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Serretiello E, Iervolino D, Di Siervi G, Gallo L, Bernardi FF, Pagliano P, Boccia G, Folliero V, Franci G, Rinaldi L. Unveiling the Burden of Hepatitis A in Salerno, Italy: A Comprehensive 9-Year Retrospective Study (2015-2023) on the Seroprevalence of HAV Antibodies and Age/Sex Distribution. J Clin Med 2024; 13:5534. [PMID: 39337021 PMCID: PMC11432748 DOI: 10.3390/jcm13185534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2024] [Revised: 08/27/2024] [Accepted: 09/14/2024] [Indexed: 09/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Background: Hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection is a significant global cause of viral hepatitis. At present, the anti-HAV vaccine in Italy is proposed exclusively for specific high-risk groups, and a universal vaccination program is not implemented. Objectives: This study aimed to assess the level of immunity against HAV in patients of both sexes across age groups ranging from 0 to 95 years admitted to the San Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi d'Aragona Hospital in Salerno, Italy, over a 9-year period (2015-2023). Methods: The total HAV seroprevalence by chemiluminescence Vitros system immunodiagnostics (ortho-diagnostics) was obtained by database analysis, stratifying patients for gender and age group in both the pre-pandemic (2015-2019) and pandemic (2020-2023) periods. Results: Out of 28,104 samples collected in 2015-2023, 20,613 resulted positive by total HAV immune screening, with a significant reduction in the annualized proportion of events during the pandemic period compared to the pre-pandemic period. HAV was more abundant in males than females in both periods (exceeding the 70%), with a statistically significant decrease in HAV in females in 2015-2019. The 61-70-year-old age group is more susceptible for both genders, with a strong deviation from the 41-50-year-old age group compared to the 51-60-year-old group. The pandemic period affected the number of analyzed samples in 2020. Conclusions: The study revealed high HAV seroprevalence, especially in males and individuals aged 61-70 years. There was a notable decrease in seroprevalence during the pandemic compared to pre-pandemic years. These results emphasize the need for ongoing monitoring and suggest that a universal vaccination program could address regional immunity gaps and lower disease incidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrica Serretiello
- Clinical Pathology and Microbiology Unit, San Giovanni di Dio and Ruggi D'Aragona University Hospital, 84131 Salerno, Italy
| | - Domenico Iervolino
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Di Siervi
- Clinical Pathology and Microbiology Unit, San Giovanni di Dio and Ruggi D'Aragona University Hospital, 84131 Salerno, Italy
| | - Luigi Gallo
- Clinical Pathology and Microbiology Unit, San Giovanni di Dio and Ruggi D'Aragona University Hospital, 84131 Salerno, Italy
| | - Francesca F Bernardi
- U.O.D. Tutela Della Salute e il Coordinamento del Sistema Sanitario Regionale-Regione Campania, 80143 Naples, Italy
| | - Pasquale Pagliano
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry "Scuola Medica Salernitana", University of Salerno, 84081 Baronissi, Salerno, Italy
| | - Giovanni Boccia
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry "Scuola Medica Salernitana", University of Salerno, 84081 Baronissi, Salerno, Italy
- UOC Hospital and Epidemiological Hygiene, San Giovanni di Dio and Ruggi D'Aragona University Hospital, 84131 Salerno, Italy
| | - Veronica Folliero
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry "Scuola Medica Salernitana", University of Salerno, 84081 Baronissi, Salerno, Italy
| | - Gianluigi Franci
- Clinical Pathology and Microbiology Unit, San Giovanni di Dio and Ruggi D'Aragona University Hospital, 84131 Salerno, Italy
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry "Scuola Medica Salernitana", University of Salerno, 84081 Baronissi, Salerno, Italy
| | - Luca Rinaldi
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences "V. Tiberio", University of Molise, 86100 Campobasso, Italy
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Son JW, Han S, Hyun SW, Song MS, Ha SD. Synergistic effects of sequential treatment using disinfectant and e-beam for inactivation of hepatitis a virus on fresh vegetables. Food Res Int 2023; 173:113254. [PMID: 37803566 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2023.113254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/08/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) has adversely affected public health worldwide, causing an economic burden on many countries. Fresh vegetables are reported as a source of HAV infections during production, harvesting, and distribution, which cause the emergence of foodborne illnesses. Therefore, in this study, the synergistic effects of chemical (sodium hypochlorite [NaOCl] and chlorine dioxide [ClO2]) and physical (electron-beam [e-beam] irradiation) sequential treatment for HAV inactivation on fresh vegetables were investigated, and the physicochemical quality changes of vegetables were evaluated after each treatment. On bell pepper and cucumber sequentially treated with NaOCl (50-500 ppm) and e-beam (1-5 kGy), the HAV titer was reduced by 0.19-4.69 and 0.28-4.78 log10 TCID50/mL, respectively. Sequential treatment with ClO2 (10-250 ppm) and e-beam (1-5 kGy) reduced the HAV titer on bell pepper and cucumber by 0.41-4.78 and 0.26-4.80 log10 TCID50/mL, respectively. The sequential treatments steadily decreased the HAV titers on each food by a significant difference (p < 0.05) compared to the controls. The treatment combinations of 500 ppm NaOCl and 3 kGy (e-beam) on bell pepper and 150 ppm NaOCl and 1 kGy (e-beam) on cucumber provided maximum synergistic effects. It was also found that sequential treatment with 50 ppm ClO2 and 5 kGy (e-beam) on bell pepper and 10 ppm ClO2 and 5 kGy (e-beam) on cucumber most efficiently inactivated HAV. Additionally, bell pepper and cucumber showed no significant quality changes (p < 0.05) after the treatment. Therefore, the sequential treatment with NaOCl or ClO2 and e-beam is expected to effectively control HAV on fresh vegetables without changing the food quality compared to either treatment alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeong Won Son
- Advanced Food Safety Research Group, BrainKorea21 Plus, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Sangha Han
- Advanced Food Safety Research Group, BrainKorea21 Plus, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Seok-Woo Hyun
- Advanced Food Safety Research Group, BrainKorea21 Plus, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Su Song
- Advanced Food Safety Research Group, BrainKorea21 Plus, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Do Ha
- Advanced Food Safety Research Group, BrainKorea21 Plus, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-do 17546, Republic of Korea.
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3
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Fallucca A, Restivo V, Sgariglia MC, Roveta M, Trucchi C. Hepatitis a Vaccine as Opportunity of Primary Prevention for Food Handlers: A Narrative Review. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1271. [PMID: 37515087 PMCID: PMC10383099 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11071271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The hepatitis A virus (HAV) is still a leading cause of viral hepatitis worldwide. After a long incubation period, the clinical manifestations range from asymptomatic infection to acute liver failure. The severity of the disease increases with age and pre-existing liver disease. The transmission is mainly via person-to-person contact or ingestion of contaminated food or water. Food contamination can occur at any step of the food chain, especially when infected people handle not-heated or otherwise-treated food. HAV is endemic in low-income countries because of poor sanitary and sociodemographic conditions. The populations of developed countries are highly susceptible, and large outbreaks occur when HAV is introduced from endemic countries due to globalization, travel, and movement of foodstuffs. HAV prevention includes hygiene practices, immunoglobulins, and vaccination. Safe and effective inactivated and live attenuated vaccines are available and provide long-term protection. The vaccine targets are children and subjects at increased risk of HAV exposure or serious clinical outcomes. This review discusses the critical role of food handlers in the spread of HAV and the opportunity for food industry employers to consider food handler immunization a tool to manage both food safety in compliance with HACCP principles and food operators' biologic risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Fallucca
- Department of Health Promotion, Maternal and Infant Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties (PROMISE) “G. D’Alessandro”, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Restivo
- Department of Health Promotion, Maternal and Infant Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties (PROMISE) “G. D’Alessandro”, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | | | - Marco Roveta
- Food Hygiene and Nutrition Service, Department of Prevention, Local Health Unit 3, 16142 Genoa, Italy
| | - Cecilia Trucchi
- Food Hygiene and Nutrition Service, Department of Prevention, Local Health Unit 3, 16142 Genoa, Italy
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4
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Randazzo W, Sánchez G. Hepatitis A infections from food. J Appl Microbiol 2020; 129:1120-1132. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.14727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- W. Randazzo
- Department of Preservation and Food Safety Technologies IATA‐CSIC Valencia Spain
- Department of Microbiology and Ecology University of Valencia Valencia Spain
| | - G. Sánchez
- Department of Preservation and Food Safety Technologies IATA‐CSIC Valencia Spain
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Hepatitis A: Epidemiology, Natural History, Unusual Clinical Manifestations, and Prevention. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2020; 49:191-199. [PMID: 32389358 PMCID: PMC7883407 DOI: 10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is a positive-strand RNA virus that is transmitted feco-orally through person-to-person contact. Outbreaks are often linked to poor sanitation, overcrowding, or food and water contamination. Infection is often asymptomatic in children, but adults present with jaundice, abdominal pain, hepatitis, and hyperbilirubinemia. Diagnosis is through detection of immunoglobulin M antibodies against HAV, and treatment is supportive. Vaccination is the mainstay of prevention and should be given before exposure whenever possible.
