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Abstract
Abstract
Purpose of Review
Current theories of alcohol use disorders (AUD) highlight the importance of Pavlovian and instrumental learning processes mainly based on preclinical animal studies. Here, we summarize available evidence for alterations of those processes in human participants with AUD with a focus on habitual versus goal-directed instrumental learning, Pavlovian conditioning, and Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT) paradigms.
Recent Findings
The balance between habitual and goal-directed control in AUD participants has been studied using outcome devaluation or sequential decision-making procedures, which have found some evidence of reduced goal-directed/model-based control, but little evidence for stronger habitual responding. The employed Pavlovian learning and PIT paradigms have shown considerable differences regarding experimental procedures, e.g., alcohol-related or conventional reinforcers or stimuli.
Summary
While studies of basic learning processes in human participants with AUD support a role of Pavlovian and instrumental learning mechanisms in the development and maintenance of drug addiction, current studies are characterized by large variability regarding methodology, sample characteristics, and results, and translation from animal paradigms to human research remains challenging. Longitudinal approaches with reliable and ecologically valid paradigms of Pavlovian and instrumental processes, including alcohol-related cues and outcomes, are warranted and should be combined with state-of-the-art imaging techniques, computational approaches, and ecological momentary assessment methods.
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McKendrick G, Graziane NM. Drug-Induced Conditioned Place Preference and Its Practical Use in Substance Use Disorder Research. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:582147. [PMID: 33132862 PMCID: PMC7550834 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.582147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm is a well-established model utilized to study the role of context associations in reward-related behaviors, including both natural rewards and drugs of abuse. In this review article, we discuss the basic history, various uses, and considerations that are tied to this technique. There are many potential takeaway implications of this model, including negative affective states, conditioned drug effects, memory, and motivation, which are all considered here. We also discuss the neurobiology of CPP including relevant brain regions, molecular signaling cascades, and neuromodulatory systems. We further examine some of our prior findings and how they integrate CPP with self-administration paradigms. Overall, by describing the fundamentals of CPP, findings from the past few decades, and implications of using CPP as a research paradigm, we have endeavored to support the case that the CPP method is specifically advantageous for studying the role of a form of Pavlovian learning that associates drug use with the surrounding environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greer McKendrick
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, United States.,Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, United States
| | - Nicholas M Graziane
- Departments of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Pharmacology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, United States
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Mizunami M, Hirohata S, Sato A, Arai R, Terao K, Sato M, Matsumoto Y. Development of behavioural automaticity by extended Pavlovian training in an insect. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 286:20182132. [PMID: 30963861 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.2132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The effect of repetitive training on learned actions has been a major subject in behavioural neuroscience. Many studies of instrumental conditioning in mammals, including humans, suggested that learned actions early in training are goal-driven and controlled by outcome expectancy, but they become more automatic and insensitive to reduction in the value of the outcome after extended training. It was unknown, however, whether the development of value-insensitive behaviour also occurs by extended training of Pavlovian conditioning in any animals. Here we show that crickets Gryllus bimaculatus that had received minimal training to associate an odour with water (unconditioned stimulus, US) did not exhibit conditioned response (CR) to the odour when they were given water until satiation before the test, but those that had received extended training exhibited CR even when they were satiated with water. Further pharmacological experiments suggested that octopamine neurons, the invertebrate counterparts of noradrenaline neurons, mediate US value signals and control execution of CR after minimal training, but the control diminishes with the progress of training and hence the CR becomes insensitive to US devaluation. The results suggest that repetitive sensory experiences can lead to a change from a goal-driven response to a more automatic one in crickets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Mizunami
- 1 Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University , Sapporo 060-0810 , Japan
| | - Sho Hirohata
- 2 Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University , Sapporo 060-0810 , Japan
| | - Ai Sato
- 4 Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University , Sendai 980-8577 , Japan
| | - Ryoichi Arai
- 3 Department of Biological Sciences, Hokkaido University , Sapporo 060-0810 , Japan
| | - Kanta Terao
- 2 Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University , Sapporo 060-0810 , Japan
| | - Misato Sato
- 2 Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University , Sapporo 060-0810 , Japan
| | - Yukihisa Matsumoto
- 1 Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University , Sapporo 060-0810 , Japan.,5 College of Liberal Arts and Science, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Ichikawa 272-0827 , Japan
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Nord CL, Lawson RP, Huys QJM, Pilling S, Roiser JP. Depression is associated with enhanced aversive Pavlovian control over instrumental behaviour. Sci Rep 2018; 8:12582. [PMID: 30135491 PMCID: PMC6105578 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-30828-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The dynamic modulation of instrumental behaviour by conditioned Pavlovian cues is an important process in decision-making. Patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) are known to exhibit mood-congruent biases in information processing, which may occur due to Pavlovian influences, but this hypothesis has never been tested directly in an unmedicated sample. To address this we tested unmedicated MDD patients and healthy volunteers on a computerized Pavlovian-Instrumental Transfer (PIT) task designed to separately examine instrumental approach and withdrawal actions in the context of Pavlovian appetitive and aversive cues. This design allowed us to directly measure the degree to which Pavlovian cues influence instrumental responding. Depressed patients were profoundly influenced by aversive Pavlovian stimuli, to a significantly greater degree than healthy volunteers. This was the case for instrumental behaviour both in the approach condition (in which aversive Pavlovian cues inhibited ‘go’ responses), and in the withdrawal condition (in which aversive Pavlovian cues facilitated ‘go’ responses). Exaggerated aversive PIT provides a potential cognitive mechanism for biased emotion processing in major depression. This finding also has wider significance for the understanding of disrupted motivational processing in neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Nord
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, 17 Queen Square, WC1N 3AZ, London, UK. .,Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Addenbrookes Hospital, Level E4, Box 189, Hills Road, CB2 0QQ, Cambridge, UK.
