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Jeong JY, Bafor AE, Freeman BH, Chen PR, Park ES, Kim E. Pathophysiology in Brain Arteriovenous Malformations: Focus on Endothelial Dysfunctions and Endothelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition. Biomedicines 2024; 12:1795. [PMID: 39200259 PMCID: PMC11351371 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12081795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2024] [Revised: 07/26/2024] [Accepted: 07/29/2024] [Indexed: 09/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Brain arteriovenous malformations (bAVMs) substantially increase the risk for intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), which is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. However, the treatment options for bAVMs are severely limited, primarily relying on invasive methods that carry their own risks for intraoperative hemorrhage or even death. Currently, there are no pharmaceutical agents shown to treat this condition, primarily due to a poor understanding of bAVM pathophysiology. For the last decade, bAVM research has made significant advances, including the identification of novel genetic mutations and relevant signaling in bAVM development. However, bAVM pathophysiology is still largely unclear. Further investigation is required to understand the detailed cellular and molecular mechanisms involved, which will enable the development of safer and more effective treatment options. Endothelial cells (ECs), the cells that line the vascular lumen, are integral to the pathogenesis of bAVMs. Understanding the fundamental role of ECs in pathological conditions is crucial to unraveling bAVM pathophysiology. This review focuses on the current knowledge of bAVM-relevant signaling pathways and dysfunctions in ECs, particularly the endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Eunhee Kim
- Vivian L. Smith Department of Neurosurgery, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (J.Y.J.); (A.E.B.); (B.H.F.); (P.R.C.); (E.S.P.)
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2
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Wang Y, Du W, Hu X, Yu X, Guo C, Jin X, Wang W. Targeting the blood-brain barrier to delay aging-accompanied neurological diseases by modulating gut microbiota, circadian rhythms, and their interplays. Acta Pharm Sin B 2023; 13:4667-4687. [PMID: 38045038 PMCID: PMC10692395 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2023.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) impairment plays a crucial role in the pathological processes of aging-accompanied neurological diseases (AAND). Meanwhile, circadian rhythms disruption and gut microbiota dysbiosis are associated with increased morbidity of neurological diseases in the accelerated aging population. Importantly, circadian rhythms disruption and gut microbiota dysbiosis are also known to induce the generation of toxic metabolites and pro-inflammatory cytokines, resulting in disruption of BBB integrity. Collectively, this provides a new perspective for exploring the relationship among circadian rhythms, gut microbes, and the BBB in aging-accompanied neurological diseases. In this review, we focus on recent advances in the interplay between circadian rhythm disturbances and gut microbiota dysbiosis, and their potential roles in the BBB disruption that occurs in AAND. Based on existing literature, we discuss and propose potential mechanisms underlying BBB damage induced by dysregulated circadian rhythms and gut microbiota, which would serve as the basis for developing potential interventions to protect the BBB in the aging population through targeting the BBB by exploiting its links with gut microbiota and circadian rhythms for treating AAND.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanping Wang
- Department of Neurology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Jiaxing City, Jiaxing 314000, China
| | - Weihong Du
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Cancer Invasion and Metastasis Research, Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Xiaoyan Hu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Cancer Invasion and Metastasis Research, Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Xin Yu
- Bengbu Medical College (Department of Neurology, the Second Hospital of Jiaxing City), Jiaxing 233030, China
| | - Chun Guo
- School of Biosciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Xinchun Jin
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Cancer Invasion and Metastasis Research, Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
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3
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Walther J, Kirsch EM, Hellwig L, Schmerbeck SS, Holloway PM, Buchan AM, Mergenthaler P. Reinventing the Penumbra - the Emerging Clockwork of a Multi-modal Mechanistic Paradigm. Transl Stroke Res 2023; 14:643-666. [PMID: 36219377 PMCID: PMC10444697 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-022-01090-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The concept of the ischemic penumbra was originally defined as the area around a necrotic stroke core and seen as the tissue at imminent risk of further damage. Today, the penumbra is generally considered as time-sensitive hypoperfused brain tissue with decreased oxygen and glucose availability, salvageable tissue as treated by intervention, and the potential target for neuroprotection in focal stroke. The original concept entailed electrical failure and potassium release but one short of neuronal cell death and was based on experimental stroke models, later confirmed in clinical imaging studies. However, even though the basic mechanisms have translated well, conferring brain protection, and improving neurological outcome after stroke based on the pathophysiological mechanisms in the penumbra has yet to be achieved. Recent findings shape the modern understanding of the penumbra revealing a plethora of molecular and cellular pathophysiological mechanisms. We now propose a new model of the penumbra, one which we hope will lay the foundation for future translational success. We focus on the availability of glucose, the brain's central source of energy, and bioenergetic failure as core pathophysiological concepts. We discuss the relation of mitochondrial function in different cell types to bioenergetics and apoptotic cell death mechanisms, autophagy, and neuroinflammation, to glucose metabolism in what is a dynamic ischemic penumbra.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakob Walther
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Department of Neurology with Experimental Neurology, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany
| | - Elena Marie Kirsch
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Department of Neurology with Experimental Neurology, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lina Hellwig
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Department of Neurology with Experimental Neurology, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sarah S Schmerbeck
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Department of Neurology with Experimental Neurology, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany
| | - Paul M Holloway
- Acute Stroke Programme, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Alastair M Buchan
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany.
- Acute Stroke Programme, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK.
| | - Philipp Mergenthaler
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Department of Neurology with Experimental Neurology, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany.
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany.
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, NeuroCure Clinical Research Center, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany.
- Acute Stroke Programme, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK.
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Rajeev V, Chai YL, Poh L, Selvaraji S, Fann DY, Jo DG, De Silva TM, Drummond GR, Sobey CG, Arumugam TV, Chen CP, Lai MKP. Chronic cerebral hypoperfusion: a critical feature in unravelling the etiology of vascular cognitive impairment. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2023; 11:93. [PMID: 37309012 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-023-01590-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) describes a wide spectrum of cognitive deficits related to cerebrovascular diseases. Although the loss of blood flow to cortical regions critically involved in cognitive processes must feature as the main driver of VCI, the underlying mechanisms and interactions with related disease processes remain to be fully elucidated. Recent clinical studies of cerebral blood flow measurements have supported the role of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH) as a major driver of the vascular pathology and clinical manifestations of VCI. Here we review the pathophysiological mechanisms as well as neuropathological changes of CCH. Potential interventional strategies for VCI are also reviewed. A deeper understanding of how CCH can lead to accumulation of VCI-associated pathology could potentially pave the way for early detection and development of disease-modifying therapies, thus allowing preventive interventions instead of symptomatic treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vismitha Rajeev
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Memory Aging and Cognition Centre, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yuek Ling Chai
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Memory Aging and Cognition Centre, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Luting Poh
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Memory Aging and Cognition Centre, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Sharmelee Selvaraji
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Memory Aging and Cognition Centre, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
- Integrative Sciences and Engineering Programme, NUS Graduate School, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - David Y Fann
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Dong-Gyu Jo
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - T Michael De Silva
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Microbiology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia
| | - Grant R Drummond
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Microbiology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia
| | - Christopher G Sobey
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Microbiology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia
| | - Thiruma V Arumugam
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Microbiology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia
| | - Christopher P Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Memory Aging and Cognition Centre, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
- NUS Healthy Longevity Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Mitchell K P Lai
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
- Memory Aging and Cognition Centre, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore.
- NUS Healthy Longevity Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
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5
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Hudecz D, McCloskey MC, Vergo S, Christensen S, McGrath JL, Nielsen MS. Modelling a Human Blood-Brain Barrier Co-Culture Using an Ultrathin Silicon Nitride Membrane-Based Microfluidic Device. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:5624. [PMID: 36982697 PMCID: PMC10058651 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding the vesicular trafficking of receptors and receptor ligands in the brain capillary endothelium is essential for the development of the next generations of biologics targeting neurodegenerative diseases. Such complex biological questions are often approached by in vitro models in combination with various techniques. Here, we present the development of a stem cell-based human in vitro blood-brain barrier model composed of induced brain microvascular endothelial cells (iBMECs) on the modular µSiM (a microdevice featuring a silicon nitride membrane) platform. The µSiM was equipped with a 100 nm thick nanoporous silicon nitride membrane with glass-like imaging quality that allowed the use of high-resolution in situ imaging to study the intracellular trafficking. As a proof-of-concept experiment, we investigated the trafficking of two monoclonal antibodies (mAb): an anti-human transferrin receptor mAb (15G11) and an anti-basigin mAb (#52) using the µSiM-iBMEC-human astrocyte model. Our results demonstrated effective endothelial uptake of the selected antibodies; however, no significant transcytosis was observed when the barrier was tight. In contrast, when the iBMECs did not form a confluent barrier on the µSiM, the antibodies accumulated inside both the iBMECs and astrocytes, demonstrating that the cells have an active endocytic and subcellular sorting machinery and that the µSiM itself does not hinder antibody transport. In conclusion, our µSiM-iBMEC-human astrocyte model provides a tight barrier with endothelial-like cells, which can be used for high-resolution in situ imaging and for studying receptor-mediated transport and transcytosis in a physiological barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Hudecz
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Molly C. McCloskey
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - Sandra Vergo
- Biotherapeutic Discovery, H. Lundbeck A/S, Valby, 2500 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Søren Christensen
- Biotherapeutic Discovery, H. Lundbeck A/S, Valby, 2500 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - James L. McGrath
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
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del Zoppo GJ, Moskowitz MA, Nedergaard M. The Neurovascular Unit and Responses to Ischemia. Stroke 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-69424-7.00007-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Ozaki S, Umakoshi A, Yano H, Ohsumi S, Sumida Y, Hayase E, Usa E, Islam A, Choudhury ME, Nishi Y, Yamashita D, Ohtsuka Y, Nishikawa M, Inoue A, Suehiro S, Kuwabara J, Watanabe H, Takada Y, Watanabe Y, Nakano I, Kunieda T, Tanaka J. Chloride intracellular channel protein 2 is secreted and inhibits MMP14 activity, while preventing tumor cell invasion and metastasis. Neoplasia 2021; 23:754-765. [PMID: 34229297 PMCID: PMC8260957 DOI: 10.1016/j.neo.2021.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Revised: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
CLIC2 is highly expressed in benign, less invasive and less metastatic tumors. Forced expression of CLIC2 prevents metastasis and invasion in animal tumor models. CLIC2 is associated with decreased vascular permeability in tumor masses. CLIC2, a secretable soluble protein, can bind to and inhibit MMP14. Extracellular CLIC2 can suppress malignant cell invasion.