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6
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Fuzawa M, Smith RL, Ku KM, Shisler JL, Feng H, Juvik JA, Nguyen TH. Roles of Vegetable Surface Properties and Sanitizer Type on Annual Disease Burden of Rotavirus Illness by Consumption of Rotavirus-Contaminated Fresh Vegetables: A Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2020; 40:741-757. [PMID: 31742761 DOI: 10.1111/risa.13426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Revised: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Enteric viruses are often detected in water used for crop irrigation. One concern is foodborne viral disease via the consumption of fresh produce irrigated with virus-contaminated water. Although the food industry routinely uses chemical sanitizers to disinfect post-harvest fresh produce, it remains unknown how sanitizer and fresh produce properties affect the risk of viral illness through fresh produce consumption. A quantitative microbial risk assessment model was conducted to estimate (i) the health risks associated with consumption of rotavirus (RV)-contaminated fresh produce with different surface properties (endive and kale) and (ii) how risks changed when using peracetic acid (PAA) or a surfactant-based sanitizer. The modeling results showed that the annual disease burden depended on the combination of sanitizer and vegetable type when vegetables were irrigated with RV-contaminated water. Global sensitivity analyses revealed that the most influential factors in the disease burden were RV concentration in irrigation water and postharvest disinfection efficacy. A postharvest disinfection efficacy of higher than 99% (2-log10 ) was needed to decrease the disease burden below the World Health Organization (WHO) threshold, even in scenarios with low RV concentrations in irrigation water (i.e., river water). All scenarios tested here with at least 99.9% (3-log10 ) disinfection efficacy had a disease burden lower than the WHO threshold, except for the endive treated with PAA. The disinfection efficacy for the endive treated with PAA was only about 80%, leading to a disease burden 100 times higher than the WHO threshold. These findings should be considered and incorporated into future models for estimating foodborne viral illness risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miyu Fuzawa
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Rebecca Lee Smith
- Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Kang-Mo Ku
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, Davis College of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Design, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
- Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, 61886, Republic of Korea
| | - Joanna L Shisler
- Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Hao Feng
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - John A Juvik
- Department of Crop Science, College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Thanh H Nguyen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
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7
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Yeargin T, Gibson KE. Key characteristics of foods with an elevated risk for viral enteropathogen contamination. J Appl Microbiol 2018; 126:996-1010. [PMID: 30244501 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Viral enteropathogens are one of the leading causative agents of foodborne illnesses in both the United States and the European Union. While human noroviruses and hepatitis A virus cause the vast majority of outbreaks and illnesses, there are handful of human enteric viruses that contribute to sporadic outbreaks worldwide including astrovirus, sapovirus, rotavirus, enterovirus and Aichi virus. In addition, hepatitis E virus is increasingly being recognized as an emerging zoonotic threat within the food supply. This review aims to briefly describe the primary human enteric viruses of concern with respect to foodborne transmission. Next, we focus on the contamination and persistence of these viruses within three high-risk food commodities-leafy greens, soft red fruits and bivalve mollusks. As opposed to detailing the specific routes by which these foods can be contaminated with enteric viruses, we have chosen to focus on their persistence and specific interactions within the food itself. Therefore, the processes of attachment and internalization of the viruses in foods have been emphasized. Looking forward, the implications of these specific interactions of human enteric viruses with leafy greens, soft red fruits and bivalve mollusks are briefly considered within the context of future prevention and control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Yeargin
- Division of Agriculture, Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - K E Gibson
- Division of Agriculture, Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
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8
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Cook N, Bertrand I, Gantzer C, Pinto RM, Bosch A. Persistence of Hepatitis A Virus in Fresh Produce and Production Environments, and the Effect of Disinfection Procedures: A Review. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2018; 10:253-262. [PMID: 29761412 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-018-9349-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Although information is limited, it is evident that prolonged persistence of infectious Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is a factor in the transmission of the virus via fresh produce. Consequently, data on persistence of the virus on produce, and in environments relevant to production, such as soils, water and surfaces, are required to fully understand the dynamics of transmission of HAV via foods. Furthermore, information on effective disinfection procedures is necessary to implement effective post-harvest control measures. This review summarises current information on HAV persistence in fresh produce and on relevant disinfection procedures. On vegetables, HAV can remain infectious for several days; on frozen berries, it can persist for several months. HAV can remain infectious on surfaces for months, depending on temperature and relative humidity, and can survive desiccation. It can survive for several hours on hands. Washing hands can remove the virus, but further data are required on the appropriate procedure. Chlorination is effective in water, but not when HAV is associated with foodstuffs. Bleach and other sodium hypochlorite disinfectants at high concentrations can reduce HAV on surfaces, but are not suitable for use on fresh produce. There is only limited information on the effects of heating regimes used in the food industry on HAV. HAV is resistant to mild pasteurisation. Some food components, e.g. fats and sugars, can increase the virus' resistance to higher temperatures. HAV is completely eliminated by boiling. Quantitative prevalence data are needed to allow the setting of appropriate disinfection log reduction targets for fresh produce.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Cook
- Food and Environment Research Agency, York, UK.
- Jorvik Food and Environmental Virology Ltd., York, UK.
| | - I Bertrand
- Université de Lorraine, LCPME (Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, 54000, Nancy, France
- CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, 54000, Nancy, France
- Institut Jean Barriol, Université de Lorraine, Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, 54506, Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy, France
| | - C Gantzer
- Université de Lorraine, LCPME (Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, 54000, Nancy, France
- CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, 54000, Nancy, France
- Institut Jean Barriol, Université de Lorraine, Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, 54506, Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy, France
| | - R M Pinto
- University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - A Bosch
- University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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9
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Owusu-Ansah EDGJ, Sampson A, Amponsah SK, Abaidoo RC, Dalsgaard A, Hald T. Probabilistic quantitative microbial risk assessment model of norovirus from wastewater irrigated vegetables in Ghana using genome copies and fecal indicator ratio conversion for estimating exposure dose. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 601-602:1712-1719. [PMID: 28618661 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2016] [Revised: 05/19/2017] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The need to replace the commonly applied fecal indicator conversions ratio (an assumption of 1:10-5 virus to fecal indicator organism) in Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) with models based on quantitative data on the virus of interest has gained prominence due to the different physical and environmental factors that might influence the reliability of using indicator organisms in microbial risk assessment. The challenges facing analytical studies on virus enumeration (genome copies or particles) have contributed to the already existing lack of data in QMRA modelling. This study attempts to fit a QMRA model to genome copies of norovirus data. The model estimates the risk of norovirus infection from the intake of vegetables irrigated with wastewater from different sources. The results were compared to the results of a corresponding model using the fecal indicator conversion ratio to estimate the norovirus count. In all scenarios of using different water sources, the application of the fecal indicator conversion ratio underestimated the norovirus disease burden, measured by the Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs), when compared to results using the genome copies norovirus data. In some cases the difference was >2 orders of magnitude. All scenarios using genome copies met the 10-4 DALY per person per year for consumption of vegetables irrigated with wastewater, although these results are considered to be highly conservative risk estimates. The fecal indicator conversion ratio model of stream-water and drain-water sources of wastewater achieved the 10-6 DALY per person per year threshold, which tends to indicate an underestimation of health risk when compared to using genome copies for estimating the dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel de-Graft Johnson Owusu-Ansah
- Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Physical and Computational Sciences, SCB-SF 24/B6, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.
| | - Angelina Sampson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, South Dakota State University, USA
| | - Samuel K Amponsah
- Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Physical and Computational Sciences, SCB-SF 24/B6, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
| | - Robert C Abaidoo
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Biology, Faculty of Bioscience, Biology Block, A 32, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
| | - Anders Dalsgaard
- Veterinary Diseases Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Tine Hald
- Genomic Epidemiology and Global Decision Support Initiative, National Food Institute, Soltofts Plads, Building 221 Room 250, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark
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Terio V, Bottaro M, Pavoni E, Losio MN, Serraino A, Giacometti F, Martella V, Mottola A, Di Pinto A, Tantillo G. Occurrence of hepatitis A and E and norovirus GI and GII in ready-to-eat vegetables in Italy. Int J Food Microbiol 2017; 249:61-65. [PMID: 28319799 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2017.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Revised: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 03/11/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Fresh vegetables and their ready-to-eat (RTE) salads have become increasingly recognized as potential vehicles for foodborne diseases. The EU Reg. 1441/2007 establishes microbiological criteria for bacterial pathogens for products placed on the market during their shelf-life (i.e. Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes) for pre-cut fruits and vegetables (RTE) whilst it does not address the problem of contamination by enteric viruses. In this study we investigated the contamination by hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis E virus (HEV) and norovirus (NoV) in 911 ready-to-eat vegetable samples taken from products at retail in Apulia and in Lombardia. The vegetable samples were tested using validated real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) assays, ISO standardized virological methods and ISO culturing methods for bacteriological analysis. The total prevalence of HAV and HEV was 1.9% (18/911) and 0.6% (6/911), respectively. None of the samples analysed in this study was positive for NoV, Salmonella spp. or Listeria monocytogenes. The detection of HAV and HEV in RTE salads highlights a risk to consumers and the need to improve production hygiene. Appropriate implementation of hygiene procedures is required at all the steps of the RTE vegetable production chain and this should include monitoring of emerging viral pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Terio
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEV), University of Bari, Provincial Road to Casamassima, km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Bari, Italy.