| | - R P Lawson
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, 17 Queen Square, WC1N 3AZ, London, UK.,Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University College London, 12 Queen Square, WC1N 3BG, London, UK.,Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, CB2 3EB, Cambridge, UK
| | - Q J M Huys
- Translational Neuromodeling Unit, Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zürich and University of Zürich, Wilfriedstrasse 6, 8032, Zürich, Switzerland.,Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Hospital of Psychiatry, University of Zurich, Lenggstasse 31, 8032, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - S Pilling
- Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, Gower Street, WC1E 6BT, London, UK
| | - J P Roiser
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, 17 Queen Square, WC1N 3AZ, London, UK
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Garofalo S, di Pellegrino G. Individual differences in the influence of task-irrelevant Pavlovian cues on human behavior. Front Behav Neurosci 2015; 9:163. [PMID: 26157371 PMCID: PMC4478391 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Accepted: 06/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT) refers to the process of a Pavlovian reward-paired cue acquiring incentive motivational proprieties that drive choices. It represents a crucial phenomenon for understanding cue-controlled behavior, and it has both adaptive and maladaptive implications (i.e., drug-taking). In animals, individual differences in the degree to which such cues bias performance have been identified in two types of individuals that exhibit distinct Conditioned Responses (CR) during Pavlovian conditioning: Sign-Trackers (ST) and Goal-Trackers (GT). Using an appetitive PIT procedure with a monetary reward, the present study investigated, for the first time, the extent to which such individual differences might affect the influence of reward-paired cues in humans. In a first task, participants learned an instrumental response leading to reward; then, in a second task, a visual Pavlovian cue was associated with the same reward; finally, in a third task, PIT was tested by measuring the preference for the reward-paired instrumental response when the task-irrelevant reward-paired cue was presented, in the absence of the reward itself. In ST individuals, but not in GT individuals, reward-related cues biased behavior, resulting in an increased likelihood to perform the instrumental response independently paired with the same reward when presented with the task-irrelevant reward-paired cue, even if the reward itself was no longer available (i.e., stronger PIT effect). This finding has important implications for developing individualized treatment for maladaptive behaviors, such as addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Garofalo
- Center for Studies and Research in Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Bologna Cesena, Italy ; Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge Cambridge, UK ; Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge Cambridge, UK
| | - Giuseppe di Pellegrino
- Center for Studies and Research in Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Bologna Cesena, Italy
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Xu L. Leptin action in the midbrain: From reward to stress. J Chem Neuroanat 2014; 61-62:256-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2014.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2014] [Revised: 06/13/2014] [Accepted: 06/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Yates JR, Beckmann JS, Meyer AC, Bardo MT. Concurrent choice for social interaction and amphetamine using conditioned place preference in rats: effects of age and housing condition. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 129:240-6. [PMID: 23540449 PMCID: PMC3628407 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2012] [Revised: 01/24/2013] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Social interaction can serve as a natural reward that attenuates drug reward in rats; however, it is unknown if age or housing conditions alter the choice between social interaction and drug. METHODS Individually- and pair-housed adolescent and adult male rats were tested using conditioned place preference (CPP) in separate experiments in which: (1) social interaction was conditioned against no social interaction; (2) amphetamine (AMPH; 1mg/kg, s.c.) was conditioned against saline; or (3) social interaction was conditioned against AMPH. RESULTS Social interaction CPP was obtained only in individually-housed adolescents, whereas AMPH CPP was obtained in both individually-housed adolescents and adults; however, the effect of AMPH was not statistically significant in pair-housed adults. When allowed to choose concurrently between compartments paired with either social interaction or AMPH, individually-housed adolescents preferred the compartment paired with social interaction, whereas pair-housed adolescents preferred the compartment paired with AMPH. Regardless of housing condition, adults showed a similar preference for the compartments paired with either social interaction or AMPH. CONCLUSIONS Although some caution is needed in interpreting cross-experiment comparisons, the overall results suggest that individually-housed adolescents were most sensitive to the rewarding effect of social interaction, and this hypersensitivity to social reward effectively competed with AMPH reward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin R. Yates
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington
KY, 40536, USA,Center for Drug Abuse Research Translation, University of
Kentucky, Lexington KY, 40536, USA
| | - Joshua S. Beckmann
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington
KY, 40536, USA,Center for Drug Abuse Research Translation, University of
Kentucky, Lexington KY, 40536, USA
| | - Andrew C. Meyer
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington
VT, 05401, USA
| | - Michael T. Bardo
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington
KY, 40536, USA,Center for Drug Abuse Research Translation, University of
Kentucky, Lexington KY, 40536, USA