The abilities to invade surrounding tissues and metastasize to distant organs are the most outstanding features that distinguish malignant from benign tumors. However, the mechanisms preventing the invasion and metastasis of benign tumor cells remain unclear. By using our own rat distant metastasis model, gene expression of cells in primary tumors was compared with that in metastasized tumors. Among many distinct gene expressions, we have focused on chloride intracellular channel protein 2 (CLIC2), an ion channel protein of as-yet unknown function, which was predominantly expressed in the primary tumors. We created CLIC2 overexpressing rat glioma cell line and utilized benign human meningioma cells with naturally high CLIC2 expression. CLIC2 was expressed at higher levels in benign human brain tumors than in their malignant counterparts. Moreover, its high expression was associated with prolonged survival in the rat metastasis and brain tumor models as well as with progression-free survival in patients with brain tumors. CLIC2 was also correlated with the decreased blood vessel permeability likely by increased contents of cell adhesion molecules. We found that CLIC2 was secreted extracellularly, and bound to matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 14. Furthermore, CLIC2 prevented the localization of MMP14 in the plasma membrane, and inhibited its enzymatic activity. Indeed, overexpressing CLIC2 and recombinant CLIC2 protein effectively suppressed malignant cell invasion, whereas CLIC2 knockdown reversed these effects. Thus, CLIC2 suppress invasion and metastasis of benign tumors at least partly by inhibiting MMP14 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saya Ozaki
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Akihiro Umakoshi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Hajime Yano
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Shota Ohsumi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Yutaro Sumida
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Erika Hayase
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Eika Usa
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Afsana Islam
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Mohammed E Choudhury
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Yusuke Nishi
- Department of Hepato-biliary Pancreatic Surgery and Breast Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Daisuke Yamashita
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Ohtsuka
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Masahiro Nishikawa
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Akihiro Inoue
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Satoshi Suehiro
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Jun Kuwabara
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery and Surgical Oncology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Hideaki Watanabe
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Yasutsugu Takada
- Department of Hepato-biliary Pancreatic Surgery and Breast Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Yuji Watanabe
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery and Surgical Oncology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Ichiro Nakano
- Research and Development Center for Precision Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Takeharu Kunieda
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Junya Tanaka
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan.
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Khafaga AF, Abdullaziz IA, Abd-Elrahman AH, Elshahawy II. Expression of Acute Phase Protein, Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein, Epithelial Cadherin, and S100 Protein in Brain Tissues from Natural Cases of Ovine Encephalitic Listeriosis. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2021; 27:1-9. [PMID: 34024299 DOI: 10.1017/s1431927621000325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Listeriosis is a disease that is induced by infection with the Gram-positive bacterium Listeria monocytogenes. Much is still unknown about the pathogenesis of encephalitic listeriosis. We aimed to identify the contribution of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), epithelial cadherin (E-cadherin), S100, and acute-phase proteins (APPs) in pathogenesis, clinical and preclinical diagnosis of natural cases of encephalitic listeriosis. Of 1,325 Ossimi sheep, 64 were suspected of having listeriosis from 2018 to 2020. Prospective cohort evaluation of clinical and postmortem findings was performed, in addition to bacterial isolation, the measurement of APPs in serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and the histopathological and immunohistochemical evaluation of GFAP, S100, and E-cadherin. Infected sheep showed nervous symptoms ranging from neck stretching to complete paralysis. APPs were significantly increased in the CSF of both clinically and preclinically diseased animals; however, serum APPs were only significantly increased in clinically diseased animals. Histopathological evaluation revealed microabscesses, meningoencephalitis, and perivascular cuffing of the brainstem of infected sheep. Immunohistochemical investigations revealed strong expression of GFAP and S100 in necrotic areas and negative expression of E-cadherin. The measurement of CSF APPs could be useful in the preclinical diagnosis of sheep listeriosis. GFAP and S100 proteins could be involved in the pathogenesis of listeriosis; however, E-cadherin does not appear to be involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asmaa F Khafaga
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pathology, Alexandria University, Abbis21944, Egypt
| | - Ibrahim A Abdullaziz
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal Medicine, Alexandria University, Abbis21944, Egypt
| | - Amir H Abd-Elrahman
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal Medicine, Alexandria University, Abbis21944, Egypt
| | - Ibrahim I Elshahawy
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal Medicine, Alexandria University, Abbis21944, Egypt
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Snarr BD, Drummond RA, Lionakis MS. It's all in your head: antifungal immunity in the brain. Curr Opin Microbiol 2020; 58:41-46. [PMID: 32828989 PMCID: PMC7438209 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2020.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
As the incidence rate of invasive fungal infections has increased with the use of modern medical interventions, so too has the occurrence of fungi invading the brain. Fungi such as Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Aspergillus fumigatus often infect immunocompromised individuals, and can use several strategies to invade the central nervous system (CNS) by penetrating the blood-brain barrier. Once in the brain parenchyma the specialized resident immune cells need to effectively recognize the fungus and mount an appropriate immune response to clear the infection, without causing debilitating immune-mediated toxicity and neuronal damage. Here we review the current knowledge pertaining to the antifungal response of the CNS and highlight areas where future research is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan D Snarr
- Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Rebecca A Drummond
- Institute of Immunology & Immunotherapy, Institute of Microbiology & Infection, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Michail S Lionakis
- Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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10
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Establishment of an in Vitro Human Blood-Brain Barrier Model Derived from Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells and Comparison to a Porcine Cell-Based System. Cells 2020; 9:cells9040994. [PMID: 32316221 PMCID: PMC7226989 DOI: 10.3390/cells9040994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Revised: 04/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is responsible for the homeostasis between the cerebral vasculature and the brain and it has a key role in regulating the influx and efflux of substances, in healthy and diseased states. Stem cell technology offers the opportunity to use human brain-specific cells to establish in vitro BBB models. Here, we describe the establishment of a human BBB model in a two-dimensional monolayer culture, derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs). This model was characterized by a transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) higher than 2000 Ω∙cm2 and associated with negligible paracellular transport. The hiPSC-derived BBB model maintained the functionality of major endothelial transporter proteins and receptors. Some proprietary molecules from our central nervous system (CNS) programs were evaluated revealing comparable permeability in the human model and in the model from primary porcine brain endothelial cells (PBECs).
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11
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Yu S, Fu L, Lu J, Wang Z, Fu W. Xiao-Yao-San reduces blood-brain barrier injury induced by chronic stress in vitro and vivo via glucocorticoid receptor-mediated upregulation of Occludin. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2020; 246:112165. [PMID: 31445133 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2019.112165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Revised: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a barrier which maintains the material exchange balance of brain microenvironment and could be destroyed by chronic stress (CS). Glucocorticoids (GCs) can mimic the chronic stress induced damage to BBB. GCs induced BBB trauma models in vitro and in vivo to explore the effects of the traditional medicine Xiao-Yao-San (XYS). In this research, we found CS could injure the BBB to change the biochemical index, which could be reversed by XYS in vitro. The abilities of cell proliferation, invasion, and the expression of tight junction related genes (Occludin, Claudin, JAM-1 and ZO-1) were suppressed by CS and the trauma could be reversed by XYS partly. It was showed that GRs interacted with Occludin directly and inhibited Occluding expression. In rats BBB trauma model, the GC content was deceased and BBB permeability was repaired by XYS. The expression of Occludin, Claudin, JAM-1 and ZO-1 were increased in the treatment of XYS. In our research, it shown that XYS affect the content of the GC and GR which interacted with Occludin directly for the first time. In addition, we also found that XYS could reduce BBB injury induced by CS via GR in BBB model in vitro. Therefore, it proves that XYS is a potential BBB repair medicine and may help to elucidate mechanism of brain pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaolong Yu
- Department of Urology Surgery, Fourth Clinical Medical College, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, 518033, Guangdong, China
| | - Lijun Fu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Fourth Clinical Medical College, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, 518033, Guangdong, China
| | - Jiandong Lu
- Department of Nephrology, Fourth Clinical Medical College, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, 518033, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhiyu Wang
- Integrative Research Laboratory of Breast Cancer, The Research Centre of Integrative Medicine, Discipline of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine & the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510530, Guangdong, China.
| | - Wenjun Fu
- Centre for Integrative Medicine, School of Basic Medical Science, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, Guangdong, China.