| | - M Bottaro
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEV), University of Bari, Provincial Road to Casamassima, km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Bari, Italy
| | - E Pavoni
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Via Bianchi no. 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - M N Losio
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Via Bianchi no. 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - A Serraino
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, via Tolara di Sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano Emilia, BO, Italy
| | - F Giacometti
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, via Tolara di Sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano Emilia, BO, Italy
| | - V Martella
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEV), University of Bari, Provincial Road to Casamassima, km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Bari, Italy
| | - A Mottola
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEV), University of Bari, Provincial Road to Casamassima, km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Bari, Italy
| | - A Di Pinto
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEV), University of Bari, Provincial Road to Casamassima, km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Bari, Italy
| | - G Tantillo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEV), University of Bari, Provincial Road to Casamassima, km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Bari, Italy
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11
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Fuzawa M, Ku KM, Palma-Salgado SP, Nagasaka K, Feng H, Juvik JA, Sano D, Shisler JL, Nguyen TH. Effect of Leaf Surface Chemical Properties on Efficacy of Sanitizer for Rotavirus Inactivation. Appl Environ Microbiol 2016; 82:6214-6222. [PMID: 27520815 PMCID: PMC5068170 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01778-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 08/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of sanitizers is essential for produce safety. However, little is known about how sanitizer efficacy varies with respect to the chemical surface properties of produce. To answer this question, the disinfection efficacies of an oxidant-based sanitizer and a new surfactant-based sanitizer for porcine rotavirus (PRV) strain OSU were examined. PRV was attached to the leaf surfaces of two kale cultivars with high epicuticular wax contents and one cultivar of endive with a low epicuticular wax content and then treated with each sanitizer. The efficacy of the oxidant-based sanitizer correlated with leaf wax content as evidenced by the 1-log10 PRV disinfection on endive surfaces (low wax content) and 3-log10 disinfection of the cultivars with higher wax contents. In contrast, the surfactant-based sanitizer showed similar PRV disinfection efficacies (up to 3 log10) that were independent of leaf wax content. A statistical difference was observed with the disinfection efficacies of the oxidant-based sanitizer for suspended and attached PRV, while the surfactant-based sanitizer showed similar PRV disinfection efficacies. Significant reductions in the entry and replication of PRV were observed after treatment with either disinfectant. Moreover, the oxidant-based-sanitizer-treated PRV showed sialic acid-specific binding to the host cells, whereas the surfactant-based sanitizer increased the nonspecific binding of PRV to the host cells. These findings suggest that the surface properties of fresh produce may affect the efficacy of virus disinfection, implying that food sanitizers should be carefully selected for the different surface characteristics of fresh produce. IMPORTANCE Food sanitizer efficacies are affected by the surface properties of vegetables. This study evaluated the disinfection efficacies of two food sanitizers, an oxidant-based sanitizer and a surfactant-based sanitizer, on porcine rotavirus strain OSU adhering to the leaf epicuticular surfaces of high- and low-wax-content cultivars. The disinfection efficacy of the oxidant-based sanitizer was affected by the surface properties of the vegetables, while the surfactant-based sanitizer was effective for both high- and low-wax leafy vegetable cultivars. This study suggests that the surface properties of vegetables may be an important factor that interacts with disinfection with food sanitizers of rotaviruses adhering to fresh produce.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miyu Fuzawa
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Kang-Mo Ku
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, Davis College of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Design, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Sindy Paola Palma-Salgado
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Kenya Nagasaka
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Hao Feng
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - John A Juvik
- Department of Crop Science, College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Daisuke Sano
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Joanna L Shisler
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Thanh H Nguyen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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12
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Sewlikar S, D'Souza DH. Survival of hepatitis A virus and Aichi virus in cranberry-based juices at refrigeration (4 °C). Food Microbiol 2016; 62:251-255. [PMID: 27889156 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2016.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Revised: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 10/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Viral foodborne illness continues to be a health-concern globally, with numerous fruit and juice outbreaks of Hepatitis A virus (HAV) reported worldwide. Aichi virus (AiV) is an emerging pathogen with limited epidemiological data. Both, HAV and AiV are resistant to low pH and can survive under adverse environmental conditions leading to transmission ease. The objective of this study was to evaluate the survival of HAV and AiV in commercially-available cranberry-based juices (Cranberry juice cocktail, CJ and a 100% juice with cranberry, MJ) over 21 days at refrigeration (4 °C). Equal volumes of juice was mixed with each virus individually (final titer of 6 log PFU/mL) and stored at refrigeration over 21 days. At each time interval, the inoculated juices were serially diluted in cell culture media and infectious virus survival was determined by standard plaque assays. Each experiment was carried out in duplicate and replicated thrice. Reductions of 0.72 ± 0.06 (after day 1) to 2.3 ± 0.18 log PFU/mL (after day 21) and 0.63 ± 0.02 (after day 1) to 1.84 ± 0.14 log PFU/mL (after day 21) were obtained for AiV with MJ and CJ, respectively. Reductions ranging from 0.67 ± 0.03 (after day 1) to 1.09 ± 0.1 log PFU/mL (after day 21) and 0.93 ± 0.27 (after day1) to 1.49 ± 0.18 log PFU/mL (after day 21) were obtained for HAV at refrigeration in MJ and CJ, respectively. HAV showed greater survival than AiV in these juices over refrigerated storage. These results provide survival data of HAV and AiV in cranberry-based juices that can be used in risk-modeling and risk assessment studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Snigdha Sewlikar
- The University of Tennessee-Knoxville, Department of Food Science and Technology, 2600 River Drive, Knoxville, TN 37966, USA
| | - Doris H D'Souza
- The University of Tennessee-Knoxville, Department of Food Science and Technology, 2600 River Drive, Knoxville, TN 37966, USA.
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Abstract
Enteric viruses are those human viruses that are primarily transmitted by the fecal-oral route, either by person-to-person contact or by ingestion of contaminated food or water. The importance of viral foodborne diseases is increasingly being recognized, and several international organizations have found that there is an upward trend in their incidence. Thus, in this review, state-of-the-art information regarding virus persistence in food and the environment is compiled.
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Burge CA, Closek CJ, Friedman CS, Groner ML, Jenkins CM, Shore-Maggio A, Welsh JE. The Use of Filter-feeders to Manage Disease in a Changing World. Integr Comp Biol 2016; 56:573-87. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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15
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Abstract
Risk is an inherent component of human existence, as is our creation of ways to avoid or minimize such risks. The formal process of assessing the likelihood and magnitude of risk, using that information to manage risk, and then communicating the process to others, forms the basis for risk analysis. This chapter provides an overview of the steps of risk analysis with a focus on risk assessment for foodborne viruses, particularly quantitative efforts that model and estimate the risks these viruses pose to human health. Most risk assessments in food and environmental virology performed in the last decade have focused on water, fresh produce, molluscan shellfish, and prepared foods. Recent examples of enteric virus risk modeling efforts are discussed in detail, as are several of the difficulties and intricacies of performing risk assessments for foodborne viruses compared to bacteria and other agents. This is a relatively new area of study, but one that will continue to grow as national and international agencies continue to adopt and require the methodology for food safety and the protection of human health.