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Buckley L, Sandilands V, Hocking P, Tolkamp B, D’eath R. The use of conditioned place preference to determine broiler preferences for quantitative or qualitative dietary restriction. Br Poult Sci 2012; 53:291-306. [DOI: 10.1080/00071668.2012.698727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Triadimefon supports conditioned cue preference. Behav Brain Res 2011; 221:307-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2011] [Revised: 02/27/2011] [Accepted: 03/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Kiyani A, Javadi-Paydar M, Mohammadkhani H, Esmaeili B, Dehpour AR. Lithium chloride disrupts consolidation of morphine-induced conditioned place preference in male mice: the nitric oxide/cyclic GMP signaling pathway. Behav Brain Res 2011; 219:240-7. [PMID: 21241742 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2010] [Revised: 12/29/2010] [Accepted: 01/10/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Lithium effects on brain functions such as cognition, attention, learning and memory are well-established for ages; however, the way it affects these functions and its precise mechanism of action remains unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of lithium on the consolidation of morphine-associated conditioned place preference and the possible involvement of the NO/cGMP pathway. Using an unbiased conditioned place preference (CPP) model, the effects of lithium (1-100 mg/kg, i.p.), nitric oxide synthase inhibitor NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) (5-100 mg/kg, i.p.), nitric oxide precursor L-arginine (50-150 mg/kg, i.p.) and phosphodiesterase inhibitor sildenafil (5-40 mg/kg, i.p.) on the consolidation of morphine-induced CPP were assessed. In addition, the possible interaction between lithium, L-arginine and sildenafil or subeffective doses of lithium and L-NAME on the consolidation of morphine-induced contextual memory was evaluated. NMRI mice were used in all studies. Lithium (5-30 mg/kg, i.p.), immediately after conditioning trials, significantly reduced the time spent by mice in the reward-paired compartment. Although post-training administration of L-arginine, sildenafil or L-NAME had no significant effect on the consolidation of CPP, concomitant administration of L-arginine (50-150 mg/kg) and sildenafil (5-10 mg/kg) with lithium (30 mg/kg) prevented the impairing effect of lithium. Also, co-administration of sub-effective doses of lithium (1 mg/kg) and L-NAME (5 mg/kg) disrupted consolidation of CPP. However, delayed administration of effective doses of lithium, which shows specific effect on memory consolidation, did not affect morphine-induced CPP. Lithium seems to inhibit consolidation of morphine-induced CPP and this impairing effect might be via nitric oxide/cyclic GMP pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amirali Kiyani
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Frye CA, Paris JJ. Effects of neurosteroid actions at N-methyl-D-aspartate and GABA A receptors in the midbrain ventral tegmental area for anxiety-like and mating behavior of female rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2011; 213:93-103. [PMID: 20878318 PMCID: PMC3619725 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-010-2016-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2009] [Accepted: 09/03/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE In the midbrain ventral tegmental area (VTA), actions of neurosteroids, such as the progesterone metabolite, 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (3α,5α-THP), can facilitate mating and influence stress-related processes. Some actions of 3α,5α-THP may occur via positive modulation of GABA(A) receptors (GBRs), or negative modulation of N-methyl-D: -aspartate receptors (NMDARs), to influence anxiety-like behavior; but this is not known. OBJECTIVES We aimed to assess the role that neurosteroids and stress factors play on intra-VTA NMDAR- and/or GBR-mediated anxiety-like and mating behavior. METHODS Estradiol-primed, ovariectomized rats, which were partially or completely adrenalectomized (ADX), received infusions of vehicle, an NMDAR blocker (MK-801; 200 ng), or a GBR antagonist (bicuculline, 100 ng) to the VTA. Rats then received intra-VTA vehicle or a neurosteroidogenesis enhancer (N,N-Dihexyl-2-(4-fluorophenyl)indole-3-acetamide, FGIN 1-27, 5 μg) and anxiety-like and sexual behavior was assessed. RESULTS Complete, compared to partial, ADX significantly reduced open arm exploration on an elevated plus maze, the proportion of females that engaged in mating, lordosis quotients, pacing of sexual contacts, and defensive aggression towards a sexually vigorous male. Intra-VTA MK-801 enhanced open arm investigation and the proportion of females that engaged in mating. Infusions of either, MK-801 or FGIN 1-27, enhanced lordosis and, when co-administered, FGIN 1-27 attenuated MK-801's lordosis-enhancing effects. Intra-VTA infusions of bicuculline, prior to FGIN 1-27, blocked FGIN 1-27's effects to enhance lordosis. CONCLUSIONS Together, these data suggest that reduced NMDAR activity in the VTA may influence motivation to explore and engage in sexual behavior. These data suggest that neurosteroid actions at NMDARs and GBRs in the VTA are important for exploration and/or sexual behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl A Frye
- Department of Psychology, The University at Albany-SUNY, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY 12222, USA.
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Increment of hypothalamic 2-arachidonoylglycerol induces the preference for a high-fat diet via activation of cannabinoid 1 receptors. Behav Brain Res 2011; 216:477-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2010.08.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2010] [Revised: 08/26/2010] [Accepted: 08/26/2010] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Holmes NM, Marchand AR, Coutureau E. Pavlovian to instrumental transfer: a neurobehavioural perspective. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2010; 34:1277-95. [PMID: 20385164 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2009] [Revised: 03/16/2010] [Accepted: 03/31/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT) is a key concept in developing our understanding of cue-controlled behaviours. Here we have reviewed the literature on behavioural and neurobiological factors that influence PIT. Meta-analyses of the data for individual groups in PIT studies revealed that PIT is related to both the order and amounts of instrumental and Pavlovian training, and that it is critically determined by competition between instrumental and Pavlovian responses. We directly addressed the role of response competition in PIT in two experiments which showed that extensive Pavlovian conditioning produced more Pavlovian magazine visits and weaker PIT than moderate Pavlovian conditioning (Experiment 1); and that PIT lost after extensive Pavlovian conditioning was restored by Pavlovian extinction training (Experiment 2). These findings confirm that response competition is indeed an important determinant of PIT. This has significant implications for lesion and inactivation studies that assess the neurobiological substrates of PIT, as well as attempts to demonstrate PIT in the drug self-administration paradigm where the effect is yet to be reliably shown.