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12
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Park JS, You Y, Min JH, Yoo I, Jeong W, Cho Y, Ryu S, Lee J, Kim SW, Cho SU, Oh SK, Ahn HJ, Lee J, Lee IH. Study on the timing of severe blood-brain barrier disruption using cerebrospinal fluid-serum albumin quotient in post cardiac arrest patients treated with targeted temperature management. Resuscitation 2019; 135:118-123. [DOI: 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2018.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2018] [Revised: 10/18/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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13
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Bennett C, Mohammed F, Álvarez-Ciara A, Nguyen MA, Dietrich WD, Rajguru SM, Streit WJ, Prasad A. Neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption in acute Utah electrode array implants and the effect of deferoxamine as an iron chelator on acute foreign body response. Biomaterials 2019; 188:144-159. [PMID: 30343257 PMCID: PMC6300159 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.09.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Revised: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The use of intracortical microelectrode arrays has gained significant attention in being able to help restore function in paralysis patients and study the brain in various neurological disorders. Electrode implantation in the cortex causes vasculature or blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption and thus elicits a foreign body response (FBR) that results in chronic inflammation and may lead to poor electrode performance. In this study, a comprehensive insight into the acute molecular mechanisms occurring at the Utah electrode array-tissue interface is provided to understand the oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and neurovascular unit (astrocytes, pericytes, and endothelial cells) disruption that occurs following microelectrode implantation. Quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was used to quantify the gene expression at acute time-points of 48-hr, 72-hr, and 7-days for factors mediating oxidative stress, inflammation, and BBB disruption in rats implanted with a non-functional 4 × 4 Utah array in the somatosensory cortex. During vascular disruption, free iron released into the brain parenchyma can exacerbate the FBR, leading to oxidative stress and thus further contributing to BBB degradation. To reduce the free iron released into the brain tissue, the effects of an iron chelator, deferoxamine mesylate (DFX), was also evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassie Bennett
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami, FL, USA
| | - Farrah Mohammed
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami, FL, USA
| | | | | | | | - Suhrud M Rajguru
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami, FL, USA
| | | | - Abhishek Prasad
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami, FL, USA.
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14
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Brzica H, Abdullahi W, Reilly BG, Ronaldson PT. Sex-specific differences in organic anion transporting polypeptide 1a4 (Oatp1a4) functional expression at the blood-brain barrier in Sprague-Dawley rats. Fluids Barriers CNS 2018; 15:25. [PMID: 30208928 PMCID: PMC6136214 DOI: 10.1186/s12987-018-0110-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Targeting endogenous blood–brain barrier (BBB) transporters such as organic anion transporting polypeptide 1a4 (Oatp1a4) can facilitate drug delivery for treatment of neurological diseases. Advancement of Oatp targeting for optimization of CNS drug delivery requires characterization of sex-specific differences in BBB expression and/or activity of this transporter. Methods In this study, we investigated sex differences in Oatp1a4 functional expression at the BBB in adult and prepubertal (i.e., 6-week-old) Sprague–Dawley rats. We also performed castration or ovariectomy surgeries to assess the role of gonadal hormones on Oatp1a4 protein expression and transport activity at the BBB. Slco1a4 (i.e., the gene encoding Oatp1a4) mRNA expression and Oatp1a4 protein expression in brain microvessels was determined using quantitative real-time PCR and western blot analysis, respectively. Oatp transport function at the BBB was determined via in situ brain perfusion using [3H]taurocholate and [3H]atorvastatin as probe substrates. Data were expressed as mean ± SD and analyzed via one-way ANOVA followed by the post hoc Bonferroni t-test. Results Our results showed increased brain microvascular Slco1a4 mRNA and Oatp1a4 protein expression as well as increased brain uptake of [3H]taurocholate and [3H]atorvastatin in female rats as compared to males. Oatp1a4 expression at the BBB was enhanced in castrated male animals but was not affected by ovariectomy in female animals. In prepubertal rats, no sex-specific differences in brain microvascular Oatp1a4 expression were observed. Brain accumulation of [3H]taurocholate in male rats was increased following castration as compared to controls. In contrast, there was no difference in [3H]taurocholate brain uptake between ovariectomized and control female rats. Conclusions These novel data confirm sex-specific differences in BBB Oatp1a4 functional expression, findings that have profound implications for treatment of CNS diseases. Studies are ongoing to fully characterize molecular pathways that regulate sex differences in Oatp1a4 expression and activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hrvoje Brzica
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, P.O. Box 245050, 1501 N. Campbell Avenue, Tucson, AZ, 85724-5050, USA
| | - Wazir Abdullahi
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, P.O. Box 245050, 1501 N. Campbell Avenue, Tucson, AZ, 85724-5050, USA
| | - Bianca G Reilly
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, P.O. Box 245050, 1501 N. Campbell Avenue, Tucson, AZ, 85724-5050, USA
| | - Patrick T Ronaldson
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, P.O. Box 245050, 1501 N. Campbell Avenue, Tucson, AZ, 85724-5050, USA.
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15
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Bennett C, Samikkannu M, Mohammed F, Dietrich WD, Rajguru SM, Prasad A. Blood brain barrier (BBB)-disruption in intracortical silicon microelectrode implants. Biomaterials 2018; 164:1-10. [PMID: 29477707 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.02.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2017] [Revised: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Chronically implanted microelectrodes in the neural tissue elicit inflammatory responses that are time varying and have been shown to depend on multiple factors. Among these factors, blood brain barrier (BBB)-disruption has been hypothesized as one of the dominant factors resulting in electrode failure. A series of events that includes BBB and cell-membrane disruption occurs during electrode implantation that triggers multiple biochemical cascades responsible for microglial and astroglial activation, hemorrhage, edema, and release of pro-inflammatory neurotoxic cytokines that causes neuronal degeneration and dysfunction. Typically, microwire arrays and silicon probes are inserted slowly into the neural tissue whereas the silicon Utah MEAs (UMEA) are inserted at a high speed using a pneumatic inserter. In this work, we report the sequelae of electrode-implant induced cortical injury at various acute time points in UMEAs implanted in the brain tissue by quantifying the expression profile for key genes mediating the inflammatory response and tight junction (TJ) and adherens junction (AJ) proteins that form the BBB and are critical to the functioning of the BBB. Our results indicated upregulation of most pro-inflammatory genes relative to naïve controls for all time points. Expression levels for the genes that form the TJ and AJ were downregulated suggestive of BBB-dysfunction. Moreover, there was no significant difference between stab and implant groups suggesting the effects of UMEA insertion-related trauma in the brain tissue. Our results provide an insight into the physiological events related to neuroinflammation and BBB-disruption occurring at acute time-points following insertion of UMEAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassie Bennett
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami, FL, USA
| | | | | | | | - Suhrud M Rajguru
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami, FL, USA; Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami, FL, USA
| | - Abhishek Prasad
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami, FL, USA.