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16
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Shahrampour D, Yavarmanesh M, Najafi MBH, Mohebbi M. Application of F⁺RNA Coliphages as Source Tracking Enteric Viruses on Parsley and Leek Using RT-PCR. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2015; 7:381-389. [PMID: 26264153 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-015-9212-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 07/30/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to identify sources of fecal contamination in leek and parsley, by using four different F(+)RNA coliphage genogroups (IV, I indicate animal fecal contamination and II, III indicate human fecal contamination). Three different concentrations (10(2), 10(4), 10(6) pfu/ml) of MS2 coliphage were inoculated on the surface of parsley and leek samples for detection of phage recovery efficiency among two methods of elution concentration (PEG-precipitation and Ultracentrifugation) by performing double agar layer (DAL) assay in three replications. Highest recovery of MS2 was observed in PEG method and in 10(6) inoculation concentration. Accordingly, the PEG method was used for washing and isolation of potentially contaminated phages of 30 collected samples (15 samples from the market and 15 samples from the farm). The final solutions of PEG method were tested for the enumeration of plaques by DAL assay. Total RNA was then extracted from recovered phages, and RT-PCR was performed by using four primer sets I, II, III, and IV. Incidence of F(+)RNA coliphages was observed in 12/15 (80 %) and 10/15 (66/6 %) of samples were obtained from farm and market, respectively, using both DAL and RT-PCR test methods. Different genotypes (I, II, and IV) of F(+)RNA coliphages were found in farm samples, while only genotype I was detected in market samples by using the primer sets. Due to the higher frequency of genotype I and IV, the absence of genotype III, and also the low frequency of genotype II, it is concluded that the contamination of vegetable (parsley and leek) in Neyshabour, Iran is most likely originated from animal sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina Shahrampour
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Masoud Yavarmanesh
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.
| | | | - Mohebbat Mohebbi
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
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17
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Li D, De Keuckelaere A, Uyttendaele M. Fate of Foodborne Viruses in the "Farm to Fork" Chain of Fresh Produce. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2015; 14:755-770. [PMID: 32313514 PMCID: PMC7162173 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2015] [Accepted: 08/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Norovirus (NoV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV) are the most important foodborne viruses. Fresh produce has been identified as an important vehicle for their transmission. In order to supply a basis to identify possible prevention and control strategies, this review intends to demonstrate the fate of foodborne viruses in the farm to fork chain of fresh produce, which include the introduction routes (contamination sources), the viral survival abilities at different stages, and the reactions of foodborne viruses towards the treatments used in food processing of fresh produce. In general, the preharvest contamination comes mainly from soli fertilizer or irrigation water, while the harvest and postharvest contaminations come mainly from food handlers, which can be both symptomatic and asymptomatic. Foodborne viruses show high stabilities in all the stages of fresh produce production and processing. Low-temperature storage and other currently used preservation techniques, as well as washing by water have shown limited added value for reducing the virus load on fresh produce. Chemical sanitizers, although with limitations, are strongly recommended to be applied in the wash water in order to minimize cross-contamination. Alternatively, radiation strategies have shown promising inactivating effects on foodborne viruses. For high-pressure processing and thermal treatment, efforts have to be made on setting up treatment parameters to induce sufficient viral inactivation within a food matrix and to protect the sensory and nutritional qualities of fresh produce to the largest extent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Li
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering Ghent Univ Coupure Links 653 B-9000 Ghent Belgium
| | - Ann De Keuckelaere
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering Ghent Univ Coupure Links 653 B-9000 Ghent Belgium
| | - Mieke Uyttendaele
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering Ghent Univ Coupure Links 653 B-9000 Ghent Belgium
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18
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Losio M, Pavoni E, Bilei S, Bertasi B, Bove D, Capuano F, Farneti S, Blasi G, Comin D, Cardamone C, Decastelli L, Delibato E, De Santis P, Di Pasquale S, Gattuso A, Goffredo E, Fadda A, Pisanu M, De Medici D. Microbiological survey of raw and ready-to-eat leafy green vegetables marketed in Italy. Int J Food Microbiol 2015; 210:88-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2015.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2014] [Revised: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 05/31/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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19
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Terio V, Bottaro M, Di Pinto A, Catella C, Chironna M, Bozzo G, Kingsley DH, Bonerba E, Morea A, Martella V. Outbreak of Hepatitis A in Italy Associated with Frozen Redcurrants Imported from Poland: A Case Study. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2015; 7:305-308. [PMID: 26001535 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-015-9199-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Accepted: 05/11/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) was detected in a batch of imported non-packaged frozen redcurrants purchased in a Bari grocery. Sequence and phylogenetic analysis showed the HAV strain clustered tightly with the HAV strain from the 2013 Italian epidemic, providing additional evidence that frozen redcurrants were the main vehicle of the HAV outbreak.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Terio
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", S.p. per Casamassima Km 3, Valenzano, 70010, Bari, Italy,
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20
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Sánchez G. Processing Strategies to Inactivate Hepatitis A Virus in Food Products: A Critical Review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gloria Sánchez
- Dept. of Microbiology and Ecology; Univ. of Valencia, Dr. Moliner; 50. Burjassot Valencia Spain
- Inst. of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA); Spanish Council for Scientific Research (CSIC); Agustín Escardino, 7. Paterna Valencia Spain
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21
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Esseili MA, Saif LJ, Farkas T, Wang Q. Feline Calicivirus, Murine Norovirus, Porcine Sapovirus, and Tulane Virus Survival on Postharvest Lettuce. Appl Environ Microbiol 2015; 81:5085-92. [PMID: 26002891 PMCID: PMC4495198 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00558-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Human norovirus (HuNoV) is the leading cause of foodborne illnesses, with an increasing number of outbreaks associated with leafy greens. Because HuNoV cannot be routinely cultured, culturable feline calicivirus (FCV), murine norovirus (MNV), porcine sapovirus (SaV), and Tulane virus (TV) have been used as surrogates. These viruses are generated in different cell lines as infected cell lysates, which may differentially affect their stability. Our objective was to uniformly compare the survival of these viruses on postharvest lettuce while evaluating the effects of cell lysates on their survival. Viruses were semipurified from cell lysates by ultrafiltration or ultracentrifugation followed by resuspension in sterile water. Virus survival was examined before and after semipurification: in suspension at room temperature (RT) until day 28 and on lettuce leaves stored at RT for 3 days or at 4°C for 7 and 14 days. In suspension, both methods significantly enhanced the survival of all viruses. On lettuce, the survival of MNV in cell lysates was similar to that in water, under all storage conditions. In contrast, the survival of FCV, SaV, and TV was differentially enhanced, under different storage conditions, by removing cell lysates. Following semipurification, viruses showed similar persistence to each other on lettuce stored under all conditions, with the exception of ultracentrifugation-purified FCV, which showed a higher inactivation rate than MNV at 4°C for 14 days. In conclusion, the presence of cell lysates in viral suspensions underestimated the survivability of these surrogate viruses, while viral semipurification revealed similar survivabilities on postharvest lettuce leaves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malak A Esseili
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio, USA
| | - Linda J Saif
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio, USA
| | - Tibor Farkas
- Laboratory for Specialized Clinical Studies, Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Qiuhong Wang
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio, USA
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22
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Esseili MA, Chin A, Saif L, Miller SA, Qu F, Lewis Ivey ML, Wang Q. Postharvest Survival of Porcine Sapovirus, a Human Norovirus Surrogate, on Phytopathogen-Infected Leafy Greens. J Food Prot 2015; 78:1472-80. [PMID: 26219360 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-14-518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Leafy greens are increasingly being recognized as an important vehicle for human noroviruses (HuNoV), which cause recurring gastroenteritis outbreaks. Leafy greens often become infected by phytopathogens in the field, which may cause symptoms on the edible parts. Whether plant pathogen infections enhance the survival of HuNoV on leafy greens is unknown. Lettuce and spinach plants were infected with a bacterium, Xanthomonas campestris pv. vitians strain 701a, and with Cucumber mosaic virus strain Fny, respectively. The survival rate of porcine sapovirus (SaV), a HuNoV surrogate, on infected and noninfected postharvest leaves was then assessed. In addition, acibenzolar-S-methyl, a commercial chemical elicitor of plant systemic defense, was used to assess whether stimulating the plant host defense affects the postharvest survival of SaV. Leaves harvested from control and treated plants were inoculated with SaV and incubated for 7 days at 4°C. The infectivity (tissue culture infectious dose affecting 50% of the culture [TCID50]/ml) and RNA (genomic equivalent/ml) titers of SaV were assayed using immunohistochemistry staining and SaV-specific TaqMan real-time reverse transcription PCR. Our results showed that cucumber mosaic virus Fny induced mild, nonnecrotic symptoms on spinach leaves and had no effect on SaV survival. In contrast, X. campestris pv. vitians 701a induced small localized necrotic lesions and significantly enhanced SaV survival on lettuce leaves. Treatment with acibenzolar-S-methyl was effective in reducing X. campestris pv. vitians 701a-induced lesions on infected lettuce plants but had no direct effect on SaV survival when used on healthy lettuce plants. These findings indicate that phytopathogen-induced necrotic lesions may enhance the postharvest survival of HuNoV on lettuce leaves. Therefore, preventive measures aiming to maintain healthy plants and minimize preharvest biological damage are expected to improve the safety of leafy greens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malak A Esseili
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio 44691, USA
| | - Ashlina Chin
- The Department of Plant Pathology, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio 44691, USA
| | - Linda Saif
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio 44691, USA
| | - Sally A Miller
- The Department of Plant Pathology, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio 44691, USA
| | - Feng Qu
- The Department of Plant Pathology, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio 44691, USA
| | - Melanie L Lewis Ivey
- The Department of Plant Pathology, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio 44691, USA; The Department of Plant Pathology and Crop Physiology, Louisiana State University AgCenter, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, USA.
| | - Qiuhong Wang
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio 44691, USA.