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Frohmader KS, Wiskerke J, Wise RA, Lehman MN, Coolen LM. Methamphetamine acts on subpopulations of neurons regulating sexual behavior in male rats. Neuroscience 2010; 166:771-84. [PMID: 20045448 PMCID: PMC2837118 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.12.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2009] [Revised: 12/22/2009] [Accepted: 12/28/2009] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (Meth) is a highly addictive stimulant. Meth abuse is commonly associated with the practice of sexual risk behavior and increased prevalence of Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Meth users report heightened sexual desire, arousal, and sexual pleasure. The biological basis for this drug-sex nexus is unknown. The current study demonstrates that Meth administration in male rats activates neurons in brain regions of the mesolimbic system that are involved in the regulation of sexual behavior. Specifically, Meth and mating co-activate cells in the nucleus accumbens core and shell, basolateral amygdala, and anterior cingulate cortex. These findings illustrate that in contrast to current belief drugs of abuse can activate the same cells as a natural reinforcer, that is sexual behavior, and in turn may influence compulsive seeking of this natural reward.
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Affiliation(s)
- K S Frohmader
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada, N6A 5C1
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Matsumura S, Yoneda T, Aki S, Eguchi A, Manabe Y, Tsuzuki S, Inoue K, Fushiki T. Intragastric infusion of glucose enhances the rewarding effect of sorbitol fatty acid ester ingestion as measured by conditioned place preference in mice. Physiol Behav 2010; 99:509-14. [PMID: 20045421 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2009.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2009] [Revised: 12/18/2009] [Accepted: 12/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We investigated substances that induce a rewarding effect during the postingestive process using the conditioned place preference (CPP) test. Although mice showed high affinity for a low-energy fat substitute--sorbitol fatty acid esters and low-concentration linoleic acid solution--they did not exhibit a place preference toward a voluntary intake of fat substitute in the CPP test. However, during a conditioning session of CPP that involved intragastric administration of corn oil immediately before the intake of the fat substitute, the test mice displayed a place preference. Similarly, intragastric administration of glucose, galactose, and dextrin also induced CPP; however, fructose, mannose, and a nonmetabolized carbohydrate did not. These results suggest that administration of corn oil and glucose has the same postingestive effect with regard to inducing CPP and that the structural specificity of carbohydrates influences the postingestive effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigenobu Matsumura
- Laboratory of Nutrition Chemistry, Division of Food Science and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Oiwakecho, Kitashirakawa, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto City, 606-8502, Japan.
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Trezza V, Damsteegt R, Vanderschuren LJMJ. Conditioned place preference induced by social play behavior: parametrics, extinction, reinstatement and disruption by methylphenidate. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2009; 19:659-69. [PMID: 19427175 PMCID: PMC2716414 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2009.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2009] [Revised: 03/12/2009] [Accepted: 03/31/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated behavioral factors underlying conditioned place preference (CPP) induced by social interaction in adolescent rats. We found that the magnitude of socially-induced CPP depended on the social motivation of the animals and on the amount of training. After extinction, socially-induced CPP could be reinstated by a single reconditioning session. Treatment with methylphenidate, which disrupts social play behavior in adolescent rats, but not social exploratory behavior, prevented the development of socially-induced CPP. Interestingly, methylphenidate by itself induced CPP. These data demonstrate that: 1. social interaction is rewarding in adolescent rats; 2. appetitive and mnemonic factors influence the development of socially-induced CPP; 3. comparable to drug-induced CPP, socially-induced CPP can be extinguished and reinstated; 4. social play is likely to be the most rewarding aspect of social interaction in adolescent rats; 5. social context influences the subjective effects of methylphenidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviana Trezza
- Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Dept. of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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17
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Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that the activation of medial A10 neurons mediates positive affective encoding. However, little is known about the functions of the inhibition of midbrain dopamine neurons. Here we show evidence suggesting that the inhibition of medial A10 neurons mediates a negative affective state, leading to negative affective encoding, whereas blunting the activation of medial A10 neurons disrupts positive affective encoding involving food reward. We used a microinjection procedure, in which the D(2) dopamine receptor agonist quinpirole was administered into the cell body region of the dopamine neurons, a procedure that reduces dopamine cell firing. Microinjections of quinpirole into the posteromedial ventral tegmental area, but not its more lateral counterparts, led to conditioned place aversion. Quinpirole administration to this site also decreased food intake and basal dopamine concentration in the ventromedial striatum, a major projection area of medial A10 neurons. In addition, moderate quinpirole doses that did not lead to conditioned place aversion or disrupt food intake abolished food-conditioned place preference, suggesting that blunting dopamine impulse activity in response to food reward disrupts positive affective encoding in associated external stimuli. Our data support the hypothesis that activation of medial A10 dopamine neurons mediates a positive affective state, leading to positive affective encoding, while their inhibition mediates a negative affective state, leading to negative affective encoding. Together with previous findings, we propose that medial A10 neurons are an important component of the mechanism via which animals learn to avoid negative incentive stimuli.