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16
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Ulapane KR, On N, Kiptoo P, Williams TD, Miller DW, Siahaan TJ. Improving Brain Delivery of Biomolecules via BBB Modulation in Mouse and Rat: Detection using MRI, NIRF, and Mass Spectrometry. Nanotheranostics 2017; 1:217-231. [PMID: 28890866 PMCID: PMC5588751 DOI: 10.7150/ntno.19158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
There is an urgent need to develop new and alternative methods to deliver functional biomolecules to the brain for diagnosis and treatment of brain diseases. The goal of this study was to evaluate the activity of blood-brain barrier (BBB) modulators (i.e., HAV and ADT peptides) to deliver functional biomolecules (i.e., galbumin, IRdye800cw-cLABL, and cIBR7) to the brains of mice and rats. HAV6, cHAVc3, and ADTC5 peptides but not HAV4 peptide significantly enhanced the brain delivery of 65 kDa galbumin compared to control in Balb/c mice as quantified by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Ten-minute pretreatment with ADTC5 peptide still significantly increased brain delivery of galbumin; however, no enhancement was observed after 10-min pretreatment with HAV6. There was no enhancement of galbumin deposition following 40-min pretreatment with ADTC5 or HAV6, suggesting a short duration of the BBB opening for large molecules. ADTC5 peptide also improved the brain delivery of IRdye800cw-cLABL peptide about 3.5-fold compared to control in Balb/c mice as detected by near infrared fluorescence (NIRF). The BBB modulator activity of ADTC5 to deliver cIBR7 peptide was also evaluated in vivo using Sprague-Dawley rats. The amount of cIBR7 in the brain was detected by LC-MS/MS. ADTC5 peptide enhanced the delivery of cIBR7 peptide into rat brain about 4-fold compared to control and the intact cIBR7 can be efficiently extracted and detected in rat brain. In conclusion, HAV and ADT peptides enhance the brain delivery of functional peptides (e.g., cLABL and cIBR7) and protein (e.g., 65 kDa galbumin) in two animal models, and the duration of the BBB opening for a large molecule (e.g., galbumin) was short.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavisha R Ulapane
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA.,Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Ngoc On
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Paul Kiptoo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Todd D Williams
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Donald W Miller
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Teruna J Siahaan
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA.,Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
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17
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Sil S, Ghosh A, Ghosh T. Impairment of blood brain barrier is related with the neuroinflammation induced peripheral immune status in intracerebroventricular colchicine injected rats: An experimental study with mannitol. Brain Res 2016; 1646:278-286. [PMID: 27288705 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.05.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Revised: 05/27/2016] [Accepted: 05/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The neurodegeneration in AD patients may be associated with changes of peripheral immune responses. Some peripheral immune responses are altered due to neuroinflammation in colchicine induced AD (cAD) rats. The leaky blood brain barrier (BBB) in cAD-rats may be involved in inducing peripheral inflammation, though there is no report in this regard. Therefore, the present study was designed to investigate the role of BBB in cADrats by altering the BBB in a time dependent manner with injection (i.v.) of mannitol (BBB opener). The inflammatory markers in the brain and serum along with the peripheral immune responses were measured after 30 and 60min of mannitol injection in cAD rats. The results showed higher inflammatory markers in the hippocampus and serum along with alterations in peripheral immune parameters in cAD rats. Although the hippocampal inflammatory markers did not further change after mannitol injection in cAD rats, the serum inflammatory markers and peripheral immune responses were altered and these changes were greater after 60min than that of 30min of mannitol injection. The present study shows that the peripheral immune responses in cAD rats after 30 and 60min of mannitol injection are related to magnitude of impairment of BBB in these conditions. It can be concluded from this study that impairment of BBB in cAD rats is related to the changes of peripheral immune responses observed in that condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susmita Sil
- Neurophysiology Laboratory, Department of Physiology, University College of Science and Technology, University of Calcutta, 92, Acharya Prafulla Chandra Road, Kolkata 700009, West Bengal, India
| | - Arijit Ghosh
- Neurophysiology Laboratory, Department of Physiology, University College of Science and Technology, University of Calcutta, 92, Acharya Prafulla Chandra Road, Kolkata 700009, West Bengal, India
| | - Tusharkanti Ghosh
- Neurophysiology Laboratory, Department of Physiology, University College of Science and Technology, University of Calcutta, 92, Acharya Prafulla Chandra Road, Kolkata 700009, West Bengal, India.
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18
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Stamatovic SM, Johnson AM, Keep RF, Andjelkovic AV. Junctional proteins of the blood-brain barrier: New insights into function and dysfunction. Tissue Barriers 2016; 4:e1154641. [PMID: 27141427 DOI: 10.1080/21688370.2016.1154641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 241] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2016] [Revised: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a highly complex and dynamic barrier. It is formed by an interdependent network of brain capillary endothelial cells, endowed with barrier properties, and perivascular cells (astrocytes and pericytes) responsible for inducing and maintaining those properties. One of the primary properties of the BBB is a strict regulation of paracellular permeability due to the presence of junctional complexes (tight, adherens and gap junctions) between the endothelial cells. Alterations in junction assembly and function significantly affect BBB properties, particularly barrier permeability. However, such alterations are also involved in remodeling the brain endothelial cell surface and regulating brain endothelial cell phenotype. This review summarizes the characteristics of brain endothelial tight, adherens and gap junctions and highlights structural and functional alterations in junctional proteins that may contribute to BBB dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Allison M Johnson
- Department of Pathology; University of Michigan Medical School ; Ann Arbor, MI USA
| | - Richard F Keep
- Department of Neurosurgery; University of Michigan Medical School; Ann Arbor, MI USA; Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan Medical School; Ann Arbor, MI USA
| | - Anuska V Andjelkovic
- Department of Pathology; University of Michigan Medical School; Ann Arbor, MI USA; Department of Neurosurgery; University of Michigan Medical School; Ann Arbor, MI USA
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19
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del Zoppo GJ, Moskowitz M, Nedergaard M. The Neurovascular Unit and Responses to Ischemia. Stroke 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-29544-4.00007-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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20
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Naik P, Cucullo L. Pathobiology of tobacco smoking and neurovascular disorders: untied strings and alternative products. Fluids Barriers CNS 2015; 12:25. [PMID: 26520792 PMCID: PMC4628383 DOI: 10.1186/s12987-015-0022-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Tobacco smoke (TS) is the leading cause of preventable deaths worldwide. In addition to a host of well characterized diseases including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, oral and peripheral cancers and cardiovascular complications, epidemiological evidence suggests that chronic smokers are at equal risk to develop neurological and neurovascular complications such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, stroke, vascular dementia and small vessel ischemic disease (SVID). Unfortunately, few direct neurotoxicology studies of tobacco smoking and its pathogenic pathways have been produced so far. A major link between TS and CNS disorders is the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In this review article, we summarize the current understanding of the toxicological impact of TS on BBB physiology and function and major compensatory mechanisms such as nrf2- ARE signaling and anti-inflammatory pathways activated by TS. In the same context, we discuss the controversial role of antioxidant supplementation as a prophylactic and/or therapeutic approach in delaying or decreasing the disease complications in smokers. Further, we cover a number of toxicological studies associated with "reduced exposure" cigarette products including electronic cigarettes. Finally, we provide insights on possible avenues for future research including mechanistic studies using direct inhalation rodent models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pooja Naik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, School of Pharmacy, 1300 S. Coulter Street, Amarillo, TX, 79106, USA.
| | - Luca Cucullo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, School of Pharmacy, 1300 S. Coulter Street, Amarillo, TX, 79106, USA. .,Center for Blood Brain Barrier Research, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX, 79106, USA.
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21
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Glial influences on BBB functions and molecular players in immune cell trafficking. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2015; 1862:472-82. [PMID: 26454208 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2015.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2015] [Revised: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) constitutes an elaborate structure formed by specialized capillary endothelial cells, which together with pericytes and perivascular glial cells regulates the exchanges between the central nervous system (CNS) and the periphery. Intricate interactions between the different cellular constituents of the BBB are crucial in establishing a functional BBB and maintaining the delicate homeostasis of the CNS microenvironment. In this review, we discuss the role of astrocytes and microglia in inducing and maintaining barrier properties under physiological conditions as well as their involvement during neuroinflammatory pathologies. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Neuro Inflammation edited by Helga E. de Vries and Markus Schwaninger.
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22
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Davis TP, Abbruscato TJ, Egleton RD. Peptides at the blood brain barrier: Knowing me knowing you. Peptides 2015; 72:50-6. [PMID: 25937599 PMCID: PMC4627938 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2015.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Revised: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
When the Davis Lab was first asked to contribute to this special edition of Peptides to celebrate the career and influence of Abba Kastin on peptide research, it felt like a daunting task. It is difficult to really understand and appreciate the influence that Abba has had, not only on a generation of peptide researchers, but also on the field of blood brain barrier (BBB) research, unless you lived it as we did. When we look back at our careers and those of our former students, one can truly see that several of Abba's papers played an influential role in the development of our personal research programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas P Davis
- The Davis Lab, Department of Medical Pharmacology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724-5050.
| | - Thomas J Abbruscato
- Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, TX 79106
| | - Richard D Egleton
- Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV 25755
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23
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The beneficial effect of melatonin in brain endothelial cells against oxygen-glucose deprivation followed by reperfusion-induced injury. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2014; 2014:639531. [PMID: 25126203 PMCID: PMC4122057 DOI: 10.1155/2014/639531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2014] [Revised: 06/07/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Melatonin has a cellular protective effect in cerebrovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Protection of brain endothelial cells against hypoxia and oxidative stress is important for treatment of central nervous system (CNS) diseases, since brain endothelial cells constitute the blood brain barrier (BBB). In the present study, we investigated the protective effect of melatonin against oxygen-glucose deprivation, followed by reperfusion- (OGD/R-) induced injury, in bEnd.3 cells. The effect of melatonin was examined by western blot analysis, cell viability assays, measurement of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), and immunocytochemistry (ICC). Our results showed that treatment with melatonin prevents cell death and degradation of tight junction protein in the setting of OGD/R-induced injury. In response to OGD/R injury of bEnd.3 cells, melatonin activates Akt, which promotes cell survival, and attenuates phosphorylation of JNK, which triggers apoptosis. Thus, melatonin protects bEnd.3 cells against OGD/R-induced injury.