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23
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Effect of temperature and relative humidity on the survival of foodborne viruses during food storage. Appl Environ Microbiol 2015; 81:2075-81. [PMID: 25576612 DOI: 10.1128/aem.04093-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Millions of people suffer from foodborne diseases throughout the world every year, and the importance of food safety has grown worldwide in recent years. The aim of this study was to investigate the survival of hepatitis A virus (HAV) and viral surrogates of human norovirus (HuNoV) (bacteriophage MS2 and murine norovirus [MNV]) in food over time. HAV, MNV, and MS2 were inoculated onto either the digestive gland of oysters or the surface of fresh peppers, and their survival on these food matrices was measured under various temperature (4°C, 15°C, 25°C, and 40°C) and relative humidity (RH) (50% and 70%) conditions. Inoculated viruses were recovered from food samples and quantified by a plaque assay at predetermined time points over 2 weeks (0, 1, 3, 7, 10, and 14 days). Virus survival was influenced primarily by temperature. On peppers at 40°C and at 50% RH, >4- and 6-log reductions of MNV and HAV, respectively, occurred within 1 day. All three viruses survived better on oysters. In addition, HAV survived better at 70% RH than at 50% RH. The survival data for HAV, MS2, and MNV were fit to three different mathematical models (linear, Weibull, and biphasic models). Among them, the biphasic model was optimum in terms of goodness of fit. The results of this study suggest that major foodborne viruses such as HAV and HuNoV can survive over prolonged periods of time with a limited reduction in numbers. Because a persistence of foodborne virus on contaminated foods was observed, precautionary preventive measures should be performed.
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24
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Thermal inactivation kinetics of hepatitis A virus in spinach. Int J Food Microbiol 2015; 193:147-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2014] [Revised: 10/10/2014] [Accepted: 10/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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25
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Khan W, Irshad M, Rehman G, Hussain A. HAV in fresh vegetables: a hidden health risk in district Mardan, Pakistan. SPRINGERPLUS 2014; 3:675. [PMID: 26034681 PMCID: PMC4447752 DOI: 10.1186/2193-1801-3-675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis A is an acute inflammation of the liver caused by the hepatitis A virus (HAV) in human. The path of entry of HAV to the bloodstream is the epithelium of the intestine. Liver inflammation occurs when HAV multiplies within the hepatocytes and Kupffer cells of the liver. HAV is mostly transmitted by contaminated water, fruits and vegetables. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate fresh vegetables raised on the fecal contaminated water for the detection of HAV by PCR method. Twenty nine samples were collected from 13 different locations of district Mardan and screened for the presence of HAV. Village Bajowro near Takht Bhai was the most contaminated site having HAV in all vegetables grown over there. Water samples collected from this area proved to be contaminated with HAV. It may be concluded that fecal contaminated water is unsafe for irrigation because of the health risk associated with such practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waleed Khan
- Department of Botany, Shankar Campus, Abdul Wali Khan Univerity, Mardan, 23200 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Irshad
- Department of Botany, Shankar Campus, Abdul Wali Khan Univerity, Mardan, 23200 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan
| | - Gauhar Rehman
- Department of Zoology, Shankar Campus, Abdul Wali Khan Univerity, Mardan, 23200 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan
| | - Anwar Hussain
- Department of Botany, Shankar Campus, Abdul Wali Khan Univerity, Mardan, 23200 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan
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26
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Barker SF. Risk of norovirus gastroenteritis from consumption of vegetables irrigated with highly treated municipal wastewater--evaluation of methods to estimate sewage quality. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2014; 34:803-817. [PMID: 24286258 DOI: 10.1111/risa.12138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Quantitative microbial risk assessment was used to assess the risk of norovirus gastroenteritis associated with consumption of raw vegetables irrigated with highly treated municipal wastewater, using Melbourne, Australia as an example. In the absence of local norovirus concentrations, three methods were developed: (1) published concentrations of norovirus in raw sewage, (2) an epidemiological method using Melbourne prevalence of norovirus, and (3) an adjustment of method 1 to account for prevalence of norovirus. The methods produced highly variable results with estimates of norovirus concentrations in raw sewage ranging from 10(4) per milliliter to 10(7) per milliliter and treated effluent from 1 × 10(-3) per milliliter to 3 per milliliter (95th percentiles). Annual disease burden was very low using method 1, from 4 to 5 log10 disability adjusted life years (DALYs) below the 10(-6) threshold (0.005-0.1 illnesses per year). Results of method 2 were higher, with some scenarios exceeding the threshold by up to 2 log10 DALYs (up to 95,000 illnesses per year). Method 3, thought to be most representative of Melbourne conditions, predicted annual disease burdens >2 log10 DALYs lower than the threshold (∼ 4 additional cases per year). Sensitivity analyses demonstrated that input parameters used to estimate norovirus concentration accounted for much of the model output variability. This model, while constrained by a lack of knowledge of sewage concentrations, used the best available information and sound logic. Results suggest that current wastewater reuse behaviors in Melbourne are unlikely to cause norovirus risks in excess of the annual DALY health target.
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27
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Mok HF, Barker SF, Hamilton AJ. A probabilistic quantitative microbial risk assessment model of norovirus disease burden from wastewater irrigation of vegetables in Shepparton, Australia. WATER RESEARCH 2014; 54:347-62. [PMID: 24594660 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.01.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Revised: 01/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2014] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater can be an important resource for water-scarce regions of the world, but a major barrier to its use is the associated health risk. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) is a probabilistic modeling technique used to determine the health risks from wastewater reuse, but only a handful of QMRA studies have examined the norovirus health risks from consumption of vegetables irrigated with human wastewater, even though norovirus is a, if not the most, significant microbial cause of diarrheal disease world-wide. Furthermore, the majority of these studies have focused only on risks from lettuce consumption. To meet the knowledge gap in health risks for other vegetables, a QMRA model was constructed for agricultural wastewater irrigation in the regional city of Shepparton, Australia, using fecal shedding rates to estimate norovirus concentration in raw sewage. Annual norovirus disease burden was estimated for the consumption of lettuce, broccoli, cabbage, Asian vegetables, and cucumber after irrigation with treated wastewater. Results indicate that the waste stabilization pond treatment did not have sufficient virus removal to meet the World Health Organization (WHO) threshold for acceptable level of risk for wastewater reuse, but addition of disinfection treatments provided acceptable results for consumption of cucumber and broccoli. This is the first QMRA study to incorporate virus accumulation from previous wastewater irrigation events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoi-Fei Mok
- Department of Agriculture and Food Systems, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - S Fiona Barker
- Department of Resource Management and Geography, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Andrew J Hamilton
- Department of Agriculture and Food Systems, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.
