of the "feeding response". Anandamide (1 nM-1 microM) potently inhibited (up to 45%) the glutathione-induced "feeding response" by accelerating Hydra vulgaris mouth closure. The effect was maximal at 100 nM anandamide and was reversed by the selective antagonist of the CB1 subtype of mammalian cannabinoid receptors, SR 141716A (50-100 nM). Specific cannabinoid binding sites were detected in membranes from Hydra polyps by using [3H]SR 141716A (Kd= 1.87 nM, Bmax = 26.7 fmol/mg protein), and increasing anandamide concentrations were found to displace the binding of [3H]SR 141716A to these membranes (Ki = .505 nM). Hydra polyps were also found to contain amounts of anandamide (15.6 pmol/g) and N-arachidonoylphosphatidylethanolamine (32.4 pmol/g), as well as the other "endocannabinoid" 2-arachidonoylglycerol (11.2 nmol/g), comparable to those described previously for mammalian brain. Finally, a fatty acid amide hydrolase activity (Vmax = 3.4 nmol/min/mg protein), with subcellular distribution, pH dependency and sensitivity to inhibitors similar to those reported for the mammalian enzyme, but with a lower affinity for anandamide (Km = 400 microM), was also detected in Hydra polyps. These data suggest that the endocannabinoid signalling system plays a physiological role in Hydra that is to control the feeding response. Hydra is the simplest living organism described so far to use this recently discovered regulatory system.
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Yang HY, Karoum F, Felder C, Badger H, Wang TC, Markey SP. GC/MS analysis of anandamide and quantification of N-arachidonoylphosphatidylethanolamides in various brain regions, spinal cord, testis, and spleen of the rat. J Neurochem 1999; 72:1959-68. [PMID: 10217273 DOI: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.1999.0721959.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Anandamide [N-arachidonoylethanolamide (NAE)] was initially isolated from porcine brain and proposed as an endogenous ligand for cannabinoid receptors in 1992. Accumulating evidence has now suggested that, in the tissue, NAE is generated from N-arachidonoylphosphatidylethanolamides (N-ArPEs) by phosphodiesterase. In this study a sensitive and specific procedure was developed to quantify NAE and N-ArPE, including organic solvent extraction, reverse-phase C-18 cartridge separation, derivatization, and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis. NAE is converted by a two-step derivatization procedure to a pentafluorobenzoyl ester followed by pentafluoropropionyl acylation. Quantification was performed by isotope dilution GC/MS using deuterium-labeled NAE (NAE-2H8) as an internal standard. The same chemical derivatization was applicable to N-ArPE quantification. The separated N-ArPE fractions were converted by a two-step cleavage/derivatization procedure into the pentafluorobenzoyl ester of NAE and then to its pentafluoropropionyl amide. The derivative was quantified by GC/MS using deuterium-labeled 1,2-[2H8]dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho(arachidonoyl)ethanolamid e as an internal standard. Using these methods, we have found that endogenous NAE levels in rat brain, spleen, testis, liver, lung, and heart were below the level of quantification achievable (0.1 pmol/mg of protein) but that N-ArPE is readily quantifiable and is widely distributed in the rat CNS with the highest level in the spinal cord. The striatum, hippocampus, and accumbens contain intermediate concentrations of N-ArPE, whereas the value is lowest in the cerebellum.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Y Yang
- National Institute of Mental Health, Neuroscience Center at St. Elizabeths, Washington, DC
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Abstract
In 1992 the discovery of the first endogenous ligand of cannabinoid receptors, anandamide, provided conclusive support to the hypothesis that an "endogenous cannabinoid regulatory system" exists in mammalian nervous tissue. Anandamide (N-arachidonoyl-ethanolamine) was the first of a series of long-chain fatty acid derivatives, including two other polyunsaturated N-acylethanolamines and 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol, found to exert cannabimimetic properties in either central or peripheral tissues. Here we review the current knowledge on the biochemical bases of the formation and inactivation of endogenous cannabinoid ligands as well as of their interaction with cannabinoid receptor subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Di Marzo
- Istituto per la Chimica di Molecole di Interesse Biologico, CNR, Naples, Italy
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Abstract
The background knowledge leading to the isolation and identification of anandamide and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol, the principal endocannabinoids is described. The structure-activity relationships of these lipid derivatives are summarized. Selected biochemical and pharmacological topics in this field are discussed, the main ones being levels of endocannabinoids in unstimulated tissue and cells, biosynthesis, release and inactivation of endocannabinoids, the effects of 'entourage' compounds on the activities of anandamide and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol, their signaling mechanisms and effects in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Mechoulam
- Hebrew University, Medical Faculty, Jerusalem, Israel.
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Di Marzo V. 'Endocannabinoids' and other fatty acid derivatives with cannabimimetic properties: biochemistry and possible physiopathological relevance. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1998; 1392:153-75. [PMID: 9630590 DOI: 10.1016/s0005-2760(98)00042-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 249] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The only endogenous substances isolated and characterised so far that are capable of mimicking the pharmacological actions of the active principle of marijuana, (-)-Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, are amides and esters of fatty acids. Some of these compounds, like anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamine) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol, act as true 'endogenous cannabinoids' by binding and functionally activating one or both cannabinoid receptor subtypes present on nervous and peripheral cell membranes. The metabolic pathways and molecular mode of actions of these metabolites, as well as their possible implication in physiopathological responses, are reviewed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Di Marzo
- Istituto per la Chimica di Molecole di Interesse Biologico1, C.N.R., Via Toiano 6, 80072 Arco Felice, Naples, Italy.
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