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24
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Affiliation(s)
- Yarong He
- From the Emergency Department, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China (Y.H., Y.C.); Laboratory of Neurobiology and Genetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY (Y.Y.); and Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook University, NY (S.E.T.)
| | - Yao Yao
- From the Emergency Department, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China (Y.H., Y.C.); Laboratory of Neurobiology and Genetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY (Y.Y.); and Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook University, NY (S.E.T.)
| | - Stella E Tsirka
- From the Emergency Department, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China (Y.H., Y.C.); Laboratory of Neurobiology and Genetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY (Y.Y.); and Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook University, NY (S.E.T.)
| | - Yu Cao
- From the Emergency Department, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China (Y.H., Y.C.); Laboratory of Neurobiology and Genetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY (Y.Y.); and Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook University, NY (S.E.T.).
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25
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Engelhardt S, Patkar S, Ogunshola OO. Cell-specific blood-brain barrier regulation in health and disease: a focus on hypoxia. Br J Pharmacol 2014; 171:1210-30. [PMID: 24641185 PMCID: PMC3952799 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2013] [Revised: 10/02/2013] [Accepted: 10/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a complex vascular structure consisting of microvascular endothelial cells that line the vessel wall, astrocyte end-feet, pericytes, as well as the basal lamina. BBB cells act in concert to maintain the characteristic impermeable and low paracellular flux of the brain vascular network, thus ensuring a homeostatic neuronal environment. Alterations in BBB stability that occur during injury have dire consequences on disease progression and it is clear that BBB cell-specific responses, positive or negative, must make a significant contribution to injury outcome. Reduced oxygenation, or hypoxia, is a characteristic of many brain diseases that significantly increases barrier permeability. Recent data suggest that hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1), the master regulator of the hypoxic response, probably mediates many hypoxic effects either directly or indirectly via its target genes. This review discusses current knowledge of physiological cell-specific regulation of barrier function, their responses to hypoxia as well as consequences of hypoxic- and HIF-1-mediated mechanisms on barrier integrity during select brain diseases. In the final sections, the potential of current advances in targeting HIF-1 as a therapeutic strategy will be overviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Engelhardt
- Institute of Veterinary Physiology, University of ZurichZurich, Switzerland
| | - S Patkar
- Institute of Veterinary Physiology, University of ZurichZurich, Switzerland
| | - O O Ogunshola
- Institute of Veterinary Physiology, University of ZurichZurich, Switzerland
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26
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Welser-Alves JV, Boroujerdi A, Milner R. Isolation and culture of primary mouse brain endothelial cells. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1135:345-56. [PMID: 24510877 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-0320-7_28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Blood vessels in the central nervous system (CNS) are unique in forming the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which confers high electrical resistance and low permeability properties, thus protecting neural cells from potentially harmful blood components. Endothelial cells, which form the inner cellular lining of all blood vessels, play a critical role in this process by forming tight adhesive interactions between each other. To study the properties of primary brain endothelial cells (BECs), a number of different methods have been described. In this chapter, we present a relatively simple method that produces high numbers of primary mouse BECs that are highly pure (greater than 99 % CD31-positive). In addition, we also describe an immunocytochemical approach to demonstrate the endothelial purity of these cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer V Welser-Alves
- Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
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27
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Lakhan SE, Kirchgessner A, Tepper D, Leonard A. Matrix metalloproteinases and blood-brain barrier disruption in acute ischemic stroke. Front Neurol 2013; 4:32. [PMID: 23565108 PMCID: PMC3615191 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2013.00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 245] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 03/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Ischemic stroke continues to be one of the most challenging diseases in translational neurology. Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) remains the only approved treatment for acute ischemic stroke, but its use is limited to the first hours after stroke onset due to an increased risk of hemorrhagic transformation over time resulting in enhanced brain injury. In this review we discuss the role of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption as a consequence of ischemic stroke. MMP-9 in particular appears to play an important role in tPA-associated hemorrhagic complications. Reactive oxygen species can enhance the effects of tPA on MMP activation through the loss of caveolin-1 (cav-1), a protein encoded in the cav-1 gene that serves as a critical determinant of BBB permeability. This review provides an overview of MMPs' role in BBB breakdown during acute ischemic stroke. The possible role of MMPs in combination treatment of acute ischemic stroke is also examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaheen E Lakhan
- Biosciences Department, Global Neuroscience Initiative Foundation Beverly Hills, CA, USA ; Neurological Institute, Cleveland Clinic Cleveland, OH, USA
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28
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Prabhakarpandian B, Shen MC, Nichols JB, Mills IR, Sidoryk-Wegrzynowicz M, Aschner M, Pant K. SyM-BBB: a microfluidic Blood Brain Barrier model. LAB ON A CHIP 2013; 13:1093-101. [PMID: 23344641 PMCID: PMC3613157 DOI: 10.1039/c2lc41208j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 197] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Current techniques for mimicking the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) largely use incubation chambers (Transwell) separated with a filter and matrix coating to represent and to study barrier permeability. These devices have several critical shortcomings: (a) they do not reproduce critical microenvironmental parameters, primarily anatomical size or hemodynamic shear stress, (b) they often do not provide real-time visualization capability, and (c) they require a large amount of consumables. To overcome these limitations, we have developed a microfluidics based Synthetic Microvasculature model of the Blood-Brain Barrier (SyM-BBB). The SyM-BBB platform is comprised of a plastic, disposable and optically clear microfluidic chip with a microcirculation sized two-compartment chamber. The chamber is designed in such a way as to permit the realization of side-by-side apical and basolateral compartments, thereby simplifying fabrication and facilitating integration with standard instrumentation. The individually addressable apical side is seeded with endothelial cells and the basolateral side can support neuronal cells or conditioned media. In the present study, an immortalized Rat Brain Endothelial cell line (RBE4) was cultured in SyM-BBB with a perfusate of Astrocyte Conditioned Media (ACM). Biochemical analysis showed upregulation of tight junction molecules while permeation studies showed an intact BBB. Finally, transporter assay was successfully demonstrated in SyM-BBB indicating a functional model.
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Jin X, Liu J, Yang Y, Liu KJ, Yang Y, Liu W. Spatiotemporal evolution of blood brain barrier damage and tissue infarction within the first 3h after ischemia onset. Neurobiol Dis 2012; 48:309-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2012.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2012] [Revised: 06/29/2012] [Accepted: 07/09/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
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Jin X, Liu J, Liu KJ, Rosenberg GA, Yang Y, Liu W. Normobaric hyperoxia combined with minocycline provides greater neuroprotection than either alone in transient focal cerebral ischemia. Exp Neurol 2012. [PMID: 23195595 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Normobaric hyperoxia (NBO), which maintains penumbral oxygenation, reduces brain injury during cerebral ischemia, and minocycline, a tetracycline derivative, reduces reperfusion injury, including inflammation, apoptosis and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) activation. Since they have different mechanisms of action, we hypothesized that combining them would provide greater neuroprotection. To test the hypothesis, we evaluated the neuroprotective effects of the combination of NBO with minocycline. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to NBO (95% O(2)) or normoxia (21% O(2)) during 90-min filament occlusion of the middle cerebral artery, followed by 48 h of reperfusion. Minocycline (3 mg/kg) or vehicle was intravenously administered to rats 15 min after reperfusion onset. Treatment with NBO and minocycline alone resulted in 36% and 30% reductions in infarction volume, respectively. When the two treatments were combined, there was a 68% reduction in infarction volume. The combination therapy also significantly reduced hemispheric swelling, which was absent with monotherapy. In agreement with its greater neuro- and vasoprotection, the combination therapy showed greater inhibitory effects on MMP-2/9 induction, occludin degradation, caspase-3 and -9 activation and apoptosis inducing factor (AIF) induction in ischemic brain tissue. Our results show that NBO plus minocycline effectively reduces brain injury in transient focal cerebral ischemia with protection due to inhibition on MMP-2/9-mediated occludin degradation and attenuation of caspase-dependent and independent apoptotic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinchun Jin
- College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
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Membrane configuration optimization for a murine in vitro blood-brain barrier model. J Neurosci Methods 2012; 212:211-21. [PMID: 23131353 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2012.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2012] [Revised: 10/09/2012] [Accepted: 10/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A powerful experimental tool used to study the dynamic functions of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is an in vitro cellular based system utilizing cell culture inserts in multi-well plates. Currently, usage of divergent model configurations without explanation of selected variable set points renders data comparisons difficult and limits widespread understanding. This work presents for the first time in literature a comprehensive screening study to optimize membrane configuration, with aims to unveil influential membrane effects on the ability of cerebral endothelial cells to form a tight monolayer. First, primary murine brain endothelial cells and astrocytes were co-cultured in contact and non-contact orientations on membranes of pore diameter sizes ranging from 0.4 μm to 8.0 μm, and the non-contact orientation and smallest pore diameter size were shown to support a significantly tighter monolayer formation. Then, membranes made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polycarbonate (PC) purchased from three different commercial sources were compared, and PET membranes purchased from two manufacturers facilitated a significantly tighter monolayer formation. Models were characterized by transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER), sodium fluorescein permeability, and immunocytochemical labeling of tight junction proteins. Finally, a murine brain endothelial cell line, bEnd.3, was grown on the different membranes, and similar results were obtained with respect to optimal membrane configuration selection. The results and methodology presented here on high throughput 24-well plate inserts can be translated to other BBB systems to advance model understanding.