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29
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Mok HF, Hamilton AJ. Exposure factors for wastewater-irrigated Asian vegetables and a probabilistic rotavirus disease burden model for their consumption. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2014; 34:602-13. [PMID: 24576153 PMCID: PMC3984355 DOI: 10.1111/risa.12178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Many farmers in water-scarce regions of developing countries use wastewater to irrigate vegetables and other agricultural crops, a practice that may expand with climate change. There are a number of health risks associated with wastewater irrigation for human food crops, particularly with surface irrigation techniques common in the developing world. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends using quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) to determine if the irrigation scheme meets health standards. However, only a few vegetables have been studied for wastewater risk and little information is known about the disease burden of wastewater-irrigated vegetable consumption in China. To bridge this knowledge gap, an experiment was conducted to determine volume of water left on Asian vegetables and lettuce after irrigation. One hundred samples each of Chinese chard (Brassica rapa var. chinensis), Chinese broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. alboglabra), Chinese flowering cabbage (Brassica rapa var. parachinensis), and lettuce (Lactuca sativa) were harvested after overhead sprinkler irrigation. Chinese broccoli and flowering cabbage were found to capture the most water and lettuce the least. QMRAs were then constructed to estimate rotavirus disease burden from consumption of wastewater-irrigated Asian vegetables in Beijing. Results indicate that estimated risks from these reuse scenarios exceed WHO guideline thresholds for acceptable disease burden for wastewater use, signifying that reduction of pathogen concentration or stricter risk management is necessary for safe reuse. Considering the widespread practice of wastewater irrigation for food production, particularly in developing countries, incorporation of water retention factors in QMRAs can reduce uncertainty regarding health risks for consumers worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoi-Fei Mok
- Department of Agriculture and Food Systems, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Holvoet K, De Keuckelaere A, Sampers I, Van Haute S, Stals A, Uyttendaele M. Quantitative study of cross-contamination with Escherichia coli, E. coli O157, MS2 phage and murine norovirus in a simulated fresh-cut lettuce wash process. Food Control 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.09.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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31
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Wang Q, Hirneisen KA, Markland SM, Kniel KE. Survival of murine norovirus, Tulane virus, and hepatitis A virus on alfalfa seeds and sprouts during storage and germination. Appl Environ Microbiol 2013; 79:7021-7. [PMID: 24014537 PMCID: PMC3811553 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01704-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 09/01/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Human norovirus (huNoV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV) have been involved in several produce-associated outbreaks and identified as major food-borne viral etiologies. In this study, the survival of huNoV surrogates (murine norovirus [MNV] and Tulane virus [TV]) and HAV was investigated on alfalfa seeds during storage and postgermination. Alfalfa seeds were inoculated with MNV, TV, or HAV with titers of 6.46 ± 0.06 log PFU/g, 3.87 ± 0.38 log PFU/g, or 7.01 ± 0.07 log 50% tissue culture infectious doses (TCID50)/g, respectively. Inoculated seeds were stored for up to 50 days at 22°C and sampled during that storage period on days 0, 2, 5, 10, and 15. Following storage, virus presence was monitored over a 1-week germination period. Viruses remained infectious after 50 days, with titers of 1.61 ± 0.19 log PFU/g, 0.85 ± 0.21 log PFU/g, and 3.43 ± 0.21 log TCID50/g for MNV, TV, and HAV, respectively. HAV demonstrated greater persistence than MNV and TV, without a statistically significant reduction over 20 days (<1 log TCID50/g); however, relatively high levels of genomic copies of all viruses persisted over the testing time period. Low titers of viruses were found on sprouts and were located in all tissues as well as in sprout-spent water sampled on days 1, 3, and 6 following seed planting. Results revealed the persistence of viruses in seeds for a prolonged period of time, and perhaps of greater importance these data suggest the ease of which virus may transfer from seeds to sprouts and spent water during germination. These findings highlight the importance of sanitation and prevention procedures before and during germination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Wang
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
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Carratalà A, Rodriguez-Manzano J, Hundesa A, Rusiñol M, Fresno S, Cook N, Girones R. Effect of temperature and sunlight on the stability of human adenoviruses and MS2 as fecal contaminants on fresh produce surfaces. Int J Food Microbiol 2013; 164:128-34. [PMID: 23673057 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2012] [Revised: 04/05/2013] [Accepted: 04/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Determining the stability, or persistence in an infectious state, of foodborne viral pathogens attached to surfaces of soft fruits and salad vegetables is essential to underpin risk assessment studies in food safety. Here, we evaluate the effect of temperature and sunlight on the stability of infectious human adenoviruses type 2 and MS2 bacteriophages on lettuce and strawberry surfaces as representative fresh products. Human adenoviruses have been selected because of their double role as viral pathogens and viral indicators of human fecal contamination. Stability assays were performed with artificially contaminated fresh samples kept in the dark or under sunlight exposure at 4 and 30°C over 24h. The results indicate that temperature is the major factor affecting HAdV stability in fresh produce surfaces, effecting decay between 3 and 4 log after 24h at 30°C. The inactivation times to achieve a reduction between 1 and 4-log are calculated for each experimental condition. This work provides useful information to be considered for improving food safety regarding the transmission of foodborne viruses through supply chains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Carratalà
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 643, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
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Su X, D'Souza DH. Grape seed extract for foodborne virus reduction on produce. Food Microbiol 2013; 34:1-6. [PMID: 23498171 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2012.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Revised: 10/18/2012] [Accepted: 10/19/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Grape seed extract (GSE) is reported to have antibacterial properties with few current studies on antiviral activity. Recently, we reported the effects of GSE against foodborne viral surrogates in vitro. This study evaluated the application of GSE (commercial Gravinol-S) against hepatitis A virus (HAV) and human norovirus surrogates, feline calicivirus (FCV-F9) and murine norovirus (MNV-1), on model produce. Washed and air-dried lettuce (3 × 3 cm(2)) and jalapeno peppers (25-30 g) were inoculated with FCV-F9, MNV-1, or HAV at high (∼7 log10 PFU/ml) or low (∼5 log10 PFU/ml) titers, and treated with 0.25, 0.5, 1 mg/ml GSE or water for 30 s to 5 min. Treatments were stopped/diluted with cell-culture media containing 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum and evaluated using plaque assays. At high titers, FCV-F9 was reduced by 2.33, 2.58, and 2.71 log10 PFU on lettuce; and 2.20, 2.74, and 3.05 log10 PFU on peppers after 1 min using 0.25, 0.50, and 1 mg/ml GSE, respectively. Low FCV-F9 titers could not be detected after 1 min at all three GSE concentrations. Low titer MNV-1 was reduced by 0.2-0.3 log10 PFU on lettuce and 0.8 log10 PFU on peppers, without reduction of high titer. GSE at 0.25-1 mg/ml after 1 min caused 0.7-1.1 and 1-1.3 log10 PFU reduction for high and low HAV titers, respectively on both commodities. Instrumental color analysis showed no significant differences between treated and untreated produce. GSE shows potential for foodborne viral reduction on produce as part of hurdle technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowei Su
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Tennessee-Knoxville, Knoxville, TN 37996-4591, USA
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Fiona Barker S, O'Toole J, Sinclair MI, Leder K, Malawaraarachchi M, Hamilton AJ. A probabilistic model of norovirus disease burden associated with greywater irrigation of home-produced lettuce in Melbourne, Australia. WATER RESEARCH 2013; 47:1421-32. [PMID: 23290124 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2012.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2012] [Revised: 12/05/2012] [Accepted: 12/07/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The reuse of domestic greywater has become common in Australia, especially during periods of extreme drought. Greywater is typically used in a raw, untreated form, primarily for landscape irrigation, but more than a quarter of greywater users irrigate vegetable gardens with the water, despite government advice against this practice. Greywater can be contaminated with enteric pathogens and may therefore pose a health risk if irrigated produce is consumed raw. A quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) model was constructed to estimate the norovirus disease burden associated with consumption of greywater-irrigated lettuce. The annual disease burdens (95th percentile; DALYs per person) attributed to greywater irrigation ranged from 2 × 10(-8) to 5 × 10(-4), depending on the source of greywater and the existence of produce washing within households. Accounting for the prevalence of produce-washing behaviours across Melbourne, the model predicted annual disease burdens ranging from 4 × 10(-9) for bathroom water use only to 3 × 10(-6) for laundry water use only, and accounting for the proportionate use of each greywater type, the annual disease burden was 2 × 10(-6). We recommend the preferential use of bathroom water over laundry water where possible as this would reduce the annual burden of disease to align with the current Australian recycled water guidelines, which recommend a threshold of 10(-6) DALYs per person. It is also important to consider other exposure pathways, particularly considering the high secondary attack rate of norovirus, as it is highly likely that the estimated norovirus disease burden associated with greywater irrigation of vegetables is negligible relative to household contact with an infected individual.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Fiona Barker
- Department of Resource Management and Geography, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.
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Wang Q, Erickson MC, Ortega Y, Cannon JL. Physical removal and transfer of murine norovirus and hepatitis A virus from contaminated produce by scrubbing and peeling. J Food Prot 2013; 76:85-92. [PMID: 23317861 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-12-311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Human noroviruses and hepatitis A virus are responsible for numerous outbreaks associated with handling fresh produce. In this study, physical removal of hepatitis A virus and murine norovirus, a human norovirus surrogate, from contaminated produce items (honeydew melons, cantaloupes, carrots, and celery) by scrubbing under running water with a nylon brush or scouring pad and by peeling (carrots and celery) with a peeler was investigated. The degree and extent of utensil contamination with viruses during these operations in the presence and absence of food residue also was investigated. Scrubbing or peeling produce initially inoculated with ∼5.5 log PFU of each virus resulted in significant levels of virus removal, ranging from 0.93 to 2.85 log PFU. However, utensil cross-contamination occurred, with >2 log PFU of virus transferred from a single produce item. After preparation of a contaminated produce item, utensil cross-contamination resulted in virus detection on seven successively prepared produce items. Produce residue accumulation on utensils variably impacted virus transfer to utensil surfaces. Results indicate that scrubbing and peeling produce can reduce levels of viruses on contaminated produce, but the importance of utensil sanitation to prevent cross-contamination is highlighted. Findings also provide important information for modeling virus cross-contamination during food preparation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Wang
- Center for Food Safety, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia 30223, USA
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Kokkinos P, Kozyra I, Lazic S, Bouwknegt M, Rutjes S, Willems K, Moloney R, de Roda Husman AM, Kaupke A, Legaki E, D'Agostino M, Cook N, Rzeżutka A, Petrovic T, Vantarakis A. Harmonised investigation of the occurrence of human enteric viruses in the leafy green vegetable supply chain in three European countries. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2012; 4:179-191. [PMID: 23412890 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-012-9087-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2012] [Accepted: 08/31/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Numerous outbreaks have been attributed to the consumption of raw or minimally processed leafy green vegetables contaminated with enteric viral pathogens. The aim of the present study was an integrated virological monitoring of the salad vegetables supply chain in Europe, from production, processing and point-of-sale. Samples were collected and analysed in Greece, Serbia and Poland, from 'general' and 'ad hoc' sampling points, which were perceived as critical points for virus contamination. General sampling points were identified through the analysis of background information questionnaires based on HACCP audit principles, and they were sampled during each sampling occasion where as-ad hoc sampling points were identified during food safety fact-finding visits and samples were only collected during the fact-finding visits. Human (hAdV) and porcine (pAdV) adenovirus, hepatitis A (HAV) and E (HEV) virus, norovirus GI and GII (NoV) and bovine polyomavirus (bPyV) were detected by means of real-time (RT-) PCR-based protocols. General samples were positive for hAdV, pAdV, HAV, HEV, NoV GI, NoV GII and bPyV at 20.09 % (134/667), 5.53 % (13/235), 1.32 % (4/304), 3.42 % (5/146), 2 % (6/299), 2.95 % (8/271) and 0.82 % (2/245), respectively. Ad hoc samples were positive for hAdV, pAdV, bPyV and NoV GI at 9 % (3/33), 9 % (2/22), 4.54 % (1/22) and 7.14 % (1/14), respectively. These results demonstrate the existence of viral contamination routes from human and animal sources to the salad vegetable supply chain and more specifically indicate the potential for public health risks due to the virus contamination of leafy green vegetables at primary production.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Kokkinos
- Environmental Microbiology Unit, Department of Public Health, Medical School, University of Patras, 26500, Patras, Greece.