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Matsumura S, Saitou K, Miyaki T, Yoneda T, Mizushige T, Eguchi A, Shibakusa T, Manabe Y, Tsuzuki S, Inoue K, Fushiki T. Mercaptoacetate inhibition of fatty acid β-oxidation attenuates the oral acceptance of fat in BALB/c mice. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2008; 295:R82-91. [DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00060.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the effect of β-oxidation inhibition on the fat ingestive behavior of BALB/c mice. Intraperitoneal administration to mice of mercaptoacetate, an inhibitor of fatty acid oxidation, significantly suppressed intake of corn oil but not intake of sucrose solution or laboratory chow. To further examine the effect of mercaptoacetate on the acceptability of corn oil in the oral cavity, we examined short-term licking behavior. Mercaptoacetate significantly and specifically decreased the number of licks of corn oil within a 60-s period but did not affect those of a sucrose solution, a monosodium glutamate solution, or mineral oil. In contrast, the administration of 2-deoxyglucose, an inhibitor of glucose metabolism, did not affect the intake or short-term licking counts of any of the tasted solutions. These findings suggest that fat metabolism is involved in the mechanism underlying the oral acceptance of fat as an energy source.
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Ikemoto S. Dopamine reward circuitry: two projection systems from the ventral midbrain to the nucleus accumbens-olfactory tubercle complex. BRAIN RESEARCH REVIEWS 2007; 56:27-78. [PMID: 17574681 PMCID: PMC2134972 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1029] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2006] [Revised: 05/03/2007] [Accepted: 05/04/2007] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Anatomical and functional refinements of the meso-limbic dopamine system of the rat are discussed. Present experiments suggest that dopaminergic neurons localized in the posteromedial ventral tegmental area (VTA) and central linear nucleus raphe selectively project to the ventromedial striatum (medial olfactory tubercle and medial nucleus accumbens shell), whereas the anteromedial VTA has few if any projections to the ventral striatum, and the lateral VTA largely projects to the ventrolateral striatum (accumbens core, lateral shell and lateral tubercle). These findings complement the recent behavioral findings that cocaine and amphetamine are more rewarding when administered into the ventromedial striatum than into the ventrolateral striatum. Drugs such as nicotine and opiates are more rewarding when administered into the posterior VTA or the central linear nucleus than into the anterior VTA. A review of the literature suggests that (1) the midbrain has corresponding zones for the accumbens core and medial shell; (2) the striatal portion of the olfactory tubercle is a ventral extension of the nucleus accumbens shell; and (3) a model of two dopamine projection systems from the ventral midbrain to the ventral striatum is useful for understanding reward function. The medial projection system is important in the regulation of arousal characterized by affect and drive and plays a different role in goal-directed learning than the lateral projection system, as described in the variation-selection hypothesis of striatal functional organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Ikemoto
- Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, US Department of Health and Human Services, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA.
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O'Donnell KC, Gould TD. The behavioral actions of lithium in rodent models: leads to develop novel therapeutics. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2007; 31:932-62. [PMID: 17532044 PMCID: PMC2150568 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2006] [Revised: 03/27/2007] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
For nearly as long as lithium has been in clinical use for the treatment of bipolar disorder, depression, and other conditions, investigators have attempted to characterize its effects on behaviors in rodents. Lithium consistently decreases exploratory activity, rearing, aggression, and amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion; and it increases the sensitivity to pilocarpine-induced seizures, decreases immobility time in the forced swim test, and attenuates reserpine-induced hypolocomotion. Lithium also predictably induces conditioned taste aversion and alterations in circadian rhythms. The modulation of stereotypy, sensitization, and reward behavior are less consistent actions of the drug. These behavioral models may be relevant to human symptoms and to clinical endophenotypes. It is likely that the actions of lithium in a subset of these animal models are related to the therapeutic efficacy, as well the side effects, of the drug. We conclude with a brief discussion of various molecular mechanisms by which these lithium-sensitive behaviors may be mediated, and comment on the ways in which rat and mouse models can be used more effectively in the future to address persistent questions about the therapeutically relevant molecular actions of lithium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelley C O'Donnell
- The Laboratory of Molecular Pathophysiology, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institute of Mental Health, NIH, HHS, Bldg 35, Rm 1C-912, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892 3711, USA
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Jarosz PA, Kessler JT, Sekhon P, Coscina DV. Conditioned place preferences (CPPs) to high-caloric "snack foods" in rat strains genetically prone vs. resistant to diet-induced obesity: resistance to naltrexone blockade. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2007; 86:699-704. [PMID: 17391743 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2007.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2006] [Revised: 02/13/2007] [Accepted: 02/13/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
A previous study in our laboratory using Sprague-Dawley (SD) male rats showed that conditioned place preferences (CPPs) can be learned to two different high-caloric "snack foods"--one high in sugar (Froot Loops cereal: FL) vs. one high in fat (Cheetos: C), and that both preferences were mediated by endogenous opioids. Using the same CPP apparatus and procedures, two genetic sub-strains of SD rats, one selectively bred for diet-induced obesity (DIO) vs. another bred for diet resistance to obesity (DR), were used in this investigation. The experiment determined if (a) CPPs can be created in both strains using the same high-caloric "snack foods" and, (b) if CPPs existed, were they opioid dependent. Four non-deprived groups of eight male rats, half being of each strain, were given 20 min sessions to eat either FL or C in one side of a three-chamber CPP apparatus vs. chow on the opposite side over alternating days of a 20 day period. Each predetermined side had distinctly different environmental cues. Following conditioning, rats were tested during 10 min sessions to see if CPPs existed to the "snack food" trained sides. During conditioning and testing, bodyweights, intakes of foods, and activity were measured. Both FL and C generated strong CPPs that were equivalent in both strains. In contrast to our previous study in the parent strain, doses of 0, 0.50, 1.0, 2.5, and 5.0 mg/kg of the opioid antagonist, naltrexone, had no effect on blocking these CPPs. These results show that (a) DIO and DR rats can learn CPPs (i.e., "exhibit food cravings") as well as their parent strain after periodic access to high-caloric palatable foods, but imply that (b) some physiological system other than the endogenous opioid system mediates such learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Jarosz
- College of Nursing, Wayne State University, 5557 Cass Avenue, Detroit, MI 48202, USA.