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Crossin KL. Oxygen levels and the regulation of cell adhesion in the nervous system: a control point for morphogenesis in development, disease and evolution? Cell Adh Migr 2012; 6:49-58. [PMID: 22647940 DOI: 10.4161/cam.19582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In this article, I discuss the hallmarks of hypoxia in vitro and in vivo and review work showing that many types of stem cell proliferate more robustly in lowered oxygen. I then discuss recent studies showing that alterations in the levels and the types of cell and substrate adhesion molecules are a notable response to reduced O(2) levels in both cultured primary neural stem cells and brain tissues in response to hypoxia in vivo. The ability of O(2) levels to regulate adhesion molecule expression is linked to the Wnt signaling pathway, which can control and be controlled by adhesion events. The ability of O(2) levels to influence cell adhesion also has far-reaching implications for development, ischemic trauma and neural regeneration, as well as for cancer and other diseases. Finally I discuss the possibility that the fluctuations in O(2) levels known to have occurred over evolutionary time could, by influencing adhesion systems, have contributed to early symbiotic events in unicellular organisms and to the emergence of multicellularity. It is not my intention to be exhaustive in these domains, which are far from my own field of study. Rather this article is meant to provoke and stimulate thinking about molecular evolution involving O(2) sensing and signaling during eras of geologic and atmospheric change that might inform modern studies on development and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn L Crossin
- Department of Neurobiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA.
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Conant K, Lim ST, Randall B, Maguire-Zeiss KA. Matrix metalloproteinase dependent cleavage of cell adhesion molecules in the pathogenesis of CNS dysfunction with HIV and methamphetamine. Curr HIV Res 2012; 10:384-91. [PMID: 22591362 PMCID: PMC6035363 DOI: 10.2174/157016212802138733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2012] [Revised: 01/18/2012] [Accepted: 01/25/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Physiologically appropriate levels of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are likely important to varied aspects of CNS function. In particular, these enzymes may contribute to neuronal activity dependent synaptic plasticity and to cell mobility in processes including stem cell migration and immune surveillance. Levels of MMPs may, however, be substantially increased in the setting of HIV infection with methamphetamine abuse. Elevated MMP levels might in turn influence integrity of the blood brain barrier, as has been demonstrated in published work. Herein we suggest that elevated levels of MMPs can also contribute to microglial activation as well as neuronal and synaptic injury through a mechanism that involves cleavage of specific cell and synaptic adhesion molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Conant
- Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Research Building EP-16, 3970 Reservoir Rd, Washington, DC 20007, USA.
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Madarame H, Seuberlich T, Abril C, Zurbriggen A, Vandevelde M, Oevermann A. The distribution of E-cadherin expression in listeric rhombencephalitis of ruminants indicates its involvement in Listeria monocytogenes neuroinvasion. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2012; 37:753-67. [PMID: 21486315 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2011.01183.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIM To investigate the expression of E-cadherin, a major host cell receptor for Listeria monocytogenes (LM) internalin A, in the ruminant nervous system and its putative role in brainstem invasion and intracerebral spread of LM in the natural disease. METHODS Immunohistochemistry and double immunofluorescence was performed on brains, cranial nerves and ganglia of ruminants with and without natural LM rhombencephalitis using antibodies against E-cadherin, protein gene product 9.5, myelin-associated glycoprotein and LM. RESULTS In the ruminant brain, E-cadherin is expressed in choroid plexus epithelium, meningothelium and restricted neuropil areas of the medulla, but not in the endothelium. In cranial nerves and ganglia, E-cadherin is expressed in satellite cells and myelinating Schwann cells. Expression does not differ between ruminants with or without listeriosis and does not overlap with the presence of microabscesses in the medulla. LM is observed in phagocytes, axons, Schwann cells, satellite cells and ganglionic neurones. CONCLUSION Our results support the view that the specific ligand-receptor interaction between LM and host E-cadherin is involved in the neuropathogenesis of ruminant listeriosis. They suggest that oral epithelium and Schwann cells expressing E-cadherin provide a port of entry for free bacteria offering a site of primary intracellular replication, from where the bacterium may invade the axonal compartment by cell-to-cell spread. As E-cadherin expression in the ruminant central nervous system is weak, only very locally restricted and not related to the presence of microabscesses, it is likely that further intracerebral spread is independent of E-cadherin and relies primarily on axonal spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Madarame
- Laboratory of Small Animal Clinics, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Azabu University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
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Abstract
Brain stroke is a devastating cerebrovascular disease and ranks as the third most common cause of death and disability in the US. Altered blood-brain barrier (BBB) signaling and permeability characteristics during stroke can increase the risk for life-threatening hemorrhagic transformation or damaging brain edema. The BBB plays a crucial role in maintaining the permeability and CNS homeostasis under physiological/pathological conditions by protecting the brain from the fluctuations in plasma constituents. Many in vitro brain endothelial cell culture models have been developed and studied over the past several decades to understand the pathophysiological mechanisms and role of the BBB in stroke. Restrictive barrier properties of brain endothelial cells have been shown to be predominantly influenced by astrocytes and astrocyte-secreting factors using coculture systems. By using astrocyte-endothelial cocultures, it is possible to model in vivo BBB characteristics, while allowing for mechanistic studies to be performed. Hence, the application of in vitro astrocyte-endothelial coculture BBB systems is a powerful technique to understand and investigate the pathophysiological mechanisms in stroke. This approach can be utilized to uncover cell signaling pathways and that may identify new neurovascular drug targets to treat this devastating brain vascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX, USA
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Cucullo L, Hossain M, Puvenna V, Marchi N, Janigro D. The role of shear stress in Blood-Brain Barrier endothelial physiology. BMC Neurosci 2011; 12:40. [PMID: 21569296 PMCID: PMC3103473 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2202-12-40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 294] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2010] [Accepted: 05/11/2011] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND One of the most important and often neglected physiological stimuli contributing to the differentiation of vascular endothelial cells (ECs) into a blood-brain barrier (BBB) phenotype is shear stress (SS). With the use of a well established humanized dynamic in vitro BBB model and cDNA microarrays, we have profiled the effect of SS in the induction/suppression of ECs genes and related functions. RESULTS Specifically, we found a significant upregulation of tight and adherens junctions proteins and genes. Trans-endothelial electrical resistance (TEER) and permeability measurements to know substances have shown that SS promoted the formation of a tight and highly selective BBB. SS also increased the RNA level of multidrug resistance transporters, ion channels, and several p450 enzymes. The RNA level of a number of specialized carrier-mediated transport systems (e.g., glucose, monocarboxylic acid, etc.) was also upregulated.RNA levels of modulatory enzymes of the glycolytic pathway (e.g., lactate dehydrogenase) were downregulated by SS while those involved in the Krebs cycle (e.g., lactate and other dehydrogenases) were upregulated. Measurements of glucose consumption versus lactate production showed that SS negatively modulated the glycolytic bioenergetic pathways of glucose metabolism in favor of the more efficient aerobic respiration. BBB ECs are responsive to inflammatory stimuli. Our data showed that SS increased the RNA levels of integrins and vascular adhesion molecules. SS also inhibited endothelial cell cycle via regulation of BTG family proteins encoding genes. This was paralleled by significant increase in the cytoskeletal protein content while that of membrane, cytosol, and nuclear sub-cellular fractions decreased. Furthermore, analysis of 2D gel electrophoresis (which allows identifying a large number of proteins per sample) of EC proteins extracted from membrane sub-cellular endothelial fractions showed that SS increased the expression levels of tight junction proteins. In addition, regulatory enzymes of the Krebb's cycle (aerobic glucose metabolism) were also upregulated. Furthermore, the expression pattern of key protein regulators of the cell cycle and parallel gene array data supported a cell proliferation inhibitory role for SS. CONCLUSIONS Genomic and proteomic analyses are currently used to examine BBB function in healthy and diseased brain and characterize this dynamic interface. In this study we showed that SS plays a key role in promoting the differentiation of vascular endothelial cells into a truly BBB phenotype. SS affected multiple aspect of the endothelial physiology spanning from tight junctions formation to cell division as well as the expression of multidrug resistance transporters. BBB dysfunction has been observed in many neurological diseases, but the causes are generally unknown. Our study provides essential insights to understand the role played by SS in the BBB formation and maintenance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Cucullo
- Cerebrovascular Research, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195 USA.