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Temperature-dependent survival of hepatitis A virus during storage of contaminated onions. Appl Environ Microbiol 2012; 78:4976-83. [PMID: 22544253 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00402-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Pre- or postharvest contamination of green onions by hepatitis A virus (HAV) has been linked to large numbers of food-borne illnesses. Understanding HAV survival in onions would assist in projecting the risk of the disease associated with their consumption. This study defined HAV inactivation rates in contaminated green onions contained in air-permeable, moisture-retaining high-density polyethylene packages that were stored at 3, 10, 14, 20, 21, 22, and 23°C. A protocol was established to recover HAV from whole green onions, with 31% as the average recovery by infectivity assay. Viruses in eluates were primarily analyzed by a 6-well plaque assay on FRhK-4 cells. Eight storage trials, including two trials at 3°C, were conducted, with 3 to 7 onion samples per sampling and 4 to 7 samplings per trial. Linear regression correlation (r(2) = 0.80 to 0.98) was observed between HAV survival and storage time for each of the 8 trials, held at specific temperatures. Increases in the storage temperature resulted in greater HAV inactivation rates, e.g., a reduction of 0.033 log PFU/day at 3.4 ± 0.3°C versus 0.185 log PFU/day at 23.4 ± 0.7°C. Thus, decimal reduction time (D) values of 30, 14, 11, and 5 days, respectively, were obtained for HAV in onions stored at 3, 10, 14, and 23°C. Further regression analysis determined that 1 degree Celsius increase would increase inactivation of HAV by 0.007 log PFU/day in onions (r(2) = 0.97). The data suggest that natural degradation of HAV in contaminated fresh produce is minimal and that a preventive strategy is critical to produce safety. The results are useful in predicting the risks associated with HAV contamination in fresh produce.
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38
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Le Guyader FS, Atmar RL, Le Pendu J. Transmission of viruses through shellfish: when specific ligands come into play. Curr Opin Virol 2012; 2:103-10. [PMID: 22440973 PMCID: PMC3839110 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2011.10.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2011] [Revised: 10/27/2011] [Accepted: 10/31/2011] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Shellfish are known as vectors for human pathogens and despite regulation based on enteric bacteria they are still implicated in viral outbreaks. Among shellfish, oysters are the most common vector of contamination, and the pathogens most frequently involved in these outbreaks are noroviruses, responsible for acute gastroenteritis in humans. Analysis of shellfish-related outbreak data worldwide show an unexpected high proportion of NoV GI strains. Recent studies performed in vitro, in vivo and in the environment indicate that oysters are not just passive filters, but can selectively accumulate norovirus strains based on viral carbohydrate ligands shared with humans. These observations contribute to explain the GI bias observed in shellfish-related outbreaks compared to other outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert L Atmar
- Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, 1 Baylor Plaza, MS BCM 280, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jacques Le Pendu
- INSERM, U892, Université de Nantes, Institut de Recherche Thérapeutique, 8 quai Moncousu BP 70721, 44007 Nante Cedex 1, France
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Fraisse A, Temmam S, Deboosere N, Guillier L, Delobel A, Maris P, Vialette M, Morin T, Perelle S. Comparison of chlorine and peroxyacetic-based disinfectant to inactivate Feline calicivirus, Murine norovirus and Hepatitis A virus on lettuce. Int J Food Microbiol 2011; 151:98-104. [PMID: 21924791 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2011.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2011] [Revised: 08/05/2011] [Accepted: 08/13/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, raw fruits and vegetables have frequently been involved in foodborne transmission to humans of enteric viruses, particularly noroviruses and hepatitis A virus (HAV). Although viral contamination can occur during all steps of food processing, primary production is a critical stage on which prevention measures must be focused to minimize the risk of infection to consumers. Postharvest sanitation may be a valid technological solution for decreasing the bacterial load on fresh raw material, but there is a lack of data concerning the effectiveness of this process on enteric viruses. In this study, we compared the survival of two human norovirus surrogates, the feline calicivirus (FCV), and the murine norovirus (MNV-1), and of HAV on lettuce after water washing with bubbles and with or without ultrasound, and washing with bubbles in the presence of active chlorine (15 ppm) or peroxyacetic acid-based disinfectant (100 ppm). Cell culture and quantitative RT-PCR assays were used to detect and quantify the viruses on the surface of the lettuce after the sanitizing treatments. Levels of viral inactivation on the lettuce leaves were not significantly different between washing with bubbles and washing with bubbles plus ultrasound and were not dependant on the quantification method. A simple washing without disinfectant resulted in a decrease of approximately 0.7 log units in the quantity of virus detected for HAV and FCV and of 1.0 log unit for MNV-1. In the experimental set-up including a washing step (with or without ultrasound) followed by washing for 2 min in the presence of disinfectants, 15 ppm of active chlorine was found more effective for inactivating FCV (2.9 log units) than HAV and MNV-1 (1.9 log units and 1.4 log units, respectively) whereas 100 ppm of peroxyacetic-based biocide was found effective for inactivating FCV (3.2 log units) and MNV-1 (2.3 log units), but not HAV (0.7 log units). Quantitative RT-PCR results indicated that the presence of viral RNA did not correlate with the presence of infectious viruses on disinfected lettuce, except for MNV-1 processed with chlorine (15 ppm). In comparison with water washing, a substantial additional decrease of genomic FCV titer (1.1 log units) but no significant reduction of the genomic titers of HAV and MNV-1 were found on lettuce treated with chlorine (15 ppm). No significant effect of the disinfection step of lettuce with peroxyacetic-based biocide (100 ppm peracetic acid) was found by qRT-PCR on all genomic viral titers tested. This study illustrates the necessity of determining the effectiveness of technological processes against enteric viruses, using a relevant reference such as HAV, in order to reduce the risk of hepatitis and gastroenteritis by exposure to vegetables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey Fraisse
- ANSES, Maisons-Alfort Laboratory for Food Safety, Food and Water Virology Unit, 23 Avenue du Général de Gaulle, 94706 Maisons-Alfort Cedex, France
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Scientific Opinion on an update on the present knowledge on the occurrence and control of foodborne viruses. EFSA J 2011; 9:2190. [PMID: 32313582 PMCID: PMC7163696 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
A review of the biology, epidemiology, diagnosis and public health importance of foodborne viruses was performed. Data needs to support a risk assessment were also identified. In addition possible control options and their anticipated impact to prevent or reduce the number of foodborne viral human infections were identified, including the scientific reasons for and against the establishment of food safety criteria and process hygiene criteria for viruses for certain food categories. Food may be contaminated by virus during all stages of the food supply chain, and transmission can occur by consumption of food contaminated during the production process (primary production, or during further processing), or contaminated by infected food handlers. Transmission of zoonotic viruses (e.g. HEV) can also occur by consumption of products of animal origin. Viruses do not multiply in foods, but may persist for extended periods of time as infectious particles in the environment, or in foods. At the EU-level it is unknown how much viral disease can be attributed to foodborne spread. The relative contribution of different sources (shellfish, fresh produce, food handler including asymptomatic shedders, food handling environment) to foodborne illness has not been determined. The Panel recommends focusing controls on preventive measures to avoid viral contamination rather than trying to remove/inactivate these viruses from food. Also, it is recommended to introduce a microbiological criteria for viruses in bivalve molluscs, unless they are labelled "to be cooked before consumption". The criteria could be used by food business operators to validate their control options. Furthermore, it is recommended to refine the regulatory standards and monitoring approaches in order to improve public health protection. Introduction of virus microbiological criteria for classification of bivalve molluscs production areas should be considered. A virus monitoring programme for compliance with these criteria should be risk based according to the findings of a sanitary survey.