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22
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Matsumura S, Mizushige T, Yoneda T, Iwanaga T, Tsuzuki S, Inoue K, Fushiki T. GPR expression in the rat taste bud relating to fatty acid sensing. Biomed Res 2007; 28:49-55. [PMID: 17379957 DOI: 10.2220/biomedres.28.49] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the expression of G protein-coupled receptor GPR40 and GPR120 in the rat tongue. Using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, we detected a significant expression of GPR120 mRNA in the epithelium of the circumvallate papillae but not in the nonsensory epithelium, while the expression of GPR40 mRNA was undetectable in the sensory papillae. Western blotting analysis of colon and circumvallate papillae for GPR120 showed a protein band with a molecular weight that corresponds to that of GPR120, indicating that this antibody could recognize a native form of GPR120. Immunohistochemistry using anti-GPR120 antibody revealed GPR120 immunoreactivity in the enteroendocrine cells of the colon. Furthermore, some cells in each taste bud were stained positively with more intense labeling in the apical part of the cells. These results suggested that GPR120 is expressed in the taste cells of the circumvallate papillae to sense dietary fat, like the receptor expressed in the enteroendocrine cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigenobu Matsumura
- Laboratory of Nutrition Chemistry, Division of Food Science and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Oiwakecho, Kitashirakawa, Japan
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23
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Pankevich DE, Cherry JA, Baum MJ. Accessory olfactory neural Fos responses to a conditioned environment are blocked in male mice by vomeronasal organ removal. Physiol Behav 2006; 87:781-8. [PMID: 16516252 PMCID: PMC2263135 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2005] [Revised: 01/07/2006] [Accepted: 01/20/2006] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The ability of an anesthetized estrous female to induce a conditioned place preference (CPP) response was assessed in male mice from which the vomeronasal organ (VNO) had either been removed (VNOx) or left intact (VNOi) in an initial effort to assess the possible contribution of VNO-accessory olfactory inputs to the intrinsically rewarding properties of opposite-sex body odorants. Both VNOi and VNOx male mice acquired a CPP after repeated pairing of an initially non-preferred test chamber with an anesthetized estrous female mouse, suggesting that odorants detected by the main olfactory system and/or visual and tactile cues from the anesthetized estrous female can compensate for absent VNO inputs to establish a CPP. Subsequent exposure to this conditioning chamber alone caused significant increases in the number of Fos-immunoreactive cells in the mitral and granule cell layers of the accessory olfactory bulb as well as in the medial amygdala and ventral tegmental area of VNOi but not of VNOx males. These results suggest that activity in distal segments of the VNO-accessory olfactory pathway, in addition to the mesolimbic dopamine reward system, can be conditioned to respond to non-odor cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana E. Pankevich
- Departments of Biology and Psychology, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - James A. Cherry
- Departments of Biology and Psychology, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Michael J. Baum
- Departments of Biology and Psychology, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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Jarosz PA, Sekhon P, Coscina DV. Effect of opioid antagonism on conditioned place preferences to snack foods. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2006; 83:257-64. [PMID: 16540156 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2006.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2005] [Revised: 01/29/2006] [Accepted: 02/01/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Previous research has shown that food-deprived rats acquire conditioned place preferences (CPPs) to sweet liquids that are largely attenuated by the opioid antagonist naltrexone (NAL). This study determined if ad libitum Chow-fed rats can learn CPPs when given relatively brief exposures to different solid snack foods (SFs) -- one high in sugar (Froot Loops cereal: FL) vs. one high in fat (Cheetos: C). Two groups of 16 male rats were trained during 20-min sessions to eat either FL or C in one side of a three-chambered CPP apparatus vs. Chow in the opposite side on alternating days for 20 days. Rats ate considerably more SFs of both types than Chow during the conditioning sessions (SFs: about 23 kcal versus Chow: about 7 kcal). Ten-minute tests for CPPs in the absence of SFs showed that the time spent on SF-conditioned sides increased significantly compared to pre-conditioning tests. Analyses of variance for re-tested CCPs after 0.1, 1.0, 2.5, and 5.0mg/kg NAL showed dose-dependent suppressions of CPPs to both SFs. These data show that consuming sweet or fatty SFs can become reliably associated with environmental cues in the non-deprived state. The endogenous opioid system, which mediates hedonic aspects of palatable food intake, appears to mediate these learned associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Jarosz
- College of Nursing, Wayne State University, 5557 Cass Avenue, Detroit, MI 48202, USA.
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25
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Figlewicz DP, Bennett J, Evans SB, Kaiyala K, Sipols AJ, Benoit SC. Intraventricular insulin and leptin reverse place preference conditioned with high-fat diet in rats. Behav Neurosci 2004; 118:479-87. [PMID: 15174925 DOI: 10.1037/0735-7044.118.3.479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The authors hypothesized that insulin and leptin, hormones that convey metabolic and energy balance status to the central nervous system (CNS), decrease the reward value of food, as assessed by conditioned place preference (CPP). CPP to high-fat diet was blocked in ad-lib fed rats given intraventricular insulin or leptin throughout training and test or acutely before the test. Insulin or leptin given only during the training period did not block CPP. Thus, elevated insulin and leptin do not prevent learning a food's reward value, but instead block its retrieval. Food-restricted rats receiving cerebrospinal fluid, insulin, or leptin had comparable CPPs. Results indicate that the CNS roles of insulin and leptin may include processes involving memory and reward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dianne P Figlewicz
- Metabolism/Endocrinology (151), Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, 1660 South Columbian Way, Seattle, WA 98108, USA.