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Li L, Welser JV, Dore-Duffy P, del Zoppo GJ, Lamanna JC, Milner R. In the hypoxic central nervous system, endothelial cell proliferation is followed by astrocyte activation, proliferation, and increased expression of the alpha 6 beta 4 integrin and dystroglycan. Glia 2010; 58:1157-67. [PMID: 20544851 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral hypoxia induces a profound angiogenic response in the central nervous system (CNS). Using a mouse model of chronic cerebral hypoxia, we previously demonstrated that angiogenic vessels in the hypoxic CNS show marked upregulation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) protein fibronectin, along with increased expression of its major receptor, alpha 5 beta 1 integrin on brain endothelial cells (BEC). As cerebral hypoxia also leads to glial activation, the aim of the current study was to define the temporal relationship between BEC responses and glial cell activation in this model of cerebral hypoxia. This revealed that BEC fibronectin/alpha 5 beta 1 integrin expression and proliferation both reached maximal level after 4-day hypoxia. Interestingly, up to 4-day hypoxia, all dividing cells were BEC, but at later time-points proliferating astrocytes were also observed. GFAP staining revealed that hypoxia induced marked astrocyte activation that reached maximal level between 7- and 14-day hypoxia. As newly formed cerebral capillaries require ensheathment by astrocyte end-feet to acquire mature brain endothelium characteristics, we next examined how expression of astrocyte end-feet adhesion molecules is regulated by hypoxia. This showed that the astrocyte adhesion receptors alpha 6 beta 4 integrin and dystroglycan were both markedly upregulated, with a time-course that closely resembled astrocyte activation. Taken together, this evidence shows that cerebral hypoxia promotes first an endothelial response, in which fibronectin promotes BEC proliferation. This is then followed by an astrocyte response, involving astrocyte activation, proliferation, and reorganization of astrocyte end-feet, which correlates with increased expression of astrocyte end-feet adhesion molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longxuan Li
- Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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Oevermann A, Zurbriggen A, Vandevelde M. Rhombencephalitis Caused by Listeria monocytogenes in Humans and Ruminants: A Zoonosis on the Rise? Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis 2010; 2010:632513. [PMID: 20204066 PMCID: PMC2829626 DOI: 10.1155/2010/632513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2009] [Accepted: 11/25/2009] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Listeriosis is an emerging zoonotic infection of humans and ruminants worldwide caused by Listeria monocytogenes (LM). In both host species, CNS disease accounts for the high mortality associated with listeriosis and includes rhombencephalitis, whose neuropathology is strikingly similar in humans and ruminants. This review discusses the current knowledge about listeric encephalitis, and involved host and bacterial factors. There is an urgent need to study the molecular mechanisms of neuropathogenesis, which are poorly understood. Such studies will provide a basis for the development of new therapeutic strategies that aim to prevent LM from invading the brain and spread within the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Oevermann
- Neurocenter, Department of Clinical Research and Veterinary Public Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3001 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Zurbriggen
- Neurocenter, Department of Clinical Research and Veterinary Public Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3001 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Marc Vandevelde
- Division of Clinical Neurology, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3001 Bern, Switzerland
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Mensch J, Oyarzabal J, Mackie C, Augustijns P. In vivo, in vitro and in silico methods for small molecule transfer across the BBB. J Pharm Sci 2009; 98:4429-68. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.21745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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40
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Role of PKCbetaII and PKCdelta in blood-brain barrier permeability during aglycemic hypoxia. Neurosci Lett 2009; 468:254-8. [PMID: 19900507 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2009.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2009] [Revised: 11/02/2009] [Accepted: 11/04/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction contributes to the pathophysiology of cerebrovascular diseases such as stroke. In the present study, we investigated the role of PKC isoforms in aglycemic hypoxia-induced hyperpermeability using an in vitro model of the BBB consisting of mouse bEnd.3 cells. PKCbetaII and PKCdelta isoforms were activated during aglycemic hypoxia. CGP53353, a specific PKCbetaII inhibitor, significantly attenuated aglycemic hypoxia-induced BBB hyperpermeability and disruption of occludin and zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), indicating a deleterious role of PKCbetaII in the regulation of BBB permeability during aglycemic hypoxia. Conversely, rottlerin, a specific PKCdelta inhibitor, exacerbated BBB hyperpermeability and tight junction (TJ) disruption during aglycemic hypoxia, indicating a protective role of PKCdelta against aglycemic hypoxia-induced BBB hyperpermeability. Furthermore, disruption of TJ proteins during aglycemic hypoxia was attenuated by PKCbetaII DN and PKCdelta WT overexpression, and aggravated by PKCbetaII WT and PKCdelta DN overexpression. These results suggest that PKCbetaII and PKCdelta counter-regulate BBB permeability during aglycemic hypoxia.
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Abstract
Integrin beta 4, one of the heterodimeric receptors, is expressed predominantly on epithelial cells. It is concentrated at the basement membrane zone, where it localizes to specialized adhesion structures called hemidesmosomes. In addition to its adhesive functions, novel insights have emerged regarding the specific roles of integrin beta 4 in their attachment to extracellular matrix and in their signal transduction pathways within the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system in the past few years. It has been reported that integrin beta 4 is expressed in several kinds of neural cells including astrocyte, Schwann cells, neurons, and neural stem cells. In the mean while, it is expressed by some Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system and mediated the Mycobacterium leprae invade the peripheral nervous system to reach the Schwann cells. This review highlights recent progress in the function and regulation of integrin beta 4 in neural cells.
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Bai S, Yang T, Abbruscato TJ, Ahsan F. Evaluation of human nasal RPMI 2650 cells grown at an air-liquid interface as a model for nasal drug transport studies. J Pharm Sci 2008; 97:1165-78. [PMID: 17628494 DOI: 10.1002/jps.21031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
This study tests the hypothesis that human nasal RPMI 2650 cells grown at an air-liquid interface is a feasible model for drug transport studies via the nasal route. RPMI 2650 cells were cultured in Eagle's minimal essential medium (MEM) at both air-liquid and liquid-liquid interfaces. For each culture regimen, monolayer integrity was tested by measuring the transepithelial resistance (TEER) as well as the transport of paracellular and transcellular markers across the monolayer. The expression of tight junction proteins-differentiation markers-in cells of the different monolayers was studied by western blot analysis and confocal microscopy. The highest TEER values (192 +/- 3 Omega . cm2) were observed for RPMI 2650 cells seeded onto collagen-coated permeable polytetrafluoroethylene inserts and grown at an air-liquid interface for 10 days; a seeding density of 4 x 10(5)/cm2 generated and maintained a cell monolayer with suitable barrier properties at days 9-12. Microscopic examination showed that RPMI 2650 cells grown on filter inserts formed a fully confluent monolayer. The apparent permeability coefficients of the paracellular marker, [14C] mannitol, and the transcellular marker, [3H] propranolol, were 5.07 +/- 0.01 x 10(-6) cm/s and 16.1 +/- 0.1 x 10(-6) cm/s, respectively. Western blot analysis indicated the presence of four tight junction proteins: ZO-1, occludin, claudin-1 and E-cadherin; and the quantities of ZO-1, occludin, and E-cadherin were significantly higher in cells grown at an air-liquid interface than in cells grown at a liquid-liquid interface. Confocal microscopic studies showed ZO-1, F-actin, occludin and claudin-1 proteins at cell-cell contacts and revealed significant differences in the distributions and densities of ZO-1 protein in cells grown at the two types of interface. The data indicate that RPMI 2650 cells grown at an air-liquid interface form polarized monolayers with the cells interconnected by tight junction proteins. This human nasal cell line model could provide a useful tool for in vitro screening of nasal drug candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuhua Bai
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, 1300 Coulter Drive, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA
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BMP signaling through BMPRIA in astrocytes is essential for proper cerebral angiogenesis and formation of the blood-brain-barrier. Mol Cell Neurosci 2008; 38:417-30. [PMID: 18501628 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2008.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2007] [Revised: 04/03/2008] [Accepted: 04/04/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling is involved in differentiation of neural precursor cells into astrocytes, but its contribution to angiogenesis is not well characterized. This study examines the role of BMP signaling through BMP type IA receptor (BMPRIA) in early neural development using a conditional knockout mouse model, in which Bmpr1a is selectively disrupted in telencephalic neural stem cells. The conditional mutant mice show a significant increase in the number of cerebral blood vessels and the level of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is significantly upregulated in the mutant astrocytes. The mutant mice also show leakage of immunoglobulin around cerebral microvessels in neonatal mice, suggesting a defect in formation of the blood-brain-barrier. In addition, astrocytic endfeet fail to encircle cortical blood vessels in the mutant mice. These results suggest that BMPRIA signaling in astrocytes regulates the expression of VEGF for proper cerebrovascular angiogenesis and has a role on in the formation of the blood-brain-barrier.