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Survival of human norovirus surrogates in milk, orange, and pomegranate juice, and juice blends at refrigeration (4 °C). Food Microbiol 2011; 28:1054-61. [PMID: 21569952 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2011.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2010] [Revised: 01/06/2011] [Accepted: 02/22/2011] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Fresh fruits, juices, and beverages have been implicated in human noroviral and hepatitis A virus outbreaks. The purpose of this study was to determine the survival of human norovirus surrogates (murine norovirus, MNV-1; feline calicivirus, FCV-F9; and bacteriophage MS2) in juices (orange and pomegranate juices), juice blends (pomegranate and orange juice) and milk over 0, 1, 2, 7, 14, and 21 days at refrigeration (4 °C). Juices, juice blends, and milk were inoculated with each virus over 21 days, serially diluted in cell culture media, and plaque assayed. MNV-1 showed no reduction in titer after 21 days in orange juice and milk, but moderate reduction (1.4 log) in pomegranate juice from a titer of 5 log(10) PFU/ml. However, MNV-1 was completely reduced after 7 days in the orange and pomegranate juice blend. FCV-F9 from a titer of 6 log(10) PFU/ml was completely reduced after 14 days in orange as well as pomegranate juice and by ∼ 3 logs after 21 days in milk at 4 °C. Interestingly, FCV-F9 was completely reduced after 1 day in the orange and pomegranate juice blend at 4 °C. MS2 was reduced by ∼ 1.28 log after 21 days in orange juice from a titer of 6 log(10) PFU/ml, and <1 log after 21 days in milk or pomegranate juice, with juice blends showing minimal reduction (<1 log) after 21 days at 4 °C. These results show the survival pattern of noroviruses that aid in the transmission of foodborne viral outbreaks. The data obtained can be used in quantitative viral risk assessment studies and to develop improved measures to prevent virus survival towards controlling outbreaks.
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43
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Erickson MC. Microbial Risks Associated with Cabbage, Carrots, Celery, Onions, and Deli Salads Made with These Produce Items. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2010; 9:602-619. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2010.00129.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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44
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De Giusti M, Aurigemma C, Marinelli L, Tufi D, De Medici D, Di Pasquale S, De Vito C, Boccia A. The evaluation of the microbial safety of fresh ready-to-eat vegetables produced by different technologies in Italy. J Appl Microbiol 2010; 109:996-1006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2010.04727.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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45
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Vasickova P, Pavlik I, Verani M, Carducci A. Issues Concerning Survival of Viruses on Surfaces. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2010; 2:24-34. [PMCID: PMC7091010 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-010-9025-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2009] [Accepted: 01/17/2010] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Viruses are the causative agents of an estimated 60% of human infections worldwide. The most common viral illnesses are produced by enteric and respiratory viruses. Transmission of these viruses from an infected person or animal to a new host can occur via several routes. Existing studies strongly suggest that contaminated fomites or surfaces play an important role in the spreading of viral diseases. The potential of viral spreading via contaminated surfaces depends particularly on the ability of the virus to maintain infectivity whilst it is in the environment. This is affected by a combination of biological, physical and chemical factors. This review summarises current knowledge about the influence of environmental factors on the survival and spread of viruses via contaminated surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- P. Vasickova
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - I. Pavlik
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - M. Verani
- Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Via S. Zeno, 35-56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - A. Carducci
- Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Via S. Zeno, 35-56127 Pisa, Italy
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Cheong S, Lee C, Song SW, Choi WC, Lee CH, Kim SJ. Enteric viruses in raw vegetables and groundwater used for irrigation in South Korea. Appl Environ Microbiol 2009; 75:7745-51. [PMID: 19854919 PMCID: PMC2794108 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01629-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2009] [Accepted: 10/12/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Raw vegetables irrigated with groundwater that may contain enteric viruses can be associated with food-borne viral disease outbreaks. In this study, we performed reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) and cell culture-PCR to monitor the occurrence of enteric viruses in groundwater samples and in raw vegetables that were cultivated using that groundwater in South Korea. Samples were collected 10 times from three farms located in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. RT-PCR and cell culture-PCR were performed to detect adenoviruses (AdVs), enteroviruses (EVs), noroviruses (NoVs), and rotaviruses, followed by sequence analyses of the detected strains. Of the 29 groundwater samples and the 30 vegetable samples, five (17%) and three (10%) were positive for enteric viruses, respectively. AdVs were the most frequently detected viruses in four groundwater and three vegetable samples. EVs and NoVs were detected in only one groundwater sample and one spinach sample, respectively. The occurrence of enteric viruses in groundwater and vegetable samples was not correlated with the water temperature and the levels of indicator bacteria, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that most of the detected AdVs were temporally distributed, irrespective of sample type. Our results indicate that raw vegetables may be contaminated with a broad range of enteric viruses, which may originate from virus-infected farmers and virus-contaminated irrigation water, and these vegetables may act as a potential vector of food-borne viral transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sooryun Cheong
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, Institute of Microbiology, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, Department of Microbiology, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk 361-763, South Korea
| | - Cheonghoon Lee
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, Institute of Microbiology, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, Department of Microbiology, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk 361-763, South Korea
| | - Sung Won Song
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, Institute of Microbiology, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, Department of Microbiology, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk 361-763, South Korea
| | - Weon Cheon Choi
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, Institute of Microbiology, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, Department of Microbiology, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk 361-763, South Korea
| | - Chan Hee Lee
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, Institute of Microbiology, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, Department of Microbiology, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk 361-763, South Korea
| | - Sang-Jong Kim
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, Institute of Microbiology, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, Department of Microbiology, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk 361-763, South Korea
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Shieh YC, Stewart DS, Laird DT. Survival of hepatitis A virus in spinach during low temperature storage. J Food Prot 2009; 72:2390-3. [PMID: 19903406 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x-72.11.2390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Spinach leaves are frequently consumed raw and have been involved with past foodborne outbreaks. In this study, we examined the survival of hepatitis A virus (HAV) on fresh spinach leaves in moisture- and gas-permeable packages that were stored at 5.4 +/- 1.2 degrees C for up to 42 days. Different eluents including phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), pH 7.5 (with and without 2% serum), and 3% beef extract (pH 7.5 and 8) were compared for how efficiently they recovered viruses from spinach by using a simple elution procedure (<1 h). The recoveries were compared and determined by a plaque assay with FRhK-4 cells. Culture grade PBS containing 2% serum was found to be appropriate for HAV elution from spinach leaves, with an average recovery of 45% +/- 10%. Over 4 weeks of storage at 5.4 +/- 1.2 degrees C, HAV in spinach decreased slightly more than 1 log, with 6.75% of the original titer remaining. HAV survived under refrigerated temperatures on spinach leaves with a D-value of 28.6 days (equivalent to an inactivation rate of -0.035 log of HAV per day, r(2) = 0.88). In comparison, HAV in PBS containing 2% serum under the same storage conditions remained constant throughout 7 weeks. The inactivation rate of -0.035 log each day for HAV on spinach leaves was possibly due to the interaction of the virus and the leaf.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Carol Shieh
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, National Center for Food Safety and Technology, Summit-Argo, Illinois 60501, USA.
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Baert L, Debevere J, Uyttendaele M. The efficacy of preservation methods to inactivate foodborne viruses. Int J Food Microbiol 2009; 131:83-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2009.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2008] [Revised: 01/26/2009] [Accepted: 03/13/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Baert L, Vandekinderen I, Devlieghere F, Van Coillie E, Debevere J, Uyttendaele M. Efficacy of sodium hypochlorite and peroxyacetic acid to reduce murine norovirus 1, B40-8, Listeria monocytogenes, and Escherichia coli O157:H7 on shredded iceberg lettuce and in residual wash water. J Food Prot 2009; 72:1047-54. [PMID: 19517733 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x-72.5.1047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The efficiency of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and peroxyacetic acid (PAA) to reduce murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1), a surrogate for human norovirus, and Bacteroides fragilis HSP40-infecting phage B40-8 on shredded iceberg lettuce was investigated. The levels of removal of viruses MNV-1 and B40-8 were compared with the reductions observed for bacterial pathogens Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli O157:H7. Two inoculation levels, one with a high organic load and the other containing a 10-fold lower number of pathogens and organic matter, showed that the effectiveness of NaOCl was greatly influenced by the presence of organic material, which was not observed for PAA. Moreover, the present study showed that 200 mg/liter NaOCl or 250 mg/liter PAA is needed to obtain an additional reduction of 1 log (compared with tap water) of MNV-1 on shredded iceberg lettuce, whereas only 250 mg/liter PAA achieved this for bacterial pathogens. None of the treatments resulted in a supplementary 1-log PFU/g reduction of B40-8 compared with tap water. B40-8 could therefore be useful as an indicator of decontamination processes of shredded iceberg lettuce based on NaOCl or PAA. Neither MNV-1, B40-8, nor bacterial pathogens could be detected in residual wash water after shredded iceberg lettuce was treated with NaOCl and PAA, whereas considerable numbers of all these microorganisms were found in residual wash water consisting solely of tap water. This study illustrates the usefulness of PAA and NaOCl in preventing cross-contamination during the washing process rather than in causing a reduction of the number of pathogens present on lettuce.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leen Baert
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
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50
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Hepatitis viruses and emerging viruses. FOODBORNE PATHOGENS 2009. [PMCID: PMC7152215 DOI: 10.1533/9781845696337.3.891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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