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Paredes-Olay C, López M. Lithium-induced outcome devaluation in instrumental conditioning: dose-effect analysis. Physiol Behav 2002; 75:603-9. [PMID: 12020725 DOI: 10.1016/s0031-9384(02)00663-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Three experiments with rats assessed the effectiveness of various doses of lithium chloride (LiCl) in producing an aversion to the reinforcer on subsequent instrumental performance in extinction. In Experiments 1A and 1B, subjects were injected with LiCl at a dose of 3.0 and 1.5 meq/kg, respectively. These doses were administered in the form of either an isotonic solution (0.15 M) or a hypertonic solution (0.6 M). While there was an effect of the reinforcer devaluation on the instrumental performance that did not depend on the molarity of the solution with the high LiCl dose, there was no effect of devaluation with the low LiCl dose. Experiment 2 compared the 3.0- and 1.5-meq/kg dose levels directly. A depression of instrumental performance after outcome devaluation was observed in the animals injected with the high LiCl dose independently of the molarity of the solution, an effect that was absent in the low-dose condition. These results were interpreted as evidence that an instrumental reinforcer devaluation effect induced by pairing the reinforcer with illness depends upon the absolute quantity of LiCl injected and not on the concentration of solution.
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Yin HH, Knowlton BJ. Reinforcer devaluation abolishes conditioned cue preference: evidence for stimulus-stimulus associations. Behav Neurosci 2002; 116:174-7. [PMID: 11895179 DOI: 10.1037/0735-7044.116.1.174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In the conditioned cue preference (CCP) task, the subject is presented with a cue paired with food reward, resulting in a preference for the paired cue when allowed to choose later. To clarify the learning involved, the authors devalued the reinforcer after training by inducing a taste aversion to the food. In five 30-min sessions, rats were confined in 1 arm of a radial arm maze and presented with food. These reinforced sessions alternated with 5 unreinforced sessions in a nonadjacent arm. Devaluation was then accomplished in 1 group by inducing taste aversion; controls received either saline or unpaired lithium chloride treatment. When tested later, both the saline group and the unpaired group preferred the previously reinforced arm, but the devalued group showed aversion to it. Thus, CCP is mediated by the stimulus-reinforcer association; when the reinforcer is devalued, the preference is also abolished.
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Affiliation(s)
- H H Yin
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles 90095-1563, USA.
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28
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Imaizumi M, Takeda M, Sawano S, Fushiki T. Opioidergic contribution to conditioned place preference induced by corn oil in mice. Behav Brain Res 2001; 121:129-36. [PMID: 11275290 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-4328(00)00388-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We previously reported that voluntary intake of corn oil in the light box showed place preference in the conditioned place preference (CPP) test in mice. In the present study, we investigated the contribution of opioidergic systems to the corn oil-induced CPP in mice. Acquisition of the place preference by corn oil intake was blocked by i.p. injections of an opioid mu antagonist, naloxone (0.1 and 0.3 mg/kg), and delta antagonists, 7-benzylidenenaltrexone (0.5 mg/kg) and naltriben (0.5 mg/kg) 15 min before conditioning. The opioid kappa agonist U-50488H (1 and 3 mg/kg i.p.) also blocked corn oil-induced CPP. Naloxone (1 mg/kg, i.p.) and naltriben (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) did not affect corn oil intake in the home cage. However, 7-benzylidenenaltrexone (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) and U-50488H (1 mg/kg i.p.) decreased and increased the corn oil intake, respectively. These results suggested that the rewarding effects of corn oil in the CPP test are at least partially mediated via opioidergic systems through mu and delta receptors. Further, we showed that an opioid kappa agonist reduced the rewarding effects of corn oil in the CPP test in mice, although it increased corn oil intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Imaizumi
- Laboratory of Nutrition Chemistry, Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Oiwake-cho Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan.
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Nicotine as an Addictive Substance: A Critical Examination of the Basic Concepts and Empirical Evidence. JOURNAL OF DRUG ISSUES 2001. [DOI: 10.1177/002204260103100202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The present review is a critical analysis of the concepts behind and the empirical data supporting the view that tobacco use represents an addiction to nicotine. It deals with general aspects of the notion of addiction, while concentrating on specific problems associated with incorporating nicotine into current frameworks. The notion of addiction suffers from unprecedented definitional difficulties. The definitions offered by various authorities are very different, even contradictory. Definitions that reasonably include nicotine are so broad and vague that they allow many trivial things, such as salt, sugar, and watching television, to be considered addictive. Definitions that exclude the trivia also exclude nicotine. The addiction hypothesis, in general, is strongly shaped by views that certain drugs bring about a molecular level subversion of rationality. The main human evidence for this is verbal reports of smokers who say that they can't quit. On the other hand, the existence of many millions of successful quitters suggests that most people can quit. Some smokers don't quit, but whether they can't is another matter. The addiction hypothesis would be greatly strengthened by the demonstration that any drug of abuse produces special changes in the brain. It has yet to be shown that any drug produces changes in the brain different from those produced by many innocuous substances and events. The effects of nicotine on the brain are similar to those of sugar, salt, exercise, and other harmless substances and events. Apart from numerous conceptual and definitional inadequacies with the addiction concept in general, the notion that nicotine is addictive lacks reasonable empirical support. Nicotine does not have the properties of reference drugs of abuse. There are so many findings that conflict so starkly with the view that nicotine is addictive that it increasingly appears that adhering to the nicotine addiction thesis is only defensible on extra-scientific grounds.