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Yang T, Roder KE, Abbruscato TJ. Evaluation of bEnd5 cell line as an in vitro model for the blood-brain barrier under normal and hypoxic/aglycemic conditions. J Pharm Sci 2008; 96:3196-213. [PMID: 17828743 DOI: 10.1002/jps.21002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to assess the suitability of the mouse endothelial cell line bEnd5 as a blood-brain barrier (BBB) model under normal or pathologic (stroke) conditions. In comparison to the well-established bovine brain endothelial cell (BBMEC) model, cultured bEnd5 monolayers reached a maximal transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) of 121 Omega cm(2) on day 7, and possessed oval and spindle shape morphology. Structurally, confluent monolayers of bEnd5 cells and BBMECs exhibit peripheral band staining of the tight junction protein ZO-1 and occludin. Both bEnd5 and BBMECs express important tight junctional proteins, ZO-1, occludin and claudin-1, as well as the transporters P-glycoprotein (P-gp), NKCC, GLUT1, and most PKC isoforms. Marker permeability experiments suggest that bEnd5 cells form a tight barrier that compares to well-established in vitro BBB models, such as the BBMEC. After short durations of hypoxia/aglycemia (H/A), hyperpermeability was seen in the bEnd5 endothelial monolayer compared to later time periods for BBMECs, suggesting that bEnd5 cells are more sensitive to hypoxia/algycemia treatment than BBMECs. Taken together, bEnd5 cell culture model may provide a useful in vitro model of the BBB for drug delivery studies and modeling pathological states such as oxygen glucose deprivation associated with stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianzhi Yang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University, Health Sciences Center, 1300 Coulter Drive, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA
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Kong W, Li S, Longaker MT, Lorenz HP. Blood-derived small Dot cells reduce scar in wound healing. Exp Cell Res 2008; 314:1529-39. [PMID: 18295204 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2008.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2007] [Revised: 01/10/2008] [Accepted: 01/13/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Wounds in fetal skin heal without scar, however the mechanism is unknown. We identified a novel group of E-cadherin positive cells in the blood of fetal and adult mice and named them "Dot cells". The percentage of Dot cells in E16.5 fetal mice blood is more than twenty times higher compared to adult blood. Dot cells also express integrin beta1, CD184, CD34, CD13low and Sca1low, but not CD45, CD44, and CD117. Dot cells have a tiny dot shape between 1 and 7 microm diameters with fast proliferation in vitro. Most of the Dot cells remain positive for E-cadherin and integrin beta1 after one month in culture. Transplantation of Dot cells to adult mice heals skin wounds with less scar due to reduced smooth muscle actin and collagen expression in the repair tissue. Tracking GFP-positive Dot cells demonstrates that Dot cells migrate to wounds and differentiate into dermal cells, which also express strongly to FGF-2, and later lose their GFP expression. Our results indicate that Dot cells are a group of previously unidentified cells that have strong wound healing effect. The mechanism of scarless wound healing in fetal skin is due to the presence of a large number of Dot cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wuyi Kong
- Children's Surgical Research Laboratory, Stanford University School of Medicine, 257 Campus Drive, Stanford, California 94305-5148, USA.
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Milner R, Hung S, Wang X, Berg GI, Spatz M, del Zoppo GJ. Responses of endothelial cell and astrocyte matrix-integrin receptors to ischemia mimic those observed in the neurovascular unit. Stroke 2007; 39:191-7. [PMID: 18032737 DOI: 10.1161/strokeaha.107.486134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Apposition of endothelial cells and astrocyte foot processes to the basal lamina matrix is postulated to underlie the cerebral microvessel permeability barrier. Focal cerebral ischemia induces rapid loss of select matrix-binding integrins from both cell compartments in the nonhuman primate. This study is the first to examine the conditions underlying integrin loss from these cell-types during ischemia in vitro and their relation to the changes in vivo. METHODS The impact of normoxia or standardized oxygen-glucose deprivation on integrin expression by murine primary cerebral endothelial cells and astrocytes grown on matrix substrates (collagen IV, laminin, and perlecan) of the basal lamina were quantitatively assessed by flow cytometry. RESULTS Endothelial cell expression of the beta1 and alpha 5 subunits significantly increased on all matrix ligands, whereas astrocytes displayed modest significant decreases in alpha 5 and alpha 6 subunits. Oxygen-glucose deprivation produced a further significant increase in subunit beta1 expression by both cell types, but a clear decrease in both alpha1 and alpha 6 subunits by murine astrocytes. CONCLUSIONS Ischemia in vitro significantly increased endothelial cell beta1 expression, which is consistent with the increase in beta1 transcription by microvessels peripheral to the ischemic core. The loss of alpha1 and alpha 6 integrins from murine astrocytes is identical to that seen in the nonhuman primate in vivo. These findings establish both isolated murine cerebral endothelial cells and astrocytes as potential integrin response cognates of microvascular cells of the neurovascular unit in primates, and allow determination of the mechanisms of their changes to ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Milner
- Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
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Siddharthan V, V. Kim Y, Liu S, Kim KS. Human astrocytes/astrocyte-conditioned medium and shear stress enhance the barrier properties of human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Brain Res 2007; 1147:39-50. [PMID: 17368578 PMCID: PMC2691862 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2005] [Revised: 01/12/2007] [Accepted: 02/02/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a structural and functional barrier that regulates the passage of molecules into and out of the brain to maintain the neural microenvironment. We have previously developed the in vitro BBB model with human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMEC). However, in vivo HBMEC are shown to interact with astrocytes and also exposed to shear stress through blood flow. In an attempt to develop the BBB model to mimic the in vivo condition we constructed the flow-based in vitro BBB model using HBMEC and human fetal astrocytes (HFA). We also examined the effect of astrocyte-conditioned medium (ACM) in lieu of HFA to study the role of secreted factor(s) on the BBB properties. The tightness of HBMEC monolayer was assessed by the permeability of dextran and propidium iodide as well as by measuring the transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER). We showed that the HBMEC permeability was reduced and TEER was increased by non-contact, co-cultivation with HFA and ACM. The exposure of HBMEC to shear stress also exhibited decreased permeability. Moreover, HFA/ACM and shear flow exhibited additive effect of decreasing the permeability of HBMEC monolayer. In addition, we showed that the HBMEC expression of ZO-1 (tight junction protein) was increased by co-cultivation with ACM and in response to shear stress. These findings suggest that the non-contact co-cultivation with HFA helps maintain the barrier properties of HBMEC by secreting factor(s) into the medium. Our in vitro flow model system with the cells of human origin should be useful for studying the interactions between endothelial cells, glial cells, and secreted factor(s) as well as the role of shear stress in the barrier property of HBMEC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Venkatraman Siddharthan
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287
| | - Yuri V. Kim
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287
| | - Suyi Liu
- World Precision Instruments Inc., 175 Sarasota Center Blvd, Sarasota FL 34240 U.S.A
| | - Kwang Sik Kim
- Correspondence: Prof. Kwang Sik Kim, Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, 600 North Wolfe Street, Park 256, Baltimore, MD 21287. , Phone: 410-614-3917, Fax: 410-614-1491
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Kung CM, King CC, Lee CN, Huang LM, Lee PI, Kao CL. Differences in replication capacity between enterovirus 71 isolates obtained from patients with encephalitis and those obtained from patients with herpangina in Taiwan. J Med Virol 2007; 79:60-8. [PMID: 17133556 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.20761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The cellular-tropism and biological characteristics of enterovirus 71 (EV71) isolates in Taiwan (TW) were studied. Growth curve experiments were conducted using cell lines that were possibly exhibited pathogenesis, and RT-PCR and sequencing tests were undertaken to amplify the 5' non-coding region (5'-NCR). The encephalitis isolate EV71 TW98NTU2078 was PBMC-tropic, temperature-resistant (Tr) at 40 degrees C, and easier to replicate in HTB-14 (astrocytoma) than the herpangina isolate EV71 TW98NTU1186 (The viral yields were 100-fold higher than those of the herpangina isolate EV71 TW98NTU1186 at 96 hr post infection.). The herpangina isolate EV71 TW98NTU1186 was non-PBMC-tropic, and temperature-sensitive (Ts) at 40 degrees C. The replication of EV71 TW98NTU1186 in HTB-14 was lower. No EV71 isolate infected HTB-37 (human colon adenocarcinoma cells). The encephalitis EV71 isolate exhibited better replication and transmission in PBMCs and astrocytes than did the EV71 isolate without CNS involvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Min Kung
- Department of Medical Technology, Yuanpei University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, Republic of China
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Milner R, Campbell IL. Increased expression of the beta4 and alpha5 integrin subunits in cerebral blood vessels of transgenic mice chronically producing the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 or IFN-alpha in the central nervous system. Mol Cell Neurosci 2006; 33:429-40. [PMID: 17049262 PMCID: PMC1847624 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2006.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2006] [Revised: 08/24/2006] [Accepted: 09/06/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence suggests that vascular function is strongly regulated by extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins via integrin-mediated signaling. To determine whether integrin expression on cerebral blood vessels is altered during chronic neuroinflammation, we examined beta1 and beta4 integrin expression in transgenic mice with astrocyte production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6) or interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha). Chronic production of IL-6 or IFN-alpha in the CNS promoted vascular expression of the beta4 and alpha5 integrin subunits, and this was contributed mostly by astrocytes. Vascular expression of the ECM ligands laminin and fibronectin was also increased. Cell culture studies showed that astrocyte expression of the beta4 and alpha5 integrins was significantly upregulated by IL-6 and IFN-alpha, respectively, while endothelial expression of these integrins was unchanged. These results show that astrocytes respond to IL-6 and IFN-alpha by upregulating integrin expression. We propose that during neuroinflammation, astrocytes attempt to increase adhesive interactions at the blood-brain barrier (BBB), in order to increase barrier integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Milner
- Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, MEM-132, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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