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Abstract
The mesolimbic dopamine (DA) pathway is critical in reward-mediated behavior. Water, sucrose, and drugs of abuse all increase DA in the nucleus accumbens septi (NAcc) in adult animals. Recently our laboratory has shown that cocaine and alcohol increase DA efflux in preadolescent animals. The present study used a natural reinforcer (i.e., water) at postnatal day 25 (PND 25) to determine the sensitivity and responsiveness of this pathway. Repeated pairing of a peppermint odor with water resulted in a behavioral odor preference and an odor-elicited increase in accumbal DA. Results show that this developing pathway is functional and responsive to conditioning using a natural reinforcer and that these behavioral and neurochemical responses can be conditioned to a previously novel environmental stimulus.
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Affiliation(s)
- E D Guion
- Department of Psychology: Cognitive and Neurosciences, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
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Abstract
We investigated the effects of corn oil intake in the conditioned place preference (CPP) test in mice. Voluntary intake of corn oil in the light box in the CPP test showed place preference, but its peroral administration 60 min before conditioning did not show either place preference or aversion. Acquisition of the place preference by corn oil intake was blocked by i.p. injection of SCH 23390 (0.03 mg/kg) and haloperidol (0.1 mg/kg), but not by that of (+/-)-sulpiride (100 mg/kg), (-)-sulpiride (100 mg/kg), and L-741, 626 (1 mg/kg) 15 min before conditioning. These results suggest that stimulation of corn oil in the oral cavity, but not its postingestive effects, have positive reinforcing effects and the stimulation of corn oil is at least partly mediated via dopaminergic systems through the D(1) receptors. Moreover, the present results suggest that the CPP test is useful for the study of preferable stimulation and rewarding effects of food intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Imaizumi
- Laboratory of Nutrition Chemistry, Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, 606-8502, Kyoto, Japan.
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Delamater AR, Sclafani A, Bodnar RJ. Pharmacology of sucrose-reinforced place-preference conditioning: effects of naltrexone. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2000; 65:697-704. [PMID: 10764925 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-3057(99)00251-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Two experiments investigated the role of the opioid system in sucrose-reinforced conditioned place preferences (CPPs) in rats. Experiment 1 examined the effects of a general opioid antagonist, naltrexone, on the expression of a CPP acquired in the absence of the drug. Subjects were trained to associate one compartment of a two-compartment chamber with sucrose and the other compartment with water. Rats displayed a preference for the sucrose-associated compartment in a choice test without sugar or water available following vehicle saline treatment. Naltrexone doses of 2.5 and 5.0 mg/kg reduced this preference for the sucrose-associated compartment. Experiment 2 examined the effects of naltrexone on the acquisition as well as the expression of CPPS. Different groups of rats received daily injections of either saline, 0.1, 1.0, or 5.0 mg/kg of naltrexone prior to each training session, and then these groups were given a choice test for the CPP after saline or naltrexone injections. Although naltrexone treatment attenuated the expression of CPPs in each group relative to saline treatment, there were no group differences during these tests in the magnitude of the preferences. Moreover, all groups displayed equal acquisition of CPPs despite the fact that naltrexone dose dependently decreased sucrose intake during the training phase. Together, the results indicate that the opioid system modulates the expression but not the acquisition of sucrose-reinforced CPPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Delamater
- Experimental Psychology, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, NY 11210, USA.
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Tzschentke TM. Measuring reward with the conditioned place preference paradigm: a comprehensive review of drug effects, recent progress and new issues. Prog Neurobiol 1998; 56:613-72. [PMID: 9871940 DOI: 10.1016/s0301-0082(98)00060-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 917] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
This review gives an overview of recent findings and developments in research on brain mechanisms of reward and reinforcement from studies using the place preference conditioning paradigm, with emphasis on those studies that have been published within the last decade. Methodological issues of the paradigm (such as design of the conditioning apparatus, biased vs unbiased conditioning, state dependency effects) are discussed. Results from studies using systemic and local (intracranial) drug administration, natural reinforcers, and non-drug treatments and from studies examining the effects of lesions are presented. Papers reporting on conditioned place aversion (CPA) experiments are also included. A special emphasis is put on the issue of tolerance and sensitization to the rewarding properties of drugs. Transmitter systems that have been investigated with respect to their involvement in brain reward mechanisms include dopamine, opioids, acetylcholine, GABA, serotonin, glutamate, substance P, and cholecystokinin, the motivational significance of which has been examined either directly, by using respective agonist or antagonist drugs, or indirectly, by studying the effects of these drugs on the reward induced by other drugs. For a number of these transmitters, detailed studies have been conducted to delineate the receptor subtype(s) responsible for the mediation of the observed drug effects, particularly in the case of dopamine, the opioids, serotonin and glutamate. Brain sites that have been implicated in the mediation of drug-induced place conditioning include the 'traditional' brain reward sites, ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens, but the medial prefrontal cortex, ventral pallidum, amygdala and the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus have also been shown to play important roles in the mediation of place conditioning induced by drugs or natural reinforcers. Thus, although the paradigm has also been criticized because of some inherent methodological problems, it is clear that during the past decade place preference conditioning has become a valuable and firmly established and very widely used tool in behavioural pharmacology and addiction research.
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Affiliation(s)
- T M Tzschentke
- Department of Neuropharmacology, University of Tübingen, Germany